MANUAL  OF 


USEFUL  INFORMATION 


EMBRACING 


MORE  THAN  100,000  FACTS,  FIGURES  AND  FANCIES,  DRAWN  FROM 
EVERY  LAND  AND  LANGUAGE,  AND  CAREFULLY  CLASSI- 
FIED FOR  THE  READY  REFERENCE  OF  TEACHERS, 
STUDENTS  AND  THE  FAMILY  CIRCLE. 


COMPILED  UNDER  DIRECTION  OP 

J.  C.  THOMAS, 

WITH  AN  INTRODUCTION  BY 

FRANK  A.  FITZPATRICK, 

SUPERINTENDENT  CITY  SCHOOLS,  OMAHA,  NEB 


CHICAGO 

THE  WERNER  COMPANY 
1895. 


T 


COPYRIGHT,  1893. 

By  THE  WERNER  COMPANY. 

CHICAGO. 

MAN'LOF  INF'N. 


PUBLISHERS1  PREFACE. 


THE  aim  of  this  Manual  is  to  present  in  accessible  form  facts 
and  figures  of  general  interest  to  teachers  and  scholars ;  to  the 
man  of  affairs,  the  student  and  the  people  at  large.  It  contains 
not  one  useless  or  superfluous  sentence.  The  grain  has  been 
sifted  from  the  chaff;  the  precious  metal  extracted  from  the 
ore.  In  it  will  be  found  terse  answers  to  thousands  of  ques- 
tions, the  solution  of  which  is  a  matter  of  daily  need  to  busy 
men.  The  work  is  designed  as  a  compendium  of  useful  knowledge, 
of  problems  not  covered  by  other  books,  or  of  information  that, 
to  seek  out  personally,  would  require  the  possession  of  many  vol- 
umes. The  ruling  idea  in  its  preparation  has  been  to  furnish  in 
as  few  words  as  possible  such  data  as  would  be  of  service  to  men 
of  inquiring  minds,  to  scholars  and  to  their  instructors.  Matters 
of  general  interest,  scattered  through  scores  of  reference  books ; 
and  facts  and  figures  from  a  hundred  technical  works  are  here  col- 
lated and  arranged  in  such  a  manner  as  to  render  the  ''Manual 
of  Useful  Information"  a  work  o!  great  intrinsic  value  to  all 
classes  of  readers.  Whether  for  the  school,  the  home  or  the 
office;  for  the  educator,  the  parent  or  the  professional  man,  this 
volume  will  be  found  alike  interesting  and  instructive. 

It  does  not  cover  the  entire  domain  of  art  and  science,  of  liter- 
ature and  history,  but  the  most  important  facts  have  been  culled 
from  the  world's  great  storehouses  of  knowledge  with  much 
painstaking  care,  and  these  have  been  judiciously  classified  and 
systematically  arranged  so  that  it  offers  an  epitome  of  general 
information  at  once  accessible,  accurate  and  needful— constitut- 
ing an  invaluable  aid  to  the  seeker  of  light.  The  work  has  in- 
volved the  tillage  of  a  wide  field,  and  it  is  hoped  that  the  gar- 
nered product  may  prove  a  serviceable  contribution  to  the 
literature  of  our  time.  ^51869 

(3) 


THE  WORKING  TEACHERS'  LIBRARY 


COMPRISES 


Five   Standard,    Reliable   and   Comparatively   Inexpensive  Volumes, 

covering  in  the  most  successful  manner  the  whole  field  of 

the  actual  needs  of  the  Public  School  Teacher: 


I.— The  Complete  Writings  Of  David  P.  Page,  edited  by  J.  M.  Greenwood,  Superintendent 
Kansas  City  Schools,  contains  a  new  life  with  portrait  of  this  great  educator,  and  includes 
the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching,  thoroughly  revised  and  modernized.  The  Mutual 
Duties  of  Parents  and  Teachers  and  the  "  Schoolmaster  " — a  Dialogue,  to  which  are  added 
the  Legal  Status  of  the  Teacher,  also  Reading  Outlines — the  latter  for  reading  circles,  for 
reviews  and  as  an  aid  to  individual  study. 

II.— The  Teacher  in  Literature  is  a  publication  of  exceptional  merit,  containing  selection*! 
from  ASCHAM,  MOLIERE,  ROUSSEAU,  SHENSTONE,  PESTALOZZI,  COWPER,  GOETHE,  IRVING, 
MITFORD,  BRONTE,  THACKERAY,  DICKENS,  and  others,  who  have  written  on  educational 
subjects,  from  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth  to  the  present  time.  It  is  a  pleasing  presentation 
of  the  "  schools  of  literature,"  and  illustrates  in  an  exceedingly  practical  manner  the  gradual 
development  of  the  public  school  system. 

III.— Practical  Lessons  in  Science,  by  Dr.  J.  T.  Scovell,  for  ten  years  professor  of  Natural 
Science,  Indiana  State  Normal  School,  is  designed  to  cultivate  observation  and  perception 
as  it  deals  with  the  common  everyday  facts  and  phenomena  which  are  the  familiar  events 
of  our  lives.  It  crystallizes  the  facts  and  laws  of  the  various  sciences  and  presents  an 
abundance  of  easy  experiments  suited  to  the  ordinary  school-room  conveniences,  making 
it  a  work  of  inestimable  value  to  teachers  of  all  grades. 

IV.— Practical  Lessons  in  Psychology,  by  Prof.  W.  O.  Krohn,  of  the  University  of  Illinois, 
is  a  book  on  tact  and  "common  sense"  in  teaching.  One  of  the  most  important  requisites 
of  the  teacher  is  a  knowledge  of  at  least  the  elementary  principles  of  the  Science  of  the 
Mind.  Before  he  can  enter  intelligently  upon  his  work,  he  must  know  something  of  his 
own  mental  powers  and  have  some  idea  of  how  to  measure  the  intellectual  needs  and 
capabilities  of  the  children  under  his  charge.  In  no  other  publication  is  this  subject  so 
comprehensively,  so  interestingly  and  so  instructively  treated. 

V.— The  Manual  Of  Useful  Information,  with  an  Introduction  by  F.  A.  Fitzpatrick,  Superin- 
tendent Omaha  City  Schools  contains  more  than  100,000  facts,  figures  and  fancies  drawn 
from  every  land  and  language,  and  carefully  classified  for  the  ready  reference  of  the  student, 
the  teacher  and  the  home  circle.  It  is  a  compendium  of  the  most  important  facts  of  general 
interest,  and  so  arranged  as  to  supply  the  teacher  with  more  food  for  reflection,  more 
subjects  for  discussion,  more  curious  and  helpful  suggestions,  and  more  general  exercise 
material  than  was  ever  before  published  in  such  convenient  and  practical  form. 

These  Five  Volumes  are  handsomely  printed  on  heavy  paper 
and  elegantly  bound  in  uniform  style.  Price  for  the  Library  complete, 
$6.50.  For  further  information,  address  the  Publishers. 


THE  WERNER  COMPANY,  160-174  Adams  Street,  CHICAGO. 


INTKODUCTION. 


THE  teacher,  more  than  the  member  of  any  other  profession, 
is  expected  to  answer  any  question  that  may  be  propounded  by 
the  outside  world.  This  requirement,  added  to  the  special  tech- 
nical knowledge  needed  to  successfully  impart  instruction  to  the 
young,  puts  upon  him  a  heavy  burden. 

The  "Manual  of  Useful  Information"  places  in  the  hands  of 
the  teacher  a  mass  of  information  apparently  indispensable  to 
any  well-informed  man,  and  in  such  a  shape  as  to  be  usable.  The 
classification  is  admirable  and  of  itself  possesses  great  value. 
The  terse,  excellent  English  in  which  the  information  is  clothed, 
adds  a  charm  to  the  book. 

In  this  age  the  attention  of  the  best  thought  in  education  is 
directed  to  the  unification  of  studies,  relating  each  to  the  other 
in  such  a  way  as  to  unite  the  entire  topics  of  school-life  into  a 
harmonious,  complete  whole. 

One  of  the  greatest  difficulties  in  the  way  of  accomplishing 
this  work  of  unification  has  been  the  meager  educational  advan- 
tages available  for  the  majority  of  teachers.  The  necessity  which 
impels  many  to  plunge  into  the  practice  of  a  profession  before 
they  have  finished  their  studies,  prevents  the  acquisition  of 
power  that  would  readily  know  the  way  to  knowledge.  Teachers 
have  not  known  enough  of  the  world,  of  history,  of  language, 
of  literature,  of  the  things  which  go  to  constitute  that  acquisi- 
tion which  the  educated  world  calls  culture. 

Culture  may  be  defined:  "To  know  the  best  that  has  been 
said  and  done"  in  all  time  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  the  inherit- 
ance our  own.  To  the  majority  of  mankind  information  is  a 
prerequisite  of  culture. 

(5) 


6  INTRODUCTION. 

The  information  contained  in  this  little  Manual  is  the  woof 
and  warp  of  the  more  perfect  fabric  which  is  to  be  worked  out 
from  these  foundations.  The  material  presented  has  been  most 
carefully  selected  with  a  view  to  assisting  teachers  to  help  them- 
selves, and  thus  to  pave  the  way  toward  helping  their  pupils. 

In  teaching  history  how  useful  it  will  be  to  the  pupils  to  place 
on  the  blackboard  day  by  day  some  selected  topic  from  "Facts 
About  Our  Country." 

The  items  of  information  contained  in  the  chapter  on  "Time 
and  Its  Landmarks"  are  related  to  almost  every  day's  work  in 
geography  and  history. 

The  chapter  on  "Language;  Its  Use  and  Misuse,"  by  calling 
attention  to  definite,  specific  points,  will  illustrate  and  intensify 
the  generalizations  of  grammar,  and  enable  the  teacher  to  con- 
centrate his  efforts  from  time  to  time  upon  defects  which  might 
otherwise  escape  his  attention. 

The  table  of  "  Synonyms  and  Antonyms"  cannot  fail  to  be  of 
immense  value  to  any  student  or  teacher  of  English.  Pointing 
the  way  toward  the  obtaining  of  a  large  and  plastic  vocabulary, 
its  study  must  surely  tend  in  the  direction  of  a  nice  appreciation 
and  correct  use  of  language. 

Is  it  desirous  to  enliven  the  dreary  monotony  of  a  recitation  in 
arithmetic,  the  chapter  on  "Mystic  Numbers"  will  furnish  both 
amusement  and  instruction. 

Indeed,  with  this  little  volume  the  teacher  may  look  out  upon 
the  world  through  each  and  all  of  twenty-two  windows,  gather- 
ing at  a  glance  the  rays  of  light  which  are  reflected  from  the 
elevations  which  are  illuminated  and  able,  in  a  way,  from  the  ra- 
diated light  to  get  a  glimpse  of  the  valleys  between  the  heights. 

Equally  valuable  to  the  student  or  teacher,  it  is  believed  that 
a  judicious  use  in  the  recitation  of  the  information  that  may  be 
found  within  these  pages  will  increase  the  interest  of  the  pupils 
and  lead  to  better  comprehension  of  the  topics  studied. 

FRANK  A.  FITZPATRICK. 


CONTENTS. 


Facts  About  Our  Country:— 

Points  of  Peculiar  Interest. 
— Minor  Political  Parties. — 
Mayflower's  Passenger  List. 
—Climates  in  the  U.  S.— 
How  Our  Country  Grew. — 
State  and  Territorial  Capi- 
tals.— Increase  of  Popula- 
tion by  Decades. —Popula- 
tion and  Area  Centers. — 
Figures  of  National  Impor- 
tance. —  Where  Illiteracy 
Prevails.— Origin  of  State 
Names.  —  Mottoes  of  the 
States. — Nicknames  of 
States  and  Cities. —  Noted 
National  Nicknames. 
— Wonders  of  American 
Railroading.  —  Our  Coal 
Fields.  —  Immigration  to 
the  U.  S.— Nationality  of 
our  Immigrants.  —  Growth 
of  Fifty  Cities.  — Succession 
of  the  Presidents. — Gener- 
als of  the  U.  S.  Army.— 
Wars  of  the  United  States. 
— Guide  to  the  Civil  Serv- 
ice.— Government  Salary 
List.— Patent  Office  Meth- 
ods.— Land  and  Homestead 
Laws. — Alien  Landholders. 
— Public  Land  Grants. — 
Public  LandTi  ties.— Public 
Lands  Still  Vacant.— Ind- 
ians and  their  Reserva- 
tions. —  Indians  in  the 
United  States.— Slavery  and 
Serfdom.— Public  Debt  of 
United  States. — Armies  of 
the  Civil  War.— World's 
Fair  in  a  Nutshell.— Es- 
sence of  the  Constitution. 
— Twelve  American  Won- 
ders.— The  American  No- 
bility  11-40 

Time  and  Its  Landmarks:— 
Dates  and  Facts  to  Ponder. — 
Standard  Time.— Where  the 


Sun  Jumps  a  Day. — Harvest 
Months  of  the  World.— 
Ship's  Time.  —  French 
R  e  p  u  b  licau  Calendar.  — 
— Chief  Christian  Festivals. 
— Calendars  of  History. — 
Months  and  their  Names. — 
Origin  of  Week-day  Names. 
— The  Historic  Ages. — 
Legal  Holidays  in  the 
States.— The  Adjustment  of 
the  Calendar 41-52 

Language,  Its  Use  and  Hisuse: — 
Pickings  for  the  Student. — 
Chief  Languages  of  the 
World.— How  to  Speak  Cor- 
rectly.—The  Art  of  Letter 
Writing. — Punctuation  as 
it  Should  be.— The  Use  of 
Capitals. — Analysis  of  Vol- 
apiik. —  Meanings  of 
Christian  Names.— A  Pli- 
able Language.  —  Guide  to 
Correct  Pronunciation. — 
Rules  of  Pronunciation. — 
Common  Errors  of  Speech. 
—12,000  Synonyms  and 
Antonyms. — Foreign 
Phrases  Interpreted. — List 
of  Useful  Abbreviations. — 
Stray  Hints  for  Writers.  .53-108 

Poetry  and  General  Literature:— 
Books,  Authors  and  Titles. — 
Vanity  of  the  Scholastics. 
—  Copyright,  Home  and 
International. — How  L  i  t- 
erature  Pays. — Literary 
Pseudonyms. — T  h  e  Forty 
Immortals. — Some  Famous 
Libraries. — Honors  Among 
Books. — First  Newspapers. 
— BooksWe  Hear  About.  109- 124 

Mythology  and  Folk=Lore: — 

Vagaries  of  Human  Belief. — 

Story  of  The    Nibelungen 

Lied,  -The  Sagas  of    the 

Norsemen.— Old  Rip  Van 


CONTENTS. 


Winkle  and  OtherSleepers. 
Indian  Folk  Lore.— The 
Language  of  G  e  in  s.  — The 
Gift  of  Second  Sight- 
Olympian  Deities  and  He- 
roes  125  138 

Industry  and  Commerce: — 
Facts  and  Channels  of  Trade. 
— Railway  Mileage  of  the 
World.— Around  the  World 
in  82  Days.— Theory  of 
Auctions.— Curious  By- 
Products  of  Coal.— Coal 
Products  of  the  United 
.  States.— The  World's  Coal 
Fields.— The  World's  Fin- 
est Harbors.  —  Condensed 
Postal  Information 139-150 

Handicraft  and  Invention:— 
Triumphs  of  Skill  and  Genius. 
The  World's  Noted 
Bridges.—  Durability  of 
Various  Woods.— Selected 
Hints  for  Artisans. — Har- 
mony and  Relations  of 
Colors — The  Phonograph — 
Synopsis  of  Great  Inven- 
tions   151-164 

Money  and  Finance: — 

Pecuniary  Facts  and  Defini- 
tions.— A  Lesson  to  Bor- 
rowers.— National  Debts  of 
the  World.— Gold  and  Sil- 
ver Production.  —  The 
Standard  Silver  Dollar. — 
Great  Financial  Panics. — 
A  "Penny-Wise"  Table. — 
Merchants'  Cost  and  Price 
Marks. — Import  Duties  of 
the  Nations.  —  Our  Bank- 
rupt Laws. — Short  Interest 
Rules. — About  Trade  Dis- 
counts.— Wonders  of  Com- 
pound Interest  — Slang  of 
the  Stock  Broker.  —  Our 
Banki ng  System  E  x  - 
plained 165-175 

Coins,  Weights  and  Measures: — 
Home    and    Foreign   Stand- 
ards.— All   about  an  Acre. 
— Capacity  of   a  Ten-Ton 
Freight  Car.— Money  of  the 


PAGE 

World.— The  Value  of  For- 
eign Coins.  —  Weights  of 
Metals  without  weighing. 
— Domestic  Weights  and 
Measures. — Ratio  of  Apoth- 
ecaries and  Imperial 
Measure.  —  Handy  Metric 
Tables.— Sundry  Weights 
and  Measures. — The  Area 
of  a  Circle.— Coal  Weighed  • 
by  Measure. — Measure  of 
Earth,  etc. — Trade  Sizes  of 
Books.  —  Value  o  f  Dia- 
monds.— Valuable  Calcula- 
tions. —  The  Story  of  our 
Coinage. — Numismatics  as 
a  Study 177-188 

War  and  Its  Appliances: — 
Armies,  Arms  and  Armor. — 
Ratio  of  Loss  in  Great  Bat- 
tles.—Chief  Battles  of  The 
Civil  War.  —  Blood  and 
Treasure  Cost  in  Wars. — 
Length  and  Cost  of  Amer- 
ican Wars. — American 
Dockyards. — Decisive  Bat- 
tles of  History. — R  e  c  e  n  t 
Desperate  Wars. — The 
Latest  Explosive 189-204. 

Creeds  of  the  World:— 
Notes  on  Faith  and  Worship. 
—The  Seven  Bibles  of  The 
World. — Nationality  of  The 
Popes. — Fate  of  the  Apos- 
tles.—The  Name  of  God  in 
Forty-Eight  Languages. — 
The  Salvation  Army.  — 
Worship  of  the  Human 
Family.— The  Great  Coun- 
cils.— Mormons  and  Their 
Book.— Creedsof  The  Presi- 
dents.— Religious  Bodies  in 
the  U.  S.— What  is  a  State 
Religion?  —  An  Omitted 
Psalm.— Rel  igion  as  a 
Science. — The  Testimony 
of  Literature 205-224 

Jottings  in  Science:— 

Answers  to  many  Queries. — 
The  Largest  River  Systems. 
—The  Zodiac  and  its  Signs. 
Freezing,  Fusing  and  Boil- 


CONTENTS. 


9 


ing  Points. — Specific  Grav- 
ity of  Substances.  —  The 
Solar  System.— Some  Great 
Waterfalls. — L  ightning 
Conductors. — Latitude  and 
Longitude. --The  Thermom- 
eter. —  Summer  Heat  in 
Various  Lands.  —  Historic 
Cold  Weather.  —  Extreme 
Heat  in  Europe. —  Horse 
Power  of  Steam  Engines. — 
Terms  in  Electricity. — 
Heights  of  Chief  Moun- 
tain Peaks. — Curious  Facts 
about  Fishes. — The  Aurora 
Borealis. — Names  of  Chem- 
ical Substances. — The  Neb- 
ular Hypothesis.  —  Aero- 
lites. —  To  Measure  The 
Earth.— What  is  Ventrilo- 
quism?— Some  Facts  in  Hy- 
draulics.— Genesis  of  He- 
liography.  —  The  Artesian 
Well.— The  Last  Word  on 
Electricity 225-248. 

Plain  Law  for  Plain  People:— 

A  Definition  with  a  Purpose. 
— Business  Law  in  Brief. — 
Agreements  and  Contracts. 
Notes  and  Negotiable 
Paper.  —  Partnership.  — 
Agency  and  Attorney. — 
Landlord  and  Tenant. — 
Law  Relating  to  Farms, 
etc. — Lien  Laws. — Deeds, 
Transfer  of  Property  . — 
Mortgages. —  Assignments. 
— Inns, Hotels  and  Boarding 
Houses.  —  Bonds. — Bills  of 
Sale.  —Corporations.  — Law 
of  Finding.  —  Wills  and 
How  to  Make  Them.— The 
Right  of  Dower. — Marriage 
and  Divorce.  —  Rights  of 

Married  Women 249-268 

Politics  and  Statecraft:— 
Definitions  and  Details. — 
What  is  Tammany?— When 
are  you  Twenty-One? — 
A.bout  State  Election. — The 
Australian  Ballot  System. 
—The  Presidential  Elec- 


PAGE. 

tion. — How  to  become  a 
C  i  ti  z  e  n  . — Parliamentary 
Law  Condensed. — Woman 
Suffrage.  —  Parties  that 
Elected  Presidents.— The 
Fugitive  Slave  Law. — Con- 
gress and  its  Duties 269-282 

Music  and  the  Fine  Arts:— 
Stray  Hints  on  Art  and 
Artists.— The  Largest  Sta- 
tue on  Record.  —  Some 
Marvelous  Paintings. — 
Story  of  the  "Art  Divine." 
—The  Portland  Vase.— 
The  Impressionists.  —  The 
Great  Masters  and  Great 
Schools. — The  Symbolism 
of  Colors. — The  Organ  in 
America. — M  e  a  n  i  r«gs  of 
Musical  Terms 283-294 

Side= Lights  on  History:— 

Influences  for  Good  or  Evil. 
—The  First  French  Revolu- 
tion.— Modes  of  Executing 
Criminals. —  Monarchs  who 
Retired  from  Business. — 
Fathers  of  Their  Country. 
—History  in  Rhyme.— The 
Champ  de  Mars. — Origin  of 

Some  'Isms 295-312 

riystic  Letters  and  Numbers: — 
Sundry  Odd  Pickings. — 
France's  Fatal  Three.— The 
Apocalyptic  Number. — 
Dates  of  the  Second  Em- 
pire. —The  Five  Wits.— The 
Sacred  Number.  — Lessons 
of  The  Letters. — A  Few 
Curious  Anagrams. — Three 
for  a  Finish. — Seven  Sleep- 
ers.—The  Poetry  on  T.— 
Some  "Lucky"  and  "Un- 
lucky" Numbers.  —  The 
Vowels. —  Masterpieces  of 
Alliteration. — Easy  Sums 
in  Arithmetic. — Honors  to 
Forty. — The  Enigma  "H" 
— Curious  Misnomers. — 
Destiny  of  The  Stuarts.— 
The  Letter  M.— Try  it  and 
then  Explain. — Three 
Times  Three 313-326 


10 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE. 

Famous  Persons  and  Places: — 

The  Truth  about  Aspasia. — 
The  Story  of  Acadie.— The 
English  Claimant. — Notes 
on  Mammoth  Cave. — Crad- 
les and  Graves. — Famous 
Ancient  Cities. -The  Father 
of  the  Cenobites. — Giants 
and  Dwarfs. — The  Colos- 
seum.— Exhibit  of  Local 
Names. — Washington  and 
Education. — The  World's 
Seven  Wonders.— The 
World's  Noblest  Park.— 
Marvels  of  Old  Egypt.  .341-348 
The  World  and  Its  Ways:— 

A  Myriad  Questions  An- 
swered. — T  i  1 1  e  s,  Offices, 
and  Dignities. — Previous 
World's  Fairs. — Remark- 
able Modern  Plagues. — 
Great  Famines  of  History. 
— Rulers  of  all  Nations. — 
Area  and  Population  of  The 
Continents. — Salaries  of 
The  Crowned  Heads.— 
Crossing  The  Line.— Statis- 
tics of  The  Leading  Coun- 
tries.—All  The  Famous 
Diamonds. — The  Sweating 
System. — Caste  Among  The 
Hindoos. -Heights  of  Noted 
Edifice  s. — Language  of 
Flowers.— End  of  The 
World.— Great  Floods  and 
Inundations.— H  i  stori  c 
Fires.— All  Who  Ever 

Lived 349-374 

Races  and  Tribes  of  Hen:— 

Features,  Types  and  Studies. 
— About  th  e  Saracens. — 
OurNations  Predecessors.  — 
The  Great  Human  Family. 
—The  Gypsy  Tribe.— The 
Scattered  Nation.— U  n  i  ty 

of  The  Race 375-386 

Health,    Hygiene    and   Physiol= 
ogy:— 

Medley  ot  Facts  and  Counsels. 
—Weight  and  Stature  of 
Man. — Composition  andDi- 


PAGE. 

gestion  of  Foods. — Periods 
of  Digestion. — Bleeding  at 
the  N  o  s  e. — Neuralgia. — 
The  Dreaded  Consumption. 
— Insomnia. — Colds  and 
Hoarseness.  —  Asthma.  — 
Coryza.  —  Catarrh. — 
-  Bronchitis.  —  Typhoid 
Fever. — Lead  Colic. — 
Rheumatism.  —  Malaria- 
Fever-  Ague.  — T  y  p  h  u  s 
Fever.— How  to  CatchCold. 
—  Cure  of  Felons.  — Preven- 
tion of  Cholera. — A  Famous 
Cholera  Mixture. — Reme- 
dies For  Croup. — Value  of 
Hot  Water.— The  Cure  of 
Earache. — Notes  on  Food 
Products.— Wonders  of  The 
HumanBody. — Gymnastics 
and  Physical  Development. 
—Secrets  of  Good  Health. 
—Sundry  Health  Hints.— 
The  Human  Pulse.— The 
Philosophy  of  Eating. — 

The  Vital  Fluid 387-420 

Hearth  and  Home:— 

Crystals  that  form  Gentle- 
men.— Uses  of  Ammonia. 
—Management  of  Stoves. 
— To  Destroy  Insects  and 
Vermin. — To  Take  Stains 
from  Carpets. — Incombust- 
ible Dresses.  —  How  to 
Freshen  Up  Furs.— To 
Wash  Feathers.— The  Art 
o  f  Conversation.  —  The 
Household  and  Toilet. — 
Accidents  and  Injuries. — 
Antidotes  For  Poisons. — 
How  to  Carve  at  Table. — 
Conduct  at  Table. — George 
Washington's  Rules  of  Con- 
duct.— Care  of  the  Person. 
Etiquette  of  the  Street— 
Hints  on  Traveling.— Suc- 
cess and  its  Secrets.  — 
Choice  of  Occupation. — 
Method  and  Detail.— Self 
Reliance. — Never  Despair. 
— Talent  and  Tact. — Part- 
ing Counsels 421-460 


See  also  ALPHABETICAL  INDEX,  pp.  461-480. 


FACTS  ABOUT  OUR  COUNTRY. 


Breathes  there  a  man  with  soul  so  dead, 
Who  never  to  himself  hath  said — 
This  is  my  own — my  native  land ! 

—SCOTT. 

POINTS  OF  PECULIAR  INTEREST. 

It  was  Thursday,  July  4th,  1776  ! 

The  first  Atlantic  cable  operated  in  1858. 

The  first  steamer  crossed  the  Atlantic  in  1819. 

Leif  Ericsson  was  the  Columbus  of  the  Northmen. 

Gas  was  first  used  in  the  United  States  at  Boston  in  1822. 

The  battles  of  Bunker  Hill  and  Lexington  were  fought,  1775. 

San  Salvador,  or  Guanahani,  is  now  one  of  the  Bahamas  Islands. 

The  name  America  comes  from  the  Florentine,  Amerigo  Vespucci. 

The  first  theater  in  the  United  States  was  at  Williamsburg,  Va.,  1752. 

Watling  Island  is  the  British  name  for  Columbus'  first  landing  place. 

The  first  iron  ore  discovered  in  this  country  was  mined  in  Virginia 
in  1715. 

The  first  American  library  was  founded  at  Harvard  College,  Cam- 
bridge, 1638. 

Sebastian  Cabot  was  the  first  navigator  to  sight  the  territory  of  the 
now  United  States. 

First  cotton  raised  in  the  United  States  was  in  Virginia,  in  1621; 
first  exported,  1747. 

The  population  of  the  original  thirteen  States  at  the  first  census  in 
1790,  was  3,929,214. 

St.  Augustine,  the  oldest  city  in  the  United  States  was  founded  by 
the  Spaniards  in  1505. 

Oberlin  College,  Ohio,  was  the  first  college  in  the  United  States  to 
admit  female  students. 

Jamestown,    Va.,    founded  1607,   was  the  first  permanent  English 
settlement  in  America. 

The  largest  park  in  the  United  States  is  Fairmount,  at  Philadelphia, 
and  contains  2,740  acres. 

Guanahani  was  the  native  name   of  the   first  American  island  on 
which  Columbus  landed. 

11 


12  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

The  first  public  schools  iti ,  America  were  established  in  the  New 
England  States  about- 1642.  -  • 

Modern  inveM-fgati^a  ha?  shown  that  ,the  Vikings  visited  America  in 
the  tenth  and/efeveuth'ceiitnries, 

Gaelic  students  claim  that  St.  Brendan,  an  Irish  monk,  reached  this 
continent  in  the  sixth  century. 

The  first  telegraph  in  operation  in  America  was  between  Washing- 
ton and  Baltimore,  May  27,  1844. 

The  largest  tree  in  the  world  is  in  Tulare  county,  California.  It  is 
275  feet  high  and  106  feet  in  circumference  at  its  base. 

The  first  electrical  signal  ever  transmitted  between  Europe  and 
America  passed  over  the  Field  submarine  cable  on  August  5,  1858. 

The  present  national  colors  of  the  United  States  were  not  adopted 
by  Congress  until  1777.  The  flag  was  first  used  by  Washington  at  Cam- 
bridge, January  1,  1776. 

Tobacco  was  discovered  in  San  Domingo  in  1496;  afterwards  by  the 
Spaniards  in  Yucatan  in  1520.  It  was  introduced  into  France  in  1560 
and  into  England  in  1583. 

The  part  of  United  States  territory  most  recently  acquired  is  the 
island  of  San  Juan,  near  Vancouver's  Island.  It  was  evacuated  by  Eng- 
land at  the  close  of  November,  1873. 

The  greatest  cataract  in  the  world  is  Niagara,  the  height  of  the 
American  Falls  being  165  feet.  The  highest  fall  of  water  in  the  world  is 
that  of  the  Yosemite  in  California,  being  2,550  feet. 

The  first  English  settlement  on  the  present  territory  of  the  United 
States  was  that  made  in  Virginia  by  the  English  London  Company  in 
1607.  The  Plymouth  Company  about  the  same  time  settled  Massachu- 
setts Bay. 

The  "copperhead''  is  a  venomous  serpent,  closely  allied  to  the  rattle- 
snake and  is  found  along  our  coast  from  New  England  to  Florida.  The 
term  was  applied  by  the  Unionists  to  the  peace  party  during  the  civil 
war,  as  suggesting  insidious  foes. 

The  largest  producing  farm  in  the  world  lies  in  the  southwest  corner 
of  Louisiana,  and  is  owned  by  a  northern  syndicate.  It  runs  one  hundred 
miles  north  and  south.  The  immense  tract  is  divided  into  convenient 
pastures,  with  stations  of  ranches  every  six  miles.  The  fencing  alone 
cost  nearly  $50,000. 

The  largest  State  in  our  grand  republic  is  Texas,  which  contains 
274,356  square  miles,  capable  of  sustaining  20, 000, 000  of  people,  and  then 
it  would  not  be  more  crowded  than  Scotland  is  at  present.  It  has  been 
estimated  that  the  entire  population  of  the  globe  could  be  seated  upon 
chairs  within  the  boundary  of  Texas  and  each  have  four  feet  of  elbow 
room. 

What  have  been  called  Secession  Ordinances  were  passed  by  the 
following  States:  (1)  South  Carolina,  Dec.  20,  1860;  (2)  Florida,  Jan.  7, 
1861;  (3)  Mississippi,  Jan.  9,  1861;  (4)  Alabama,  Jan.  11,  1861;  (5) 
Georgia,  Jan.  19,  1861;  (6)  Louisiana,  Jan.  26,  1861;  (7)  Texas,  Feb.  7, 
3861;  (8)  Virginia,  April  17,  1861;  (9)  Arkansas,  May  6,  1861;  (10)  Ten- 
nessee, May  6,  1861;  (11)  North  Carolina,  May  20,  1861.  The  Civil  War 
commenced  April  13,  1861. 


FACTS  ABOUT  OUR  COUNTRY.  13 

The  historic  term  "Border  States"  was  usually  applied  to  Delaware, 
Maryland,  Virginia,  Kentucky,  and  Missouri.  They  were  so  called 
because  they  bordered  upon  the  line  of  Free  States  and  Slave-holding 
States.  The  term  is  now  an  anachronism. 

The  Whisky  Insurrection  occurred  in  Western  Pennsylvania  in  the 
summer  of  1794.  It  arose  from  discontent  with  the  excise  regulations, 
and  culminated  in  open  riot  and  the  destruction  of  private  property;  but 
by  the  efforts  of  leading  citizens  the  rising  was  quelled  without  the  aid 
of  the  fifteen  thousand  troops  which  Washington  promptly  sent  against 
the  insurgents. 

"Common  Sense"  is  the  title  of  a  pamphlet  published  in  1776  by 
Thomas  Paine,  then  living  in  Philadelphia,  urging  Americans  to  claim 
independence.  It  ridiculed  the  idea  of  a  small  island,  3,000  miles  off, 
ruling  the  immense  continent  of  America,  and  threatening  three  million 
men,  more  vigorous  and  more  virtuous  than  their  would-be  enslavers. 
This  spark  was  sufficient  to  arouse  our  forefathers,  who  at  once  signed 
their  Declaration  of  Independence. 

The  largest  body  of  fresh  water  in  the  world  is  Lake  Superior,  It  is 
400  miles  long  and  180  miles  wide;  its  circumference,  including  the  wind- 
ings of  its  various  bays,  has  been  estimated  at  1,800  miles.  Its  area  in 
square  miles  is  32,000,  which  is  greater  than  the  whole  of  New  England, 
leaving  out  Maine.  The  greatest  depth  of  this  inland  sea  is  two  hundred 
fathoms,  or  1,200  feet.  Its  average  depth  is  about  one  hundred  and  sixty 
fathoms.  It  is  636  feet  above  sea  level. 

L,uray  cavern,  a  cave,  not  large,  but  remarkable  for  the  vast  number 
and  extraordinary  shapes  of  its  stalactites,  is  close  to  Iviiray  village, 
Virginia  (ninety  miles  from  Richmond).  Many  of  these  wonderful  col- 
umns exceed  fifty  feet  in  length;  numbers  of  them  are  hollow,  giving 
out  bell-like  notes  when  struck;  and  the  colors  range  from  waxy  white 
to  yellow,  brown,  01  rosy  red.  The  cavern,  which  is  lit  with  the  electric 
light,  attracts  thousands  of  visitors  every  year. 

The  origin  of  the  term  "Uncle  Sam,"  a  nickname  for  the  United 
States  government,  is  traced  by  some  to  the  following  story:  Samuel 
Wilson,  one  of  the  inspectors  of  provisions  in  the  War  of  Independence 
was  called  by  his  workmen  and  friends  "Uncle  Sam."  Goods  came  into 
his  hands  one  day  consigned  to  one  of  the  contractors  named  Elbert  An- 
derson, and  marked  "E.  A.,  U.  S."  These  initials  were  construed  by  one 
ofthehands,  "Elbert  Anderson  and  Uncle  Sam."  The  joke  has  lived  and 
"Uncle  Sam"  is  now  a  synonym  for  the  Republic  itself. 

Our  country  has  the  fastest*  war  vessel  in  the  world.  The  "New 
York"  is  a  splendid  example  of  an  all-around  warship,  an  unusual  com- 
bination of  great  offensive  and  defensive  power.  On  her  recent  trial 
trip  she  made  the  fastest  time  on  record,  21.1  knots  per  hour.  Her 
length  on  the  water  line  is  380  feet  6^  inches,  her  breadth,  moulded,  64 
feet  10  inches,  and  her  mean  draft  23  feet  3)4  inches.  Her  twin  screw, 
vertical,  triple  expansion  engines  furnish  an  aggregate  of  16,500  maxi- 
mum indicated  horse  power.  The  main  battery  consists  of  six  8-inch 
and  twelve  rapid-firing  4-inch  guns;  her  second  battery  of  eight  6-pounder 
and  four  1-pounder  rapid-fire  guns  and  four  Gatlings.  There  are  six 
above- water  torpedo  tubes;  she  has  no  sail  power  and  carries  two  mili- 
tary masts  with  double  fighting  tops.  Her  armor  is  two  to  ten  inches 
thick. 


14  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

The  American  Bison  is  interesting  as  the  only  living  species  of  the 
ox  family  indigenous  to  America,  except  the  musk  ox  of  the  subarctic 
regions.  It  is  commonly  called  buffalo  by  Americans,  but  must  be  dis- 
tinguished from  the  true  buffalo.  The  bison  was  within  recent  times 
very  abundant  in  America,  especially  in  the  prairies  beyond  the  Missis- 
sippi, and  from  63°  N.  lat.  to  New  Mexico.  Now  it  is  nearly  extinct — 
a -result  of  hard  winters,  cattle-ranching,  railways  and  immigration. 

The  Sons  of  Liberty  was  an  association  of  the  colonists  of  North 
America,  called  into  existence  in  1765  by  Lord  Grenville's  Stamp  Act. 
The  colonists  combined  to  throw  off  allegiance  to  Great  Britain  and  to 
make  North  America  independent.  The  association  began  in  New  York 
and  Connecticut.  The  term  ''Sons of  Liberty"  was  suggested  by  a  speech 
of  Colonel  Barrels.  The  "  Daughters  of  Liberty"  mutually  bound  them- 
selves to  drink  no  tea  and  wear  no  article  of  apparel  imported  from 
England  while  the  import  duties  were  unrepealed. 

When  the  Southern  States  were  practically  disfranchised  after  the 
Civil  War,  there  grew  up  swarms  of  adventurers  who  went  down  to  that 
section  and  organized  the  negro  voters,  got  elected  to  all  the  chief  offices, 
plundered  the  state  treasuries,  contracted  huge  state  debts,  and  stole  the 
proceeds.  Government  in  the  South  Carolina  and  Mississippi  states  was 
a  mere  caricature.  When,  in  1876,  President  Hayes  refused  the  "carpet- 
baggers' '  the  protection  of  Federal  troops,  the  regime  fell  to  pieces,  and 
the  rule  fell  again  into  the  hands  of  the  resident  whites. 

The  Alien  and  Sedition  Laws  were  passed  by  Congress  June  25,  1798, 
empowering  the  President  for  two  years  to  banish  at  his  discretion  the 
alien  enemies  of  the  Republic.  This  power  was  (July  6)  enlarged  by 
authorizing  the  President  to  apprehend  and  remove  aliens.  The  Sedition 
Act,  denning  sedition,  with  heavy  penalties  for  the  offence,  became  law 
July  14.  These  statutes  were  principally  directed  against  Frenchmen, 
when  war  between  France  and  the  United  States  seemed  imminent.  The 
laws  were  bitterly  opposed  as  undemocratic  and  were  repealed  when  Jef- 
ferson came  into  power. 

What  is  called  the  affair  of  the  "Trent,"  took  place  on  November  8, 
1861,  when  Captain  Wilkes,  of  the  Federal  war  steamer  "San  Jacinto," 
boarded  the  Royal  British  packet '  'Trent, ' '  and  carried  off  Messrs.  Mason 
and  Slidell,  Confederate  commissioners  and  their  secretaries,  and  con- 
veyed them  to  Boston.  There  were  great  rejoicings  in  the  Northern 
States,  and  the  thanks  of  Congress  were  voted  to  Captain  Wilkes  (De- 
cember 2);  but  the  foreign  envoys  at  Washington  protested  against  his 
act,  and  a  firm  dispatch  arrived  from  the  British  Government  ( December 
18),  in  consequence  of  which  Messrs.  Mason  and  Slidell  and  their  secre- 
taries were  released,  and  sailed  for  Kurope  (January  1,  1862). 

The  Danites,  or  ' '  destroying  angels, ' '  were  a  secret  society  founded 
by  Joseph  Smith  in  1838,  professedly  merely  for  the  defence  of  the  Mor- 
mon sect  against  the  mob.  The  members,  originally  some  300  in  num- 
ber, were  bound  by  an  oath,  under  penalty  of  death,  to  sustain  the  "first 
presidency"  and  one  another  in  all  things,  whether  right  or  wrong. 
They  were  divided  into  companies  of  fifties  and  tens,  with  suitable  offi- 
cers and  a  general  over  the  whole;  special  "destruction  companies  "  were 
appointed  for  the  purpose  of  burning  and  destroying,  at  first  by  way  of 
reprisal;  but  afterwards  assassinations,  to  fulfil  prophecies  of  Smith's, 
were  laid  to  their  charge. 


FACTS  ABOUT  OUR  COUNTRY  15 

Wilmot  Proviso  is  the  name  given  to  an  amendment  to  a  bill  appro- 
priating $2,000,000  for  the  purchase  of  Mexican  territory,  moved  (Aug. 
8,  1846)  in  the  United  States  Congress  by  Mr.  David  Wilmot,  Democrat, 
in  the  following  terms:  "That,  as  an  express  and  fundamental  condition 
to  the  acquisition  of  any  territory  from  the  Republic  of  Mexico  by  the 
United  States,  neither  slavery  or  involuntary  servitude  shall  ever  exist 
in  any  part  of  the  said  territory."  This  proviso,  adopted  by  the  House 
of  Representatives,  rejected  by  the  Senate,  became  the  starting  point  for 
the  "  Free-soil  "  movement  of  1848. 

"Pilgrim  Fathers"  is  the  name  given  to  the  one  hundred  and  two 
Puritans  who  came  to  this  country  in  1620,  in  a  ship  called  the  "May- 
flower," and  colonized  what  are  now  the  Northeastern  States,  called  New 
England.  This  was  the  second  English  settlement  in  the  New  World, 
and  was  planted  at  New  Plymouth,  near  Boston.  The  tyranny  of  the 
Ecclesiastical  Commission  in  England  raised  up  a  host  of  dissenters,  and 
in  1580  they  chose  John  Robinson  for  their  leader.  Their  independence 
soon  drew  upon  them  the  heavy  hand  of  the  law,  and  they  left  the  king- 
dom. The  larger  part  settled  at  Leyden,  in  Holland,  whence  102  of  them 
came  to  America,  and  many  others  followed  later. 

The  Capital  of  the  United  States  has  been  located  at  different  times 
at  the  following  places:  At  Philadelphia  from  Sept.  5,  1774,  to  Dec., 
1776;  at  Baltimore  from  Dec.  20,  1776,  to  March,  1777;  at  Philadelphia 
from  March  4,  1777,  to  Sept.,  1777;  at  Lancaster,  Pa.,  from  Sept.  27, 1777, 
to  Sept.  30,  1777;  at  York,  Pa.,  from  Sept.  30,  1777,  to  July,  1778;  at 
Philadelphia  from  July  2,  1778,  to  June  30,  1783;  at  Princeton,  N.  J., 
June  30,  1783,  to  Nov.  20,  1783;  Annapolis,  Md.,  Nov.  26,  1783,  to  Nov.  30, 
1784;  Trenton  from  Nov.,  1784,  to  Jan.,  1785;  New  York  from  Jan.  11,  1785, 
to  1790;  then  the  seat  of  government  was  removed  to  Philadelphia,  where 
it  remained  until  1800,  since  which  time  it  has  been  in  Washington. 

The  "Alabama  Question"  was  raised  in  the  winter  of  1862-63,  when 
Mr.  Seward  declared  that  the  Union  held  itself  entitled  to  demand  full 
compensation  for  the  damages  inflicted  on  American  property;  and  the 
divergence  of  view  more  than  once  threatened  to  issue  in  the  gravest 
consequences  to  both  nations.  In  1871  a  commission  met  at  Washing- 
ton; and  by  a  treaty  concluded  there,  provision  was  made  for  referring 
this  claim  to  a  tribunal  composed  of  five  arbitrators,  of  whom  the  Queen, 
the  President  of  the  United  States,  the  King  of  Italy,  the  President  of 
the  Swiss  Confederation,  and  the  Emperor  of  Brazil,  were  each  to  appoint 
one.  The  tribunal  met  at  Geneva  in  December,  1871,  and  by  its  final 
award  Great  Britain  was  ordered  to  pay  a  sum  of  $15,000,000;  this  sum 
covering  also  some  responsibility  for  the  depredations  of  the  ships 
1  'Florida' '  arid  '  'Shenandoah. ' '  The  claim  for  indirect  damage  to  Ameri- 
can commerce  was  dropped. 

Vinland  ("  Wineland  ")  is  the  name  given  to  the  chief  settlement  of 
the  early  Norsemen  in  North  America.  It  is  undoubtedly  represented  in 
modern  times  by  a  part  of  Massachusetts  and  Rhode  Island.  The  first 
that  saw  it  was  Bjarne  Herjulfson,  who  was  driven  thither  by  a  storm  in 
the  summer  of  986  A.D.,  when  making  a  voyage  from  Iceland  to  Green- 
land, of  which  country  his  father,  Herjulf,  and  Eric  the  Red  were  the 
earliest  colonists.  But  Bjarne  did  not  touch  the  land,  which  was  first 
visited  by  Leif  the  Lucky,  a  son  of  Eric  the  Red,  about  1000  A.D.  One 
part  of  the  country  he  named  Helluland  ("Stoneland  ");  another  Mark- 
land  ("Woodland"),  the  modern  Newfoundland  and  Nova  Scotiaj  a  Ger- 


16  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

man  in  his  company  having  found  the  grape  (most  probably  the  Vitis 
vulpina]  growing  wild,  as  in  his  native  country,  Leif  called  the  region 
Vinland.  The  natives  from  their  dwarfish  size  they  called  skraelings. 
Two  years  afterward  Leif's  brother,  Thorwald,  oame,  and  in  the  summer 
of  1003  led  an  expedition  along  the  coast  of  New  England  southwards,  but 
was  killed  the  year  following  in  an  encounter  with  the  natives.  The 
most  famous  of  the  Norse  explorers,  however,  was  Thorfinn  Karlsefne, 
an  Icelander,  who  had  married  Gudrid,  widow  of  Thorstein,  a  son  of 
Eric  the  Red,  and  who  in  1007  sailed  from  Greenland  to  Vinland  with  a 
crew  of  one  hundred  and  sixty  men,  where  he  remained  for  three  years, 
and  then  returned,  after  which  no  further  attempts  at  colonization  were 
made. 

Pocahontas,  daughter  of  the  Indian  chief,  Powhatan,  born  about 
1595,  figures  prominently  in  the  travels  of  Captain  John  Smith,  in  con- 
nection with  the  part  she  played  in  the  history  of  the  early  English  col- 
onists in  Virginia.  The  expedition  under  Captain  Bartholomew  Gosnold 
and  others  had  landed  in  Chesapeake  Bay  in  1607.  The  James  River  was 
explored,  and  a  settlement  formed,  but  a  great  drawback  was  the  lack  of 
food-supplies.  In  one  of  the  expeditions  for  food,  and  to  explore  the 
Chickahominy,  Smith  was  taken  prisoner,  brought  before  the  chief  Pow- 
hatan, and  his  head  laid  on  a  stone  preparatory  to  having  his  brains 
beaten  out  with  clubs.  At  this  juncture,  Pocahontas,  then  a  young  girl, 
"when  no  entreaty  could  prevail,  got  his  head  in  her  arms,  and  laid  her 
own  upon  his  to  save  him  from  death. ' ' 

The  stars  and  stripes  of  the  United  States  of  America  are  said  to 
have  been  suggested  by  the  coat  armorial  of  the  Washington  family,  but 
it  is  hardly  possible  to  reconcile  this  supposition  with  the  actual  history 
of  the  American  flag.  The  earliest  flag  consisted  of  horizontal  stripes, 
with  the  earlier  British  union  device  in  the  place  which  it  occupies  in 
the  British  ensign.  Soon  after  the  Declaration  of  Independence  congress 
resolved  that  the  flag  of  the  United  States  should  have  thirteen  stripes, 
alternately  red  and  white,  and  that  the  British  union  device  should  be 
superseded  by  a  blue  field  with  thirteen  white  stars,  the  number  both  of 
stripes  and  of  stars  being  correspondent  to  the  number  of  States.  In  1808 
it  was  enacted. that  the  stripes  should  continue  to  be  thirteen,  that  the 
stars  should  be  twenty  in  number,  there  being  then  twenty  States,  and 
that  a  star  should  be  added  for  every  new  State  that  came  into  the  union. 

Mammoth  Cave,  in  Kentucky,  is  eighty-five  miles  by  rail  south- 
west of  Louisville.  The  cave  is  about  ten  miles  long;  but  it  is  said  to 
require  upwards  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  of  traveling  to  explore 
its  multitudinous  avenues,  chambers,  grottoes,  rivers  and  cataracts. 
The  main  cave  is  only  four  miles  long,  but  it  is  from  forty  to  three 
hundred  feet  wide,  and  rises  in  height  to  one  hundred  and  twenty-five 
feet.  Lucy's  Dome  is  three  hundred  feet  high,  the  loftiest  of  the  many 
vertical  shafts  that  pierce  through  all  the  levels.  Some  avenues  are 
covered  with  a  continuous  incrustation  of  the  most  beautiful  crystals; 
stalactites  and  stalagmites  abound.  There  are  several  lakes  or  rivers 
connected  with  Green  River  outside  the  cave,  rising  with  the  river,  but 
subsiding  more  slowly,  so  that  they  are  generally  impassable  for  more 
than  six  months  in  the  year.  The  largest  is  Echo  River,  three-fourths 
of  a  mile  long,  and  in  some  places  two  hundred  feet  wide.  The  air  of 
the  cave  is  pure  and  healthful;  the  temperature  remains  constant 
at  about  54°. 


FACTS  ABOUT  OUR  COUNTRY.  17 

The  "Alabama"  was  a  steamer  built  at  Birkenhead,  near  Liverpool, 
England,  by  Messrs.  Laird,  for  the  Confederacy  during  the  Civil  War. 
In  spite  of  the  remonstrances  of  Mr.  Adams,  then  United  States  min- 
ister to  England,  the  "Alabama,"  then  known  as  the  "No.  290,  "^  was 
allowed  to  leave  the  Mersey.  She  obtained  cannon  and  ammunition 
at  the  Azores,  and  hoisted  the  Confederate  flag,  with  Captain  (afterwards 
Admiral)  Raphael  Semmes  in  command.  From  this  time,  August,  1862, 
until  June  19,  1864,  when  she  was  beaten  and  sunk  in  the  English  Channel 
by  the  United  States  warship  "Kearsarge,"  the  "Alabama"  carried  on 
a  career  of  privateering,  closely  approximating  to  piracy.  She  preyed 
on  the  American  merchant  marine,  capturing  and  sinking  or  burning 
over  sixty  vessels  and  destroying  $4,000,000  worth  of  property.  No 
attempt  was  made  to  take  the  prizes  into  port  for  condemnation,  and 
until  she  met  the  "Kearsarge"  the  noted  cruiser  kept  well  out  of  the 
way  of  American  war-ships. 

In  the  United  States,  under  the  Pre-emption  Act  of  1841,  an  actual 
settler  on  the  public  lands  enjoys  the  right,  in  preference  to.  any  one  else, 
of  purchasing  at  a  fixed  price  the  land  on  which  he  has  settled,  to  the 
extent  of  not  more  than  one  hundred  and  sixty  acres.  In  the  case  of 
"offered"  lands  the  settler  must  file  his  "declaratory  statement"  within 
thirty  days  after  entry,  and  within  a  year  proof  must  be  made  of  settle- 
ment and  cultivation,  and  the  land  thereupon  paid  for,  at  $1.25  per  acre 
if  outside  the  limits  of  a  railroad  grant,  or  $2. 50  if  within  such  limits. 
If  the  tract  settled  on  is  "unoffered, "  an  approved  plan  of  the  township 
must  first  be  received  at  the  district  land  office;  the  statement  must  then 
be  filed  within  three  months,  and  final  proof  and  payment  be  made 
within  thirty  months  thereafter.  Title  to  land  is  thus  obtained  much 
sooner  (possibly  within  six  months)  than  under  the  homestead  laws;  but 
a  homestead  settler  may  at  any  time  after  six  months  purchase  the  laud 
under  the  pre-emption  laws;  as,  on  the  other  hand,  the  holder  of  a  pre- 
emption claim  may  convert  it  into  a  homestead. 

HISTORIC  MINOR  POLITICAL  PARTIES. 

The  minor  American  parties  which  have  appeared  and  disappeared 
during  our  century  and  over  of  national  life  are  the  following:  Anti- 
Renters,  a  New  York  party  which  flourished  about  1841.  They  resisted 
the  collection  of  back  rents  on  the  Van  Rensselaer  manor  near  Albany. 
They  had  strength  enough  to  defeat  Wright,  the  regular  Democratic  can- 
didate for  Governor  of  New  York.  Barn-burners,  New  York,  1846,  se- 
ceders  from  the  Democratic  party.  They  were  opposed  to  slavery  exten- 
sion. Bucktails,  New  York,  about  1815;  they  supported  Madison. 
Conservatives,  New  York  and  some  other  states,  1837;  paper  money 
Democrats.  Doughfaces,  1820,  Northern  members  of  Congress,  who 
voted  in  favor  of  the  Missouri  compromise.  Hunkers,  New  York,  a  fac- 
tion of  the  Democrats  favoring  the  South,  the  Barn-burners  being  the 
other  factor.  Know- Nothings,  New  York,  1854,  opposed  to  naturaliza- 
tion of  foreigners  unless  they  had  been  twenty-one  years  in  the  country. 
Loco-Focos,  New  York,  1835;  a  branch  of  the  Democratic  party.  Liberal 
Republicans,  1872;  Republicans  who  joined  with  the  Democrats  in  sup- 
port of  Greeley  for  president.  Temperance,  or  Prohibition,  from  1830 
down,  in  many  States;  in  favor  of  preventing  or  restricting  the  sale  of 
liquors.  Woman's  Rights,  from  1860  down;  those  who  favored  granting 
to  women  the  right  of  suffrage. 
U.  I.-2 


18 


MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 


PASSENGER  LIST  OF  THE  MAYFLOWER. 


The  following  is  a  complete  list  of  the  male  passengers  landed  at 
Plymouth  from  the  Mayflower: 

Isaac  Allerton.  Francis  Eaton. 

Jno.  Alden.  Thomas  English. 

Jno.  Allerton.  Samuel  Fuller. 

William  Bradford.  John  Rowland. 

William  Brewster  Stephen  Hopkins. 

John  Billington.  Edward  Leister. 

Peter  Brown.  Christopher  Martin. 

Richard  Britterage.  William  Mullins. 
John  Carver. 
Francis  Cook. 
James  Chilton. 


John  Crackston. 
Richard  Clarke. 
Edward  Dotey. 

Servants  as  follows: 


Edmund  Margeson. 
Degony  Priest. 
Thomas  Rogers. 
John  Rigdale. 
Edward  Fuller. 
Moses  Fletcher. 


John  Goodman. 
Richard  Gardiner. 
George  Soule. 
Capt.  Miles  Standish. 
Edward  Tilly. 
John  Tilly. 
Thomas  Tinker. 
John  Turner. 
Edward  Winslow. 
William  White. 
Richard  Warren. 
Thomas  Williams. 
Gilbert  Winslow. 


Carter. 
Cooper. 
Ely. 
Holbeck. 


Hooke. 
Langmore. 
Latham. 
Minter. 


More. 
Power. 
Sampson. 
Story. 


Thompson. 

Trevore 

Wilder. 


THE  CLIMATES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES, 

Mean  annual  temperature,  Fahrenheit,  at  places  named: 


Alabama 

Mobile 

66° 
46 
69 
63 
55 
48 
50 
47 
53 
55 
69 
58 
52 
50 
51 
60 
49 
51 
56 
69 
45 
54 
48 
47 
42 

Mississippi  
Missouri  
Montana  

Jackson. 

64° 
55 
43 
49 
50 
46 
53 
51 
48 
59 
53 
53 
54 
48 
62 
58 
67 
52 
43 
57 
51 
52 
45 
41 

Alaska  

Arizona              .  .   . 

Sitka  
Tucson  
Little  Rock  
San  Francisco  
Denver  
Hartford  
Fort  Randall 

St.  Louis  
Helena  

Arkansas  

Nebraska  
Nevada  

Omaha  
C'p  Winfield  Scott 
Concord  

California    .  . 

Colorado  
Connecticut  
Dakota 

New  Hampshiie.. 
New  Jersey  
!  New  Mexico 

Trenton  

Santa  Pe 

Delaware  
District  Columbia. 

Wilmington  
Washington  
Jacksonville  
Atlanta 

New  York  

Albany  

North  Carolina  
Ohio 

Raleigh  
Colutnbus 

Georgia 

Oregon 

Portland  
Harrisburg  
Providence  
Columbia 

Idaho  

Fort  Boise  

Pennsylvania  
Rhode  Island  
South  Carolina  
Tennessee 

Illinois  
Indiana  
Indian  Territory.. 
Iowa  
Kansas 

Springfield  
Indianapolis  
Fort  Gibson  
Des  Moines  
Leavenworth  
Louisville  
New  Orleans  

Nashville  

Texas 

Austin 

Utah  

Salt  Lake  City  .  .. 
Montpelier  
Richmond  
Steilacoom  
Romney  
Madison  
Fort  Bridger  

Kentucky  
Louisiana 

Vermont.  

Virginia  
Washington  Ter.. 
West  Virginia  
Wisconsin  
Wyoming  

Maine 

Maryland.     ....  . 

Baltimore  

Massachusetts  
Michigan  

Boston  .... 

Detroit  

Minnesota  

St.  Paul  

HOW   OUR   COUNTRY   GREW. 

The  following  gives  the  area  of  our  country,  and  when  and  how  the 
territory  was  acquired: 

Square  Miles. 

Territory  ceded  by  England  in  1783 815,615 

Louisiana  acquired  from  France  in  1803 930.928 

Florida  acquired  from  Spain  in  1821 59.268 

Texas  admitted  into  the  Union  in  1845 237,504 

Oregon,  by  treaty  in  1846 280,425 

California  taken  from  Mexico  in  1845 649,762 

Arizona,  from  Mexico  by  treaty  in  1854 27,500 

Alaska,  from  Russia  by  treaty  in  1867 577,390 

Total  square  miles 3.578,392 


FACTS  ABOUT  OUR  COUNTRY.  19 

OUR  STATE  AND   TERRITORIAL  CAPITALS. 

Alabama,  Montgomery;  Arizona,  Phoenix;  Arkansas,  Little  Rock; 
California,  Sacramento;  Colorado,  Denver;  Connecticut,  Hartford;  North 
Dakota,  Bismarck;  South  Dakota,  Pierre;  Delaware,  Dover;  Florida, 
Tallahassee;  Georgia,  Atlanta;  Idaho,  Boise  City;  Illinois,  Springfield; 
Indiana,  Indianapolis;  Indian  Territory,  Tahlequah;  Iowa,  Des  Moines; 
Kansas,  Topeka;  Kentucky,  Frankfort;  Louisiana,  Baton  Rouge;  Maine, 
Augusta;  Maryland,  Annapolis;  Massachusetts,  Boston;  Michigan,  Lans- 
ing; Minnesota,  St.  Paul;  Mississippi,  Jackson;  Missouri,  Jefferson  City; 
Montana,  Helena;  Nebraska,  Lincoln;  Nevada,  Carson  City;  New  Hamp- 
shire, Concord;  New  Jersey,  Trenton;  New  Mexico  Territory,  Santa  Fe; 
New  York,  Albany;  North  Carolina,  Raleigh;  Ohio,  Columbus;  Oregon, 
Salem;  Pennsylvania,  Harrisburg;  Rhode  Island,  Newport  and  Provi- 
dence; South  Carolina,  Columbia;  Tennessee,  Nashville;  Texas,  Austin; 
Utah  Territory,  Salt  Lake  City;  Vermont,  Montpelier;  Virginia,  Rich- 
mond; Washington,  Olympia;  West  Virginia,  Charleston;  Wisconsin, 
Madison;  Wyoming  Territory,  Cheyenne. 


THE  INCREASE  OF  POPULATION  BY  DECADES. 

Natural.     Immigration.     Total  per  cent. 
28.02  4.65  32.67 

1841-50 26.19  9.68  3587 

1851-60 24.20  1138  35.58 

1861-70 15.38  7.25  22.63 

1871-80 22.78  7.29  3007 

The  increase  of  population  since  1830  has  averaged  32  per  cent  every  10  years.  At 
this  rate  there  would  be  eighty-eight  millions  in  1900.  From  1880  to  1890  the  increase 
was  24.87  per  cent. 


POPULATION  AND  AREA  CENTER. 

The  center  of  area  of  the  United  States,  excluding  Alaska,  is  in  North- 
ern Kansas,  in  approximate  latitude  39°  55',  and  approximate  longitude 
98°  50'.  The  center  of  population  is  in  latitude  39°  II'  56",  and  longi- 
tude 85°  32'  53",  being  about  thiee-fourths  of  a  degree  south  and  more 
than  seventeen  degrees  east  of  the  center  of  area.  The  following  table 
shows  the  movement  of  the  center  of  population  since  1790. 

YEAR.  APPROXIMATE  LOCATION.  MILES  WESTW'D. 

1790    23  miles  east  of  Baltimore.  Md 

1800    18  miles  west  of  Baltimore,  Md 41 

1810    40  miles  N.  W.  by  W.  Washington,  D.  C  36 

1820    16  miles  north  of  Woodstock,  Va 50 

1830    19  miles  W.  S.  W.  Mooreville,  W.  Va 39 

1840    16  miles  south  of4  Clarksburg,  W.  Va 55 

1850    23  miles  S.  E.  of  Parkersburg,  W.  Va 55 

1860    20  miles  south  of  Chillicothe,  0 81 

1870    48  miles  E.  by  N.  of  Cincinnati,  0 42 

1880      8  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Cincinnati,  O 58 

1890    20  miles  east  of  Columbus,  Ind 43 


FIGURES  OF  NATIONAL  IMPORTANCE. 

The  last  census  of  the  United  States,  taken  in  1890,  and  the  results  of 
which  were  announced  in  1891,  shows  that  we  have  a  population  of  62,- 
622, 250.  The  census  of  1880  counted  50, 155, 783,  of  whom  17, 392, 099  were 
earners. 

The  combined  wealth  of  the  country  in  1880  amounted  to  over  $50,- 


20  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

000,000,000— about  $880  per  head,  or  $2,600  per  worker.  Half  of  this 
was  in  lands  and  houses.  This  half  was  made  up  of  farms,  $10,197,000,- 
000;  residence  and  business  real  estate,  $9,881,000,000;  public  buildings, 
churches,  etc.,  not  taxed,  $2,000,000,000.  One-eighth  was  railroads  ($5, - 
536,000,000);  another  eighth,  household  furniture  and  supplies,  ($5,000,- 
000,000);  the  other  quarter,  live  stock  and  farm  tools,  ($2,406,000,000); 
mines  and  quarries,  ($781,000,000);  telegraphs,  ships  and  canals,  ($419,- 
000,000);  specie,  $(612,000,000);  miscellaneous  ($650,000,000);  and  the  stock 
of  products  and  imports,  ($6,160,000,000). 

The  annual  product  or  earnings  of  the  nation  are  given  by  the  cen- 
sus of  1880  as  $8,500,000,000.  One  tenth  of  this  is  used  on  farms.  The 
product  is  very  unevenly  divided.  An  even  division  would  give  about 
$450  per  year  to  each  earner,  or  less  than  45  cents  per  day  for  each  person. 
But  it  has  been  reckoned  that  in  1880  fifty  persons  had  an  average  income 
of  $1,000, 000  each  per  year;  2,000,  $100,000;  100,000,  $10,000;  a  million, 
$1,000;  14,000,000  under  $400  per  year. 

The  chief  wastes  are  as  follows: 

1.  Drink.     The  "liquor  bill"  of  this  country,  at  the  price  paid  dram- 
shops, is  estimated  at  from  $474,000,000  up,  of  which  a  large  part  is  worse 
than  waste. 

2.  Fire.     The  loss  by  fire  each  year  now  exceeds  $100,000,000,  of 
which  the  $50,000,000  paid  back  by  insurance  companies  is  none  the  less 
loss.     The  expenses  of  insurance  companies  are  $35,000,000  in  addition, 
and  for  fire  departments,  $25,000,000  more. 

3.  Crime  and  pauperism.     The  census  reported  59,255  criminals  in 
jail,  and  67,067  paupers  in  poor-houses.     These  are  by  no  means  all. 
Their  support  costs  over  $12,500,000  per  year,  but  the  full  loss  by  crime 
runs  probably  toward  fifty  millions. 

4.  Waste  of  food.     We  consume  now  about  $500,000,000  worth  of 
food,  of  which  probably  10  per  cent  is  wasted  by  extravagance,  bad  cook- 
ing, etc. 

5.  Strikes  and  lack  of  employment.     There  were  in  one  year  (1880) 
762  strikes  recorded,  of  which  226  are  known  to  have  resulted  in  a  loss  of 
$3,700,000  unearned  wages.     Still  greater  is  the  loss  by  lack  of  employ- 
ment for  men  \villing  to  work. 


WHERE  ILLITERACY  PREVAILS. 

The  United  States  compares  very  favorably  with  most  of  the  Euro- 
pean countries  in  the  method  of  education.  The  preponderance  of  illiter- 
ates in  the  Southern  States  is  largely  owing  to  the  presence  of  a  dense 
colored  population. 

The  1880  census  enumerates  36,761,607  persons  often  years  of  age 
and  upward.  Of  this  number  4,923,451,  or  13.4  per  cent.,  are  returned  as 
unable  to  read,  and  6,239,958,  or  17  per  cent.,  as  unable  to  write.  The 
following  States  show  over  40  per  cent,  of  their  population  as  unable  to 
write.  Alabama,  60;  Florida,  43;  Georgia,  50;  Louisiana,  49;  Mississippi, 
50;  New  Mexico,  65;  North  Carolina,  48;  South  Carolina,  55,  and  Vir- 
ginia, 41;  and  the  following  States  with  less  than  5  per  cent,  unable  to 
read:  Connecticut,_4;  Dakota,  3;  Illinois,  4;  Indiana,  5;  Iowa,  2;  Kansas, 
4;  Maine,  4;  Michigan,  4;  Minnesota,  4;  Montana,  5;  Nebraska,  2^;  New 
Hampshire,  4;  New  Jersey,  5;  New  York,  4;  Ohio,  4;  Oregon,  4;  Penn- 
sylvania, 5;  Utah,  5;  Virginia,  5,  and  Wisconsin,  4. 


FACTS  ABOUT  OUR  COUNTRY.  21 

ORIGIN  OF  STATE  NAMES. 

Alabama— Indian;  meaning  "Here  we  rest. "  Arkansas—  "Kansas," 
the  Indian  name  for  "smoky  water,"  with  the  French  prefix  "arc,"  bow 
or  bend  in  the  principal  river.  California — Caliente  Somalia,  Spanish 
for  "hot  furnace,"  in  allusion  to  the  climate.  Colorado — Spanish;  mean- 
ing "colored,"  from  the  red  color  of  the  Colorado  river.  Connecticut — 
Indian;  meaning  "long  river."  Delaware— Named  in  honor  of  Lord 
Delaware.  Florida — Named  by  Ponce  de  Leon,  who  discovered  it  in 
1512,  on  Easter  Day,  the  Spanish  Pascua  de Flores,  or  "Feast  of  Flowers," 
Georgia— In  honor  of  George  II.  of  England.  Illinois — From  the  In- 
dian "illini,"  men,  and  the  French  suffix  "ois,"  together  signifying 
"tribe  of  men."  Indiana  —  Indian  land.  Iowa— Indian;  meaning  "beauti- 
ful land."  Kansas — Indian;  meaning  "smoky  water."  Kentucky — In- 
dian; for  "at  the  head  of  the  river;"  or  "the  dark  and  bloody  ground." 
Louisiana — In  honor  of  Louis  XIV.  of  France.  Maine—  From  the  prov- 
ince of  Maine,  in  France.  Maryland—  In  honor  of  Henrietta  Maria, 
queen  of  Charles  I.  of  England.  Massachusetts— The  place  of  the  great 
hills  (the  blue  hills  southwest  of  Boston).  Michigan — The  Indian  name 
for  a  fish  weir.  The  lake  was  so  called  from  the  fancied  resemblance  of 
the  lake  to  a  fish  trap.  Minnesota—  Indian ;  meaning  '  'sky-tinted  water. ' ' 
Mississippi—  Indian;  meaning  "great  father  of  waters."  Missouri— In- 
dian-, meaning  "muddy."  Nebraska— Indian;  meaning  "water  valley." 
Nevada — Spanish;  meaning  "snow-covered,"  alluding  to  the  mountains. 
New  Hampshire — From  Hampshire  county,  England.  New  Jersey — 
In  honor  of  Sir  George  Carteret,  one  of  the  original  grantees,  who  had 
previously  been  governor  of  Jersey  Island.  New  York  —  In  honor  of  the 
Duke  of  York.  North  and  South  Carolina— Originally  called  Carolina, 
in  honor  of  Charles  IX.  of  France.  Ohio — Indian;  meaning  "beautiful 
river.  Oregon—  From  the  Spanish  "oregano, "  wild  marjoram,  which 
grows  abundantly  on  the  coast.  Pennsylvania — Latin:  meaning  Penn's 
woody  land.  Rhode  Island— From  a  fancied  resemblance  to  the  island 
of  Rhodes  in  the  Mediterranean.  Tennessee — Indian,  meaning  "river 
with  the  great  bend."  Texas — Origin  of  this  name  is  unknown.  Ver- 
mont— French;  meaning  green  mountain.  Virginia — In  honor  of  Eliza- 
beth, the  "Virgin  Queen."  Wisconsin— Indian]  meaning  "gathering  of 
the  waters,"  or  "wild  rushing  channel." 

MOTTOES  OF  THE  STATES. 

Arkansas— Regnant populi:  The  peoples  rule.  California — Eureka: 
I  have  found  it.  Colorado — Nil  sine  numine:  Nothing  without  the  Di- 
vinity. Connecticut — Qui  transtulit  sustinet:  He  who  has  transferred, 
sustains.  Delaware — Liberty  and  Independence.  Florida: — In  God  is 
our  trust.  Georgia- -Wisdom,  Justice,  Moderation.  Illinois—  State 
Sovereignty  and  National  Union.  Iowa — Our  liberties  we  prize,  and  our 
rights  we  will  maintain.  Kansas — Ad  astra  per  aspera:  To  the  stars 
through  rugged  ways.  Kentucky — United  we  stand,  divided  we  fall. 
Louisiana— Union  and  Confidence.  Maine— Dirigo:  I  direct.  Mary- 
land— Crescite  et  multiplicamini:  Increase  and  multiply.  Massachusetts 
Ensc.  petit placidam  sub  liber tate  quietem:  By  her  sword  she  seeks  under 
liberty  a  calm  repose.  Michigan— Si  quceris  peninsulam  amcsnam  cir~ 
cumspice:r  If  thou  seekest  a  beautiful  peninsula,  look  around.  Minne- 
sota— L'Etoile  du  Nord:  The  Star  of  the  North.  Missouri— Salus populi 
suprema  lex  esto:  Let  the  welfare  of  the  people  be  the  supreme  law. 


22  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

Nebraska— Popular  Sovereignty.  Nevada — Volens  et  potens:  Willing 
and  able.  New  Jersey — Liberty  and  Independence.  New  York — Ex- 
celsior: Higher.  Ohio — Imperium  in  imperio:  An  empire  within  an 
empire.  Oregon — Alis  volat  propriis:  She  flies  with  her  own  wings. 
Pennsylvania — Virtue,  Liberty,  Independence.  Rhode  Island— Hope. 
North  Carolina — Esse  quam  videri:  To  be,  rather  than  to  seem.  South 
Carolina — Animis  opibusque  parati:  Ready  with  our  lives  and  property. 
Tennessee — Agriculture,  Commerce.  Vermont — Freedom  and  Unity. 
Virginia — Sic  semper  tyrannis:  So  be  it  ever  to  tyrants.  West  Virginia 
— Montani  semper  liberi:  The  mountaineers  are  always  free.  Wisconsin 
• — Forward.  United  States— E  pluribus  unum:  From  many,  one.  An- 
nuit  cceptis:  God  has  favored  the  undertaking  ;  Novus  ordo  seculorum: 
A  new  order  of  ages.  The  first  named  on  one  side  of  the  great  seal,  the 
other  two  on  the  reverse. 


NICKNAMES  OF  STATES,  CITIES  AND  PEOPLE. 

Alabama,  Cotton  State;  Arkansas,  Toothpick  and  Bear  State;  Cali- 
fornia, Eureka  and  Golden  State;  Colorado,  Centennial  State;  Connecti- 
cut, Land  of  Steady  Habits,  Freestone  State  and  Nutmeg  State;  Dakota, 
Sioux  State;  Delaware,  Uncle  Sam's  Pocket  Handkerchief  and  Blue  Hen 
State;  Florida,  Everglade  and  Flowery  State;  Georgia,  Empire  State  of 
the  South;  Idaho,  Gem  of  the  Mountains;  Illinois,  Prairie  and  Sucker 
State;  Indiana,  Hoosier  State;  Iowa,  Hawkeye  State;  Kansas,  Jayhawker 
State;  Kentucky,  Corn-cracker  State;  Louisiana,  Creole  State;  Maine, 
Timber  and  Pine  Tree  State;  Maryland,  Monumental  State;  Massachu- 
setts, Old  Bay  State;  Michigan,  Wolverine  and  Peninsular  State;  Minne- 
sota, Gopher  and  North  Star  State;  Mississippi,  Eagle  State;  Missouri, 
Puke  State;  Nebraska,  Antelope  State;  Nevada,  Sage  State;  New  Hamp- 
shire, Old  Granite  State;  New  Jersey,  Blue  State  and  New  Spain;  New 
Mexico,  Vermin  State;  New  York,  Empire  State;  North  Carolina,  Rip 
Van  Winkle,  Old  North  and  Turpentine  State;  Ohio,  Buckeye  State; 
Oregon,  Pacific  State;  Pennsylvania,  Keystone,  Iron  and  Oil  State; 
Rhode  Island,  Plantation  State  and  Little  Rhody;  South  Carolina,  Pal- 
metto State;  Tennessee,  Lion's  Den  State;  Texas,  Lone  Star  State;  Utah, 
Mormon  State;  Vermont,  Green  Mountain  State;  Virginia,  Old  Dominion; 
Wisconsin,  Badger  and  Copper  State. 

Atlanta,  Gate  City  of  the  South,  Baltimore,  Monumental  City;  Ban- 
gor,  Lumber  City;  Boston,  Modern  Athens,  Literary  Emporium,  City  of 
Notions,  and  Hub  of  the  Universe;  Brooklyn,  City  of  Churches;  Buffalo, 
Queen  of  the  Lakes;  Burlington  (Iowa)  Orchard  City;  Charleston,  Pal- 
metto City;  Chicago,  Prairie,  or  Garden  City;  Cincinnati,  Queen  of  the 
West  and  Porkopolis;  Cleveland,  Forest  City;  Denver,  City  of  the  Plains; 
Detroit,  City  of  the  Straits;  Hartford,  Insurance  City;  Indianapolis,  Rail- 
road City;  Keokuk,  Gate  City;  Lafayette,  Star  City;  Leaven  worth,  Cot- 
tonwood  City;  Louisville,  Falls  City;  Lowell,  Spindle  City;  McGregor, 
Pocket  City;  Madison,  Lake  City;  Milwaukee,  Cream  City;  Nashville, 
Rock  City;  New  Haven,  Elm  City;  New  Orleans,  Crescent  City;  New 
York,  Empire  City,  Commercial  Emporium,  Gotham,  and  Metropolis  of 
America;  Philadelphia,  City  of  Brotherly  Love,  City  of  Penn,  Quaker 
City,  and  Centennial  City;  Pittsburgh,  Iron  City  and  Smoky  City;  Port- 
land (Me.),  Hill  City;  Providence,  Roger  Williams'  City,  and  Perry 
Davis's  Pain  Killer;  Raleigh,  Oak  City;  Richmond  (Va.),  Cockade  City; 
Salt  Lake  City,  Mormon  City;  San  Francisco,  Golden  Gate;  Savannah, 


FACTS  ABOUT  OUR  COUNTRY. 


23 


Forest  City  of  the  South,  Sheboygan,  Evergreen  City;  St.  Louis,  Mound 
City;  St.  Paul,  North  Star  City;  Vicksburg,  Key  City;  Washington,  City 
of "Magnificent  Distances,  and  Federal  City. 

Alabama,  lizards;  Arkansas,  toothpicks;  California,  gold-hunters; 
Colorado,  rovers;  Connecticut,  wooden  nutmegs;  Dakota,  squatters;  Dela- 
ware, muskrats;  Florida,  fly-up-the-creeks;  Georgia,  buzzards;  Idaho, 
fortune-seekers;  Illinois,  suckers;  Indiana,  hoosiers;  Iowa,  hawkeyes; 
Kansas,  jayhawkers;  Kentucky,  corn-crackers;  Louisiana,  Creoles;  Maine, 
foxes;  Maryland,  clam-humpers;  Massachusetts,  Yankees;  Michigan,  wol- 
verines; Minnesota,  gophers;  Mississippi,  tadpoles;  Missouri,  pukes;  Ne- 
braska, bugeaters;  Nevada,  sage-hens;  New  Hampshire,  granite  boys; 
New  Jersey,  blues,  or  clam-catchers;  New  Mexico,  Spanish  Indians;  New 
York,  Knickerbockers;  North  Carolina,  tarheels;  Ohio,  buckeyes;  Ore- 
gon, hard  cases;  Pennsylvania,  pennamites,  or  leather-heads;  Rhode 
Island,  gunflints,  South  Carolina,  weazles;  Tennessee,  whelps;  Texas, 
beef-heads;  Utah,  polygamists;  Vermont,  green-mountain  boys;  Virginia, 
beagles;  Wisconsin,  badgers. 

NOTED    NATIONAL  NICKNAMES. 

Pupils  in  United  States  history  and  the  general  reader,  who  is  at 
times  puzled  to  know  who  is  meant,  will  take  interest  in  the  following 
list: 

The  Father  of  his  Country.Washinjflon. 

Old  Man  Eloquent J .  Q .  Adams, 

The  Sage  of  Monticello Jefferson. 

Old  Hickory Jackson. 

Young  Hickory Polk. 

Great  Pacifier Clay. 

Mad  Anthony  Wayne. 

Old  Rough  and  Ready Taylor. 

Expounder  of  the  Constitu- 
tion   Webster. 

Unconditional  Surrender 
Grant U.  S.  Grant. 

Poor  Richard Franklin. 

Political  Meteor. Randolph. 

Little  Mac McClellan . 

Stonewall T.  J.  Jackson. 

Honest  Abe Lincoln. 

Rock  of  Chickamauga Thomas. 

Old   Put Putnam. 

Old  Tecumseh Sherman- 

Light  Horse  Harry Henry  Lee. 

Uncle  Robert R.  E.  Lee. 


Fighting  Joe Hooker. 

Bayard  of  the  South Marion. 

The  Little  Magician Van  Buren. 

Father  of  the  Constitution.James  Madison 

The  Superb Hancock. 

The  Rail  Splitter Lincoln. 

Great  American  Commoner. Thad.  Stevens. 

Old  Ossawatomie John  Brown. 

Old  Public  Functionary...  Jas.  Buchanan. 

Carolina  Game  Cock  Sumter. 

Teacher  President. . .    Garfield. 

Father  of  Greenback  s Salm'n  P  Chase 

Little  Giant S.  A.  Douglas. 

Colossus  of  American  Inde- 
pendence   John  Adams. 

Sage  of  Chappaqua Gieeley. 

Prince  of  American  Letters  W.  Irving. 

Mill  Boy  of  the  Slashes Clay. 

Pathfinder  of  the  Rockies.  .Fremont. 
Cincinnatus  of  the  West..  ..Washington. 

Great  Indian  Apostle Eliot. 

Motoax King  Phillip 


WONDERS  OF  AMERICAN  RAILROADING. 

1.  There  are  in  the  United  States  150,600  miles  of  railway— about 
half  the  mileage  of  the  world.  2.  The  estimated  cost  is  $9,000,000,000. 
3.  The  number  of  people  employed  by  American  railways  is  more  than 
1,000,000.  4.  The  fastest  time  made  by  a  train  is  422  6-10  miles  in  7 
hours,  23  minutes  (443  minutes),  one  mile  being  made  in  47  11-29  seconds, 
on  the  West  Shore  Railroad,  New  York.  5.  The  cost  of  a  high-class 
eight-wheel  passenger  locomotive  is  $8,500.  6.  The  longest  mileage 
operated  by  a  single  system  is  about  8,000  miles.  7.  The  cost  of  a  pal- 
ace sleeping  car  is  about  $15,000  or  $17,000  if  '  'vestibuled. "  8.  The 
longest  railway  bridge  span  in  the  United  States  is  the  Cantilever  span  in 
Poughkeepsie  bridge — 548  feet.  9.  The  highest  railroad  bridge  in  the 
United  States  is  the  Kinzua  viaduct  on  the  Erie  road— 305  feet  high.  10. 


24 


MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 


The  first  locomotive  in  the  United  States  was  built  by  Peter  Cooper.  11. 
The  road  carrying  the  largest  number  of  passengers  is  the  Manhattan 
Elevated  Railroad,  New  York -525, 000  a  day,  or  191,625,000  yearly.  12. 
The  average  daily  earning  of  an  American  locomotive  is  about  f  100.  13. 
The  longest  American  railway  tunnel  is  the  Hoosac,  on  the  Fitchburg 
railway—  4#  miles.  14.  The  average  cost  of  constructing  a  mile  of  rail- 
road at  the  present  time  is  about  $30,000.  15.  The  first  sleeping-car  was 
used  upon  the  Cumberland  Valley  Railroad  of  Pennsylvania;  from  1836 
to  1848.  16.  The  chances  of  fatal  accident  in  railway  travel  are  very 
slight— one  killed  in  ten  million.  Statistics  show  more  are  killed  by  fall- 
ing out  of  windows  than  in  railway  accidents.  17.  The  line  of  railway 
extending  farthest  east  and  west  is  the  Canadian  Pacific,  running  from 
Quebec  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  18.  A  steel  rail,  with  average  wear,  lasts 
about  eighteen  years.  19.  The  road  carrying  the  largest  number  of 
commuters  is  the  Illinois  Central  at  Chicago— 4,828,128  commutation 
fares  in  1887.  20.  The  fastest  time  made  between  Jersey  City  and  San 
Francisco  is  3  days,  7  hours,  39  minutes  and  16  seconds.  Special  theat- 
rical train,  June,  1876. 

NOTE. — Twenty-hour  regular  train  service  was  established  between 
New  York  and  Chicago,  May  28,  1893.  Average  speed  throughout,  51 
miles. 

OUR    COAL    FIELDS. 

This  country  has  an  area  of  between  three  and  four  hundred  thou- 
sand square  miles  of  known  coal  fields,  from  which  one  million  tons  are 
mined  yearly— enough  to  belt  the  earth  at  the  equator  with  a  ring  five 
and  a  half  feet  thick  by  five  and  a  half  feet  wide.  The  quantity  "in 
sight"  is  estimated  to  be  sufficient  to  supply  the  whole  world  for  a  period 
of  fifteen  hundred  to  two  thousand  years. 

IMMIGRATION  INTO  THE  UNITED  STATES,  1820-1892. 


YEAR. 

Total  Alien 
Passengers. 

YEAR. 

Total  Alien 
Passengers. 

YEAR. 

Total 
Immigrants. 

Total 
YEAR.    Immigrants. 

1820 

8,385 

1840    .  .  . 

.    84066 

I860.. 
1861  .  .  . 
1862... 
1863... 
1864 

..  150237 

1879             .  .      177  826 

1821 

9  127 

1841 

80289 

....  ...    89,724 
89,007 
174,524 
193  195 

1880                      457  257 

1822    .. 

6,911 

1842  
1843  
1844 

104,565 
52,49(5 
78  615 

1881           669  431 

1823 

.     .    6354 

1882                      788  992 

18^4 

7912 

1883                     603  322 

1825 

10,199 

1845... 
1846 

114,371 
...   .154  416 

1865 

.  .      247  453 

1884            518592 

1826 

10837 

1866 

163  594 

1885  395,346 
1886          334  203 

1827     . 

..  18875 

1847  

234,968 

Fisc.Y 

1867... 
18G8... 
1869... 
1870 

'r  end'g  Tun.  30 
298.967 
282  189 

1828 

27382 

1848.    ... 
1849 

226,527 
..      297  024 

1887           .  .  .      490  109 

1829 

22  520 

1888                     546  889 

1830 

23322 

1850.    ... 

369  986 

352.569 
387  203 

1889  444,427 
1890  455.302 
,891  560,319 

1831     . 

22  633 

1851 

379  466 

1832  .... 

60,482 

1852.... 
1853 

....    371,603 
368  645 

1871 

321  350 

1833     . 

58  640 

1872 

404806 

1892                      623  084 

1834 

65  365 

1854 

427  833 

1873 

459  803 

1835  ... 

45,374 

1855 

200877 

1874 

313339 

Total  ...*16,004,093 

From  1779  to  1820, 
estimated...  350,000 

1836     .. 

76  242 

1856  
1857  
1858     .   . 

195,857 
246.945 
119501 

1875... 
1876 

227,498 
169  986 

1837 

79  340 

1838  

38,914 

1877 

.  .  141  857 

1839 

RSOfi9 

1859 

118  616 

1878 

138  469 

1 

*  Immigrants  from  the  British  North  American  possessions  and  Mexico  are  not 
included  since  July  1,  1885. 

Of  the  whole  number  of  immigrants  in  the  fiscal  year  ending  June 
30,  1891,  533,164  came  through  the  customs  district  of  New  York;  41,- 


FACTS  ABOUT  OUR  COUNTRY. 


995  through  Baltimore;  36,149  through  Boston;  28,120  through  Phila- 
delphia, and  10,115  through  San  Francisco. 

The  reported  occupations  of  immigrants  who  arrived  during  the  year 
ending  June  30,  1890,  were  as  follows:  Laborers,  139,365;  farmers,  29,296; 
servants,  28,625;  carpenters,  3,776;  miners,  3,745;  clerks,  3,653;  tailors, 
3,879;  shoemakers,  2,232;  blacksmiths,  1,792.  The  total  number  of  pro- 
fessional immigrants  was  3,236;  of  skilled  laborers,  44,540;  of  miscellan- 
eous, 211,756.  

NATIONALITY  OF  IMMIGRANTS   DURING  FORTY  YEARS. 
(Compiled  by  the  Superintendent  of  the  Census.) 


COUNTRIES. 

1851  to  1860. 

1861  to  1870. 

1871  to  1880. 

1881  to  1890. 

Kngland  

247  125 

251  288 

440  961 

649  052 

Ireland 

914  119 

456  593 

444  589 

655  381 

Scotland  

38331 

44  681 

88925 

149856 

Wales       

6  319 

4642 

6  779 

11  990 

Great  Britain,  not  specified  

132  199 

349.766 

7908 

147 

Total  United  Kingdom  

1  338093 

1,106970 

989  163 

1  466  426 

Austria 

9398 

69558 

226020 

Belgium  

4  738 

7.416 

7,278 

17,506 

Denmark           .... 

3749 

17,885 

34,577 

88  108 

France 

76  358 

37  749 

73301 

50  460 

Germany  

951  667 

822,007 

757,698 

1,452  952 

448 

13,475 

127  678 

Italy 

9231 

12  892 

60830 

307095 

Netherlands                     

10  789 

9,539 

17,236 

53701 

Norway  and  Sweden  
Russia  and  Poland      

20,931 
1,621 

117,798 
5,047 

226,488 
54,606 

560,483 
265,064 

10  353 

9,047 

9,767 

5.564 

25011 

23,839 

31,722 

81  987 

All  other  countries  in  Europe  

116 

234 

1,265 

22,770 

Total  Kurope               

2,452  657 

2,180,399 

2,346,964 

4,725,814 

China          

41,397 

68,059 

122.436 

59,995* 

Total  Asia                             

41,458 

68,444 

123,068 

63,932 

Africa  

210 

324 

221 

375* 

Canada  

59.309 

184,713 

430,210 

392,802f 

Mexico.  ...         

3,078 

2,386 

5,164 

l,913f 

Central  America           

449 

96 

229  | 

1  224 

1  443 

1,152  j 

1,646 

West  Indies          

10,660 

9698 

14,461 

26,487*J 

Total  America        .          

74  720 

198336 

451,216 

4iJ2,848 

29  169 

19  249 

23226 

25759 

Aggregate  

2.598.214 

2,466,752 

2,944,695 

5,238,728 

given  in  18W.    ^Reports  discontinued  after  1885.     ^Includes  Central  and  South 
America  for  1889. 

As  the  reports  for  British  North  American  Provinces  and  for  Mexico 
have  been  discontinued  since  1885  by  the  Treasury  Department,  the 
figures  here  represented  only  cover  five  years  of  the  decade.  An  esti- 
mate based  upon  the  immigration  of  the  years  from  1881  to  1885,  inclu- 
sive, would  give  785, 604  to  British  North  America  for  the  decade  from 
1881  to  1890,  and  3,826  to  Mexico,  making  the  aggregate  for  America 
817,563,  instead  of  422,848. 

Mulhall  estimates  the  number  of  individuals  who  emigrated  from 
Europe  in  72  years,  1816  to  1888,  at  27,205,000.  Of  these  15,000,000  came 
to  the  United  States, 


26  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

GROWTH  OF  OUR  FIFTY  CHIEF  CITIES. 


Cities. 


1  New  York. 

2  Chicago 
Philadelphia. 

4  Brooklyn. , 
Louis  . 

6  Boston 

7  Baltimore . . 

8  San  Francisco. 

9  Cincinnati . 
10  Cleveland 

Buffalo 

12  New  Orleans. 

13  Pittsburg. . . 

14  Washington .. 

15  Detroit 
16 

17 
18 

n 

20 
21 
22 
23 
24 


Milwaukee.    .. 

Newark 

Minneapolis.. 
Jersey  City  — 

Louisville 

Dmaha , 

Rochester 

St.  Paul    

Kansas  City.. 
Providence 


Popula- 
tion, 1890 


1,513,501 
1,098,576 
1,044,894 
806,343 
450,245 
446,507 
434,151 
297,990 
296309 
261,546 
254,457 
241,995 
238,473 
829,796 


203,979 
181,51* 
164.738 
163,987 
161,005 
139,526 
138,327 
133,156 


15 
38 
17 
16 
63 
& 
45 

132,416  30 

132,043 


Popula- 
tion, 1880 


1,206,209 
503,185 
847,170 
566,663 
350,518 


332,313 
233,959 
255,139 
160,146 
155,134 
216,090 
156,389 
147,293 
116,340 
115,587 
136,508 

46,887 
120,722 
123,758 

30,518 


41,473 
55.785 
104,857 


32  Worcester. 

33  Scranton. 


Denver , 

28  Allegheny.... 

29  Albany 

30  Columbus 


Cities. 


Indianapolis  . , 


Syracuse 


Toledo 


35  New  Haven 

36  Richmond... 

37  Paterson 

38  Lowell. . . 


Nashville. 


39 

40  Fall  River.... 

41 

42 
43 
44 
45 


Cambridge. 

Atlanta 

Memphis 

Grand  Rapids. 
Wilmington ... 


46  Troy 


Reading. 
Dayton . 


49  Trenton, 

50  Camden 


Popula- 
tion, 1890 


107.445 
106,670 
104.967 
94,640 


84,536 
83,450 
82,652 
81,451 
80,838 
78,358 
77,605 


74,351 


65.514 
64,586 
64,147 
61,437 


58,926 
58,838 
58,488 
58,274 


Totals 11.286,500          7,750.715 


Popula- 
tion, 1880 

75.056 
35,629 


90,758 
51,647 
51,792 
58,291 
45,850 
50,137 
62,882 
63,600 
51,031 
59,475 
43.3JO 
48.961 


37,409 


32,016 
42,478 
56,747 
43,278 


29,910 
41,669 


THE  SUCCESSION    OF  THE  PRESIDENTS. 


NAME. 

NATIVE 
STATE. 

ANCESTRY. 

W 
y 

§ 

Q 

£ 
PI 

INAUG- 
URATED 

POLITICS. 

PLACE  OF  DEATH. 

pi 
> 

pi 

3 

George  Washington.  .  . 

Va  ... 

English  .  . 

Va... 

1789 

57 

Fed.... 

Mount   Vernon,  1799. 

John  Adams            ....  Mass. 

English  

Mass. 

1797 

62 

Fed.... 

Quincy,    Mass.,    1826. 

Thomas  Jefferson  |  Va  .  .  . 

Welsh  

Va.  .  .  . 

1801 

58 

Reo... 

Monticello,  Va.,  1826. 

James  Madison  Va.  .  .  . 

English.  .  .  . 

Va.... 

1809 

58  |Rep.... 

Montpelier,  Va.,  1836. 

James  Monroe      ?Va  — 

Scotch  

Va.... 

1817 

59 

Rep  

New  York  City,  1831. 

John  Quincy  Adams..  Mass. 

English  ... 

Mass. 

1825 

58 

Rep  

Washington,  1848. 

Andrew  Jackson  
Martin  Van  Buren  

S.  C.. 
N.  Y. 

Scot-Irish.. 
Dutch  

Tenn 
N.  Y. 

1839 
1837 

62 
55 

Dem  .  .  . 
Dem.   . 

Hermitage,Tenn.,  '45. 
Kinderhook.N.Y.,'  62. 

William  H.  Harrison. 
John  Tyler  

Va... 

Va.... 

English.... 
English.... 

Ohio. 
Va.... 

1841 
1841 

58 
51 

Whig.. 
Dem..  . 

Washington,  1841. 
Richmond.  Va.,    1862. 

James  K.  Polk  

N.C.. 

Scot-Irish.  . 

Tenn 

1845 

60 

Dem  .. 

Nashville,  Tenn.,  1849. 

Zachary  Taylor  
Millard  Fillmore  

Va... 
N.  Y. 

English.... 
English.... 

La.... 
N.  Y. 

1849 
1&50 

55 
50 

Whig.. 
Whig.. 

Washington,  1850. 
Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  1876. 

Franklin  Pierce  

N.  H. 

English  

N.  H. 

1853 

49 

Dem..  . 

Concord,   N.  H.,  1869. 

James  Buchanan  

Pa... 

Scot-Irish.  . 

Pa.... 

1857 

60 

Dem... 

Wheatland,  Pa.,  1868. 

Abraham  Lincoln  

Ky  ... 

English.... 

111.... 

1861 

52 

Rep  

Washington,  1865. 

Andrew  Johnson  

N:C.. 

English.... 

Tenn 

1865 

57 

Rep.  .  .  . 

Greenville,  Tenn.,  '75. 

Ulysses  S.  Grant  

Ohio. 

Scotch  

111.... 

1869 

47 

Rep.  .  .  . 

MtM  'Gre*or,N.Y.  ,  '85. 

Rutherford  B.  Hayes.. 

Ohio. 

English.... 

Ohio. 

1877 

55 

Rep.... 

Cleveland,  O.,  1893. 

James  A.  Garfield  

Ohio. 

English.  .  .  . 

Ohio. 

1881 

49 

Re?.... 

Long  Branch,  1881. 

Chester  A.  Arthur  — 

Vt.... 

Scot-Irish.  . 

N.  Y. 

1881 

51 

Rep  

New  York  City,  1886. 

Qrovcr  Cleveland  .  •  •  *  . 

N.J.. 

English  

N.  Y. 

1885 

48 

Dem 

Bdiimniti  HflrrisoQ 

Ohio. 

T?n  crl  i  <;Vi 

Tnd. 

1889 

56 

Rep 

Grover  Cleveland  

N  J..I  English... 

N.  Y. 

1893 

56 

Dem.  .. 

FACTS  ABOUT  OUR  COUNTRY. 


27 


GENERALS    COMMANDING   THE   U.  S.  ARMY. 


FROM 

TO 

FROM 

TO 

lieorge  Washington.  .  .   . 

1775 

1783 

Alexander  Macomb 

1828 

1841 

Henry  Knox  

1783 

1784 

Winfield  Scott  

1841 

1861 

Josiah  Harmer 

1788 

1791 

George  B   McClellan 

1861 

1862 

Arthur  St.  Clair  

1791 

1796 

Henry  W   Halleck 

1862 

1864 

James  Wilkinson 

1796 

1798 

Ulysses  S  Grant 

1864 

1869 

George  Washington  
James  Wilkinson     ... 

1799 
1800 

1799 
1812 

William  T.  Sherman  
Philip  H   Sheridan     .  . 

1869 
1883 

1883 
1888 

Henry  Dearborn 

1812 

1815 

John  M    Schofield 

18&8 

Jacob  Brown  

1815 

1828 

WARS   OF  THE  UNITED   STATES. 
Statement  of  the  Number  of  United  States  Troops  Engaged. 


WARS. 

FROM. 

To. 

REGU- 
LARS. 

MILITIA 

'    AND 

VOLUN- 
TEERS. 

TOTAL. 

War  of  the  Revolution 

Apr.  17,1775 
Sept.  19,  1790 
July    9,1798 
June  10  1801 
July  27,1813 
June  18,1812 
Nov.  20,1817 
Apr.  21,1831 
1836 
May  5,  1836 
Dec.  23,1825 
1838 
Apr.  14,1846 
1849 
1856 
1861 

Apr.  11,1783 
Aug.  3,1793 
Sept  30,  1800 
June  4,1805 
Aug.  9,1814 
Feb.  17,1815 
Oct.  21,1818 
Sept  31,  1832 
1837 
Sept  30,  1837 
Aug.14,1843 
1839 
July   4,1848 
1855 
1858 
1865 

130,711 

164,080 

309,781 
8,983 
*4,593 
*3,330 
13,731 
576,622 
7,911 
6,465 
9,494 
13,418 
41,122 
1,500 
112,230 
2,561 
2,687 
2,772,408 

Northwestern  Indian  wars  

War  with   France    

War  with  Tripoli 

"'ebb' 

85,000 
1,000 
1,339 

'  '13,181 
471,622 
6,911 
5.126 
9,494 
12.483 
29,953 
1,500 
73,776 
1,061 
3,687 

C  reek  Indian  war  

War  1812  with  Great  Britian.... 
Seminole  Indian   war  

Black  Hawk  Indian   war 

Cherokee  disturbance  or  removal. 
Creek  Indian  war  or  disturbance. 
Florida  Indian  war    

935 
11,169 

30,954 
1,500 

Apache,  Navajo  and  Utah  war... 
Seminole  Indian  war  

Civil  wart  

*Naval  forces  engaged.     tThe  number  of  troops  on  the  Confederate  side  was  about 
600,000. 

The  number  of  casualities.in  the  volunteer  and  regular  armies  in  the 
United  States,  during  the  war  of  1861-65,  was  reported  by  the  Provost  Mar- 
shal General  in  1866:  Killed  in  battle,  61,362;  died  of  wounds,  34,727; 
died  of  disease,  183,287;  total  died,  279,376;  total  deserted,  199,105, 
Number  of  soldiers  in  the  Confederate  service  who  died  of  wounds 
or  disease  (partial  statement),  133,821.  Deserted  (partial  statement, 
104,428.  Number  of  United  States  troops  captured  during  the  war, 
212,608;  Confederate  troops  captured,  476,169.  Number  of  United  State* 
troops  paroled  on  the  field,  16,431;  Confederate  troops  paroled  on  the 
field,  248,599.  Number  of  United  States  troops  who  died  while  prisoners, 
29,725;  Confederate  troops  who  died  while  prisoners,  26,774. 

GUIDE  TO  THE  CIVIL,  SERVICE. 

The  officials  and  clerks — over  one  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  in 
all— by  whom  the  people's  business  in  the  administration  of  government 
is  carried  on,  constitute  the  Civil  Service.  About  five  thousand  of  these 
are  appointed  by  the  President,  alone  or  with  the  consent  of  the  Senate; 
about  fifteen  thousand  under  what  is  known  as  the  "Civil  Service  Rules;" 
but  the  great  body  of  officeholders  is  appointed  by  heads  of  departments. 

Those  employed  in  the  civil  service  have  always  been  theoretically 


28  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

entitled  to  serve  "during  good  behavior,"  but  practically,  until  within  a 
few  years,  their  positions  have  depended  upon  their  allegiance  to  the 
political  party  in  power. 

In  1883  Congress  passed  a  law  for  the  improvement  of  the  civil  service 
of  the  United  States.  This  act  provides  for  the  appointment  by  the  Presi- 
dent of  three  commissioners  to  have  general  charge  of  filling  the  vacan- 
cies in  the  civil  service  department,  and  stipulates  that  the  fitness  of  all 
applicants  for  all  subordinate  positions  in  the  departments  at  Washington, 
and  in  all  custom-houses  and  postomces  having  as  many  as  50  office- 
holders, shall  be  tested  by  examinations,  and  the  positions  assigned  with 
reference  to  the  capacity,  education  and  character  of  the  applicants, 
regardless  of  political  preferences. 

According  to  this,  no  absolute  appointment  to  office  can  be  made 
until  the  applicant  has  proven  his  or  her  ability  to  fill  the  position  satis- 
factorily by  six  months'  service;  no  person  habitually  using  intoxicating 
beverages  to  excess  shall  be  appointed  to,  or  retained  in  any  office;  no 
recommendation  which  may  be  given  by  any  Senator  or  member  of  the 
House  of  Representatives,  except  as  to  character  and  residence,  shall  be 
considered  by  the  examiners;  men  and  women  shall  receive  the  same  pay 
for  the  same  work. 

The  general  competitive  examinations  for  admission  to  the  service 
are  limited  to  the  following  subjects:  1.  Orthography,  penmanship  and 
copying.  2.  Arithmetic  — fundamental  rules,  fractions  and  percentage. 

3.  Interest,  discount,  and  the  elements  of  bookkeeping  and  of  accounts- 

4.  Elements  of  the  English  language,  letter  writing,  and  the  proper  con. 
struction   of  sentences.      5.    Elements  of  the  geography,    history  and 
government  of  the  United  States. 

A  standing  of  65  per  cent,  in  the  first  three  branches  is  necessary  to 
qualify  an  applicant  for  appointment.  Where  special  qualifications  are 
necessary  for  specific  work  the  examinations  are  adapted  to  test  the 
knowledge  of  the  applicant  in  that  particular  line. 

No  applicant  will  be  examined  who  cannot  furnish  proof  that  he  is 
of  good  moral  character  and  in  good  health. 

There  is  a  board  of  examiners  in  each  of  the  principal  cities  of  the 
United  States  and  several  examinations  are  held  each  year.  Applications 
must  be  made  on  the  regular  '  'application  paper, ' '  which  can  be  obtained 
of  the  commissioners,  or  any  board  of  examiners. 

Several  of  the  States  have  adopted  the  principles  laid  down  in  the 
civil  service  act  and  applied  them  to  the  State  civil  service,  and  it  is  prob- 
ably only  a  question  of  time  when  civil  service  reform  will  be  consum- 
mated throughout  the  United  States  and  the  public  service  will  thereby 
be  rendered  much  more  efficient. 

GOVERNMENT  SALARY  LIST. 

The  salary  of  the  President  of  the  United  States  is  $50,000  a  year,  the 
Vice-President,  |8,000;  Cabinet  officers,  $8,000.  Senators  receive  $5,000 
and  mileage.  Congressmen,  $5,000  and  mileage.  The  Chief  Justice  of  the 
Supreme  Court  receives  $10,500;  Associate  Justices,  $10,000.  The  dip- 
lomats get  good  pay;  Ministers  to  Germany,  Great  Britain,  France  and 
Russia,  $17,500;  Ministers  to  Brazil,  China,  Austra-Hungary,  Italy, 
Mexico,  Japan  and  Spain,  $12,000;  Ministers  to  Chili,  Peru  and  Central 
America,  $10,000;  Ministers  to  Argentine  Confederation,  Hawaiian 
Islands,  Belgium,  Hayti,  Colombia,  Netherlands,  Sweden,  Turkey  and 


FACTS  ABOUT  OUR  COUNTRY.  29 

Venezuela,  $7,500,  Ministers  to  Switzerland,  Denmark,  Paraguay,  Bolivia 
and  Portugal,  $5,000;  Ministers  to  Liberia,  $4,000.  The  heads  of  the 
Government  departments  receive:  Superintendent  of  Bureau  of  Engrav- 
ing and  Printing,  $4,500;  Public  Printer,  $4,500;  Superintendent  of  Census, 
$5,000;  Superintendent  of  Naval  Observatory,  $5,000;  Superintendent 
of  the  Signal  Service,  $4,000;  Director  of  Geological  Surveys,  $6,000; 
Director  of  the  Mint,  $4,500;  Commissioner  of  General  Land  Office,  $4,000; 
Commissioner  of  Pensions,  $3,600,  Commissioner  of  Agriculture,  $3,000; 
Commissioner  of  Indian  Affairs,  $3,000;  Commissioner  of  Education, 
$3,000;  Commander  of  Marine  Corps,  $3,500;  Superintendent  of  Coast  and 
Geodetic  Survey,  $6,000. 

In  1893  the  Ministers  to  Great  Britain,  Germany  and  France,  were 
made  Ambassadors  without  increase  of  pay. 

The  pay  of  army  officers  is  fixed  as  follows:  General,  $13,500;  Lieut- 
General,  $11,000;  Major-General,  $7,500;  Brigadier-General,  $5,500;  Colo- 
nel, $3,500;  Lieutenant-Colonel,  $3,000;  Major,  $2,500;  Captain,  mounted, 
$2,000;  Captain,  not  mounted,  $1,800;  Regimental  Adjutant,  $1,800; 
Regimental  Quartermaster,  $1,800;  1st  Lieutenant,  mounted,  $1,600;  1st 
Lieutenant,  not  mounted,  $1,500;  2d  Lieutenant,  mounted,  $1,500;  2d 
Lieutenant,  not  mounted,  $1,400;  Chaplain,  $1,500.  The  navy  salaries 
are:  Admiral,  $13,000;  Vice-Admiral,  $9,000;  Rear-Admiral,  $6,000;  Com- 
modore, $5,000;  Captain,  $4,500;  Commander,  $3,500;  Lieut. -Commander, 
$2,800;  Lieutenant,  $2,400;  Master,  $1,800;  Ensign,  $1,200;  Midshipman, 
$1,000;  Cadet  Midshipman,  $500;  Mate,  $900;  Medical  and  Pay  Director 
and  Medical  and  Pay  Inspector  and  Chief  Engineer,  $4,400;  Fleet  Sur- 
geon, Fleet  Paymaster  and  Fleet  Engineer,  $4,400;  Surgeon  and  Pay- 
master, $2,800;  Chaplain,  $2,500. 

WAYS  AND  WORK  OF  THE  PATENT  OFFICE. 

Applications  for  United  States  patents  must  be  addressed  to  the  Com- 
missioner of  Patents,  Washington,  D.C.,  and  signed  and  sworn  to  by  the 
inventor.  The  invention  must  not  have  been  in  public  use  or  on  sale  for 
more  than  two  years  prior  to  the  application.  The  applicant  must  fully 
describe  his  invention  and  distinctly  claim  those  parts  which  he  believes 
to  be  new.  The  application  must  be  illustrated  with  drawings  when  pos- 
sible. When  filed,  a  first  fee  of  $15  is  payable,  and  a  second  fee  of  $20  is 
exacted  if  the  application  is  allowed  before  the  patent  will  be  issued.  The 
patent  runs  seventeen  years  from  date  of  issue.  Extensions  can  be  obtained 
only  by  special  act  of  Congress.  A  pamphlet  of  rules  and  forms  is  distributed 
free  by  the  Commissioner  of  Patents.  Suits  to  enjoin  infringement  of 
letters  patent  are  brought  by  bill  in  equity  in  U.  S.  District  or  Circuit 
courts.  The  profits  realized  by  an  infringer  can  also  be  recovered. 

The  total  number  of  United  States  Patents  granted  up  to  and  includ- 
ing Oct.  25,  1892,  was  485,158.  The  average  issue  is  about  25,000  a  year. 
The  average  number  of  applications  for  patents  is  40,000  a  year.  Since 
1881,  the  annual  receipts  of  the  Patent  Office  have  exceeded  $1,000,000. 
The  figures  for  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1892,  were  $1,268,727.35.  The 
expenditures  for  the  same  year  were  $1,114,134.23.  The  total  balance  to 
the  credit  of  the  Patent  Fund  in  the  United  States  Treasury  on  June  30, 
1892,  was  $4,102,441.00.  The  two  main  items  of  expense  are  salaries, 
about  $650,000,  and  printing  and  photo-lithographing,  about  $400,000 
annually.  The  Patent  Office  Library  contains  60,000  volumes.  The 
model  hall  has  154,000  models.  The  office  does  not  require  models  now, 
except  in  special  cases. 


30 


MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 


N  W 
NW 


SW 

N  W 


N  W 
S  W 


S  W 

SW 


NE 
N  W 


SE 

N  W 


N   E 
S  W 


SE 

SW 


NW 
N  E 


S  W 
N  E 


NE 
N  E 


SE 

NE 


N  W 
SE 


S  W 
SE 


NE 
SE 


SE 
SE 


10 


12 


18 


16 


15 


UNITED  STATES  LAND  MEASURE  AND  HOMESTEAD  LAW. 

A  township  is  thirty -six  sections,  each  a  mile  square.     A  section  is 

six  hundred  and  forty  acres.     A  quarter  section,  half  a  mile  square,  is  one 

hundred  and  sixty  acres.     An  eighth 

section,  half  a  mile  long,  north  and 

south,  and  a  quarter  of  a  mile  wide,  is 

eighty  acres.     A  sixteenth  section,  a 

quarter  of  a  mile  square,  is  forty  acres. 
The  sections  are  all  numbered  1  to 

36,  commencing  at  northeast  corner, 

thus: 

The  sections  are  all  divided  in  quar- 
ters, which  are  named  by  the  cardinal 

points,  as  in  section  1.  The  quarters 
are  divided  in 
the  same  way, 
as  shown  in  the 
smaller  dia- 
gram. The  de- 
scription of  a 

forty-acre  lot  would  read:  The  south  half  of  the 
west  half  of  the  south-west  quarter  of  section  1  in 
township  24,  north  of  range  7  west,  or  as  the  case 
might  be;  and  sometimes  will  fall  short  and  some- 
times overrun  the  number  of  acres  it  is  supposed 
to  contain. 


19 


31 


20 


32 


21 


33 


27 


31 


14 


23 


35 


13 


24 


ALIEN  HOLDERS  OF  OUR  LANDS. 

The  following  is  a  table  of  the  leading  alien  holders  of  lands  in  the 
United  States,  with  amount  of  holdings  in  acres: 

An  English  syndicate,  No.  3,  in  Texas 3,000,000 

The  Holland  Land  Company,  New  Mexico 4,500,000 

Sir  Edw.  Reid  and  a  syndicate,  Florida 2,000,000 

English  syndicate  in  Mississippi 1,800,000 

Marquis  of  Tweedale 1,750,000 

Phillips,  Marshall  &  Co.,  Condon 1,300,000 

German-American  syndicate,  London 750.000 

Bryan  H.  Evans,  of  London 700  000 

Duke  of  Sutherland 425,000 

British  Land  Company  in  Kansas 320.000 

Wm.  Wharley,  M.P.,  Peterboro,  England 310,000 

Missouri  Land  Company,  Edinburgh,  Scotland 300,000 

Robert  Tennent,  of  London 230,000 

Dundee  Land  Company,  Scotland 247,000 

LordDunmore 120,000 

Benjamin  Neugas,  Liverpool 100.000 

Lord  Houghton  in  Florida 60,000 

Lord  Dunraven  in  Colorado 60,000 

English  Land  Company  in  Florida 50,000 

English  Land  Company  in  Arkansas. 50,000 

Albert  Peel,  M.P.,  Leicestershire,  England 10,000 

SirJ.  L.  Kay,  Yorkshire,  England 5,000 

Alexander  Grant,  of  London,  in  Kansas 35,000 

English  syndicate.  Wisconsin 110,000 

M.  Bllerhauser,  of  Halifax,  in  W.  Va 600,000 

A  Scotch  syndicate  in  Florida 500,000 

A.  Boysen,  Danish  consul  in  Milwaukee 50,000 

Missouri  Land  Company,  of  Edinburgh 166,000 

Total 20,647,000 


FACTS  ABOUT  OUR  COUNTRY. 


31 


To  these  syndicate  holdings  should  be  added  the  following:  The 
Arkansas  Valley  Company  in  Colorado,  a  foreign  corporation,  whose  in- 
closures  embrace  upwards  of  1,000,000  acres;  the  Prairie  Cattle  Company 
(Scotch)  in  Colorado,  upwards  of  1,000,000;  H.  H.  Metcalf,  River  Bend, 
Colorado,  200,000;  John  W.  Powers,  Colorado,  200,000;  McDaniel  & 
Davis,  Colorado,  75,000;  Routchler  &  Lamb,  Colorado,  40,000;  J.  W. 
Frank,  Colorado,  40,000;  Garnett  &  Langford,  Colorado,  30,000;  B.  C. 
Tane,  Colorado,  50,000;  Leivesy  Brothers,  Colorado,  150,000;  Vrooman  & 
McFife,  Colorado,  50,000;  Beatty  Brothers,  Colorado,  40,000;  Chick, 
Brown  &  Co.,  Colorado,  30,000;  Reynolds  Cattle  Company,  Colorado, 
50,000;  several  other  cases  in  Colorado,  embracing  from  10,000  to  30,000; 
Coe  &  Carter,  Nebraska,  fifty  miles  of  fence;  J.  W.  Wilson,  Nebraska, 
forty  miles;  J.  W.  Boster,  twenty  miles;  William  Humphrey,  Nevada, 
thirty  miles;  Nelson  &  Son,  Nevada,  twenty-two  miles;  Kennebec  Ranch, 
Nebraska,  from  20,000  to  50,000  acres. 

PUBLIC  LAND  GRANTS  AND  FORFEITS. 


CANAL  GRANTS. 

May  26,  1824,  to  June  30,  1891. 

ACRES. 

Wisconsin 325,431 

Michigan 1,250.000 

Ohio 1, 100,361 

Indiana 1 ,457,366 

Illinois 290,915 


Total . . . 


.4,424,073 


RIVER   IMPROVEMKNT  GRANTS. 

From  182ato  June  30,  1891. 

Alabama... 400,016 

Wisconsin 683.802 

Iowa 322,392 

Total 1,406,210 

MILITARY  WAGON   ROADS. 

March  3,  1863,  to  June  30,  1891. 

Wisconsin .' 302.930 

Michigan 221,013 

Oregon 1,258,786 

Total...  ...1,782/729 


Lands  actually  conveyed  from  1850  to 
June  30,  1891,  for  railroad  companies. 

ACRES. 

Illinois 2,595,053 

Mississippi 935, 158 

Alabama    2,931,780 

Florida 1,764,412 

Louisiana 1,908,059 

Arkansas 2,552.344 

Missouri 1.395,429 

Iowa 4.709.759 

Michigan 3,229,010 

Wisconsin 3,056,011 

Minnesota 8,206,714 

Kansas 4,637.650 

Nebraska 3,783,327 

Colorado 209,232 

Wyoming 159,437 

Utah 116,298 

Nevada 361.821 

California 3,047.534 

Oregon 322,062 

New  Mexico 23,037 

Arizona 373,099 


Total . : 46, 31 7,226 

Lands  forfeited  to  U.  S. — Lands  forfeited  by  acts  of  Congress  and  re- 
stored to  the  public  domain  aggregate  about  36,681,527  acres. 

TITLES  TO  THE  PUBLIC  LANDS— HOW  ACQUIRED. 

The  public  lands  of  the  United  States  still  unsold  and  open  to  settle- 
ment are  divided  into  two  classes,  one  class  being  sold  by  the  Govern- 
ment for  $1.25  per  acre  as  the  minimum  price,  the  other  at  $2.50  per 
acre,  being  the  alternate  sections  reserved  by  the  United  States  in  land 
grants  to  railroads,  etc.  Such  tracts  are  sold  upon  application  to  the 
Land  Register.  Heads  of  families,  or  citizens  over  twenty-one  years, 
who  may  settle  upon  any  quarter  section  (or  one  hundred  and  sixty  acres) 
have  the  right  under  the  pre-emption  law  of  prior  claim  to  purchase,  on 
complying  with  the  regulations. 

Under  the  homestead  laws,  any  citizen,  or  intending  citizen,  has  the 
right  to  one  hundred  and  sixty  acres  of  the  $1.25  land,  or  eighty  acres  of 


32 


MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 


the  $2.50  land,  after  an  actual  settlement  and  cultivation  of  the  same  for 
five  years.  Under  the  timber  culture  law,  any  settler  who  has  cultivated 
for  two  years  as  much  as  five  acres  in  trees  of  an  eighty-acre  homestead, 
or  ten  acres  of  a  homestead  of  one  hundred  and  sixty  acres,  is  entitled  to 
a  free  patent  for  the  land  at  the  end  of  eight  years. 

PUBLIC  LANDS  STILL  VACANT  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


ACRES. 

Alabama 807,947 

Arizona 54,608.531 

Arkansas 5,091 ,313 

California 50,132,241 

Colorado 41,998,377 

Florida 2,806,587 

Idaho 34,225.149 

Kansas 734,080 

Louisiana 1,172,518 

Michigan 724,232 

Minnesota 6,510,611 

Mississippi 978,418 

Missouri 808,799 

Montana 74,558,143 


ACRES- 

Nebraska 10,799,33.1 

Nevada 42,385,734 

New  Mexico 54,720,863 

North  Dakota 19,500,555 

Oklahoma 6,324,863 

Oregon 38,435,873 

South  Dakota 13,006,396 

Utah 35,231 ,466 

Washington 19.098,420 

Wisconsin 871,087 

Wyoming 52,055,248 


Total 567,586,783 


INDIANS  AND  THEIR  RESERVATIONS. 

The  entire  extent  of  territory  now  in  a  state  of  reservation  for  Indian 
purposes,  including  all  portions  of  the  Indian  Territory,  whether  in  fact 
occupied  or  unoccupied  by  Indians,  is  112,413,440  acres,  being  equiva- 
lent to  an  average  of  456  acres  for  each  Indian,  computed  on  the  last 
reported  number  of  the  total  population,  including  those  estimated  as 
outside  the  reservations.  Of  this  area  about  81,020,129  acres  are  within 
the  scope  of  the  general  allotment  law  of  1887,  and  afford  an  average  for 
the  population  residing  upon  such  lands,  amounting  to  173,985,  of  about 
465  acres  to  each.  It  will  be  seen  that,  by  the  execution  of  the  general 
allotment  law  and  breaking  up  of  the  reservations,  a  wide  area  of  the 
public  domain  will  be  opened  to  settlement. 

The  Cherokees,  Creeks,  Choctaws,  Chickasaws  and  Seminoles,  con- 
stituting the  five  civilized  tribes;  the  Osages,  Miamis,  Peorias,  and  Sacs 
and  Foxes  of  the  Indian  Territory,  and  the  Seneca  nation  in  New  York, 
are  excepted  from  the  provisions  of  the  allotment  act.  The  territory 
occupied  by  them  embraces  21,969,695  acres,  not  counting  therewith  the 
6,024,239  acres  of  the  Cherokee  outlet,  the  1,887,801  acres  known  as 
Oklahoma,  and  the  1,511,576  acres  lying  in  the  Indian  Territory  south  of 
the  north  fork  of  the  Red  River.  The  number  of  these  excepted  Indians 
is  shown  by  the  reports  to  be  72,110  in  all. 

INDIANS   IN  UNITED  STATES,  1890. 

Total  number  Indians  in  the  United  States,  249,273  (exclusive  of 
Alaska,  but  including  32,567,  taxed  or  taxable  and  self-sustaining, 
counted  in  general  census).  On  reservations  or  at  schools  under  control 
of  Indian  Office  (not  taxed  or  taxable),  133,382.  Five  Civilized  Tribes, 
Indians  and  colored,  incidentally  under  the  Indian  Office  and  self-sup- 
porting, 68,371  (Cherokee,  25,357,  colored,  4,242,  total,  29,599;  Chicka- 
saw,  3,464,  colored,  3,718,  total,  7,182;  Choctaw,  9,996,  colored,  4,401, 
total,  14,397;  Creek,  9,291,  colored,  5,341,  total,  14,632;  Seminole,  2,539, 
colored,  22,  total,  2,561);  or  64,871,  less  3,500  colored,  estimated,  not 
members  of  tribes.  The  Chickasaw  nation  contains  1,161  other  Indians, 


FACTS  ABOUT  OUR  COUNTRY.  33 

the  Choctaw  257.  Population  of  Five  Civilized  Tribes,  66,289  (Indians, 
52,065,  colored  Indian  citizens  and  claimants,  14,224).  New  Mexico 
Pueblos,  8,278;  Six  Nations,  Saint  Regis  and  other  New  York  Indians, 
5,304;  North  Carolina,  Eastern  Cherokees,  2,885.  Apaches  held  as  pris- 
oners of  war,  Mount  Vernon  barracks,  384,  Indians  in  State  or  Territo- 
rial prisons,  184. 

SLAVERY  AND  SERFDOM:    A  COMPARISON. 

Some  of  the  wealthy  Romans  had  as  many  as  10,000  slaves.  The 
minimum  price  fixed  by  the  law  of  Rome  was  $80,  but  after  great  victo- 
ries they  could  sometimes  be  bought  for  a  few  shillings  on  the  field  of 
battle.  The  day's  wages  of  a  Roman  gardener  were  about  sixteen  cents, 
and  his  value  about  $300,  while  a  blacksmith  was  valued  at  about  $700,  a 
cook  at  $2,000,  an  actress  at  $4,000  and  a  physician  at  $11,000. 

The  number  of  slaves  emancipated  in  the  British  Colonies  in  1834 
was  780,993,  the  indemnity  aggregating,  in  round  figures,  $100,000,000. 
In  Brazil,  in  1876,  there  were  1,510,800  slaves,  15  per  cent,  of  the  entire 
population.  These  were  held  by  41,000  owners,  averaging  37  to  each 
owner.  In  1882  the  number  of  slaves  was  1,300,000.  Owing  to  the 
gradual  abolition  of  slavery  in  Brazil  by  law,  it  is  expected  that  it  will  be 
entirely  obsolete  in  1900.  • 

SLAVERY  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


YEAR.  NUMBER. 

1790 69790J 

1800  ..                          893,040 

1810 1,191,400 

1820, 1,538,100 


YEAR.  NUMBER. 

1830 2,009.030 

1840 ^,487,500 

1850 3.20t,300 

1860 3,979,700 


SERFDOM   IN   RUSSIA. 

There  were  47,932,000  serfs  in  Russia  in  1861,  as  follows:  Crown 
serfs,  22,851,000;  appanage,  3,326,000;  held  by  nobles,  21,755,000.  The 
cost  of  redemption  was,  in  round  numbers,  about  $325,000,000,  as  follows: 

Mortgages  remitted $152,000,0f  0 

Government  scrip 101,000,000 

Paid  by  serfs 52,000,000 

Balancedue 20,000,000 

The  indemnity  to  the  nobles  was  $15  per  serf.  The  lands  are  mort- 
gaged to  the  state  till  1912.  The  lands  ceded  to  Crown  serfs  are  mort- 
gaged only  till  1901.  The  item  of  "  mortgages  remitted"  is  the  amount 
due  by  nobles  to  the  Imperial  Bank  and  canceled. 

AUSTRIAN   SERVITUDE    (1840). 

VALUE.. 

Labor  (two  days  per  week) $175.000,000 

Tithe  of  crops,  etc 60,000,000 

Male  tribute,  timber 7,000,000 

Female  tribute,  spun  wool.  9,000,000 

Fowl,  eggs,  butter 5,000,000 

Total $256,000,000 

There  were  7,000,000  serfs,  whose  tribute  averaged  more  than  $35  per 
head,  which  was,  in  fact,  the  rent  of  their  farms.  Some  Bohemian  nobles 
had  as  many  as  10,000  serfs.  The  redemption  was  effected  by  giving  the 
nobles  5  per  cent.  Government  scrip,  and  land  then  rose  50  per  cent,  in 
value. 

U.  I.-S 


34 


MANUAL  OP  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 


PUBLIC  DEBT  OF  THE  UNION. 


1856      "                                           3l'972'537  90 

1873       '                                      2*234  482  993  20 

1857       '                                         28  699  831.85 

1874        •      2  251  690  468  43 

1858       '                               4491188103 

1875                              .             2  232  284  531  95 

1P59       «                     58,496,837.88 

1876             2,180  395,0«7.15 

18(50       '                        6484228788 

1877                                              2  205  301  392  10 

1861       '                              ...      90  580  873  72 

1878                                            2  256  203  892  53 

1862       '      524.176,412.13 

1879                2,245,49507204 

1863       '                           1119772,13863 

1880                                            2  120  415  370  63 

1864       '                                     1-81578437057 

1881                                            2  069  013  569  58 

1865       '                            2,680  647,869.74 

1882                 1,91831299403 

1866       '                                .2773  236  173  69 

1883                                            1  884  171  728  07 

1867       '                      2,678.126,103.87 

1884                             1,830528,^2357 

1868      "                             ...     261167885119 

1885                                            1  876  424  275  14 

1869      "                                     2  588  452  213  94 

1£86                                            1  756  445  205  78 

1870      "         248067242781 

1887  Dec  1                                l'664'461  '53638 

1871      "                                   2  353  211  332  32 

1888      "                                     1  680  917  706  23 

1890  Dec.  1  '      '               

1  547  296  426  00 

OFFICIAL  DEBT  STATEME1 
INTEREST-BEARING  DEBT. 

Funded  loan  of  1891  $25,364,500.00 
Funded  loan  of  1907  659  592  050  00 

NT  OF  DECEMBER  1,  1892. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  DEBT  DECEMBER 
1.  1892. 
Interest-bearing  debt  $585,032,980.00 

Refunding  Certificates    ...          76  430  00 

Debt  on  which  interest  has 

ceased  since  maturity.  .  .         2,432,015.26 

Debt  bearing  no  interest  .  .      377,777  804.37 

bearing  debt,  exclusive 
of  United  States  bonds 

Aggregate  of  interest 
and  non-interest  bear- 
ing debt                           $965  242  799  63 

roads                 $585  032  980  00 

Certificates  and  Treasury 

DEBT  ON  WHICH  INTEREST  HAS 

notes  offset  by  an  equal 
amount  of  cash  in    the 
Treasury                                598  369  656  00 

CEASED  SINCE  MATURITY. 

Aggregate  of  debt  on  which 
interest  has  ceased  since 
maturity  $2,432  015  26 

Aggregate  of  debt,  in- 
cluding    certificates 
and  Treasury  notes..  $1,663,612,455.63 
CASH  IN  THE  TREASURY. 

DEBT  BEARING  NO  INTEREST. 
Legal-tender  notes     .  .            $346  681  016  00 

Gold    certifi- 
cates    $142,821,639.00 
Silver  certifi- 
cates    326,251,304.00 

Old  demand  notes,  55,647.50 
National  bank  notes: 
Redemption  account  24,137,678.25 
Fractional  currency: 
Less  $8,375,934  estimated 
as  lost   or   destroyed, 
.act  of  June  21,  1879....      6,903,462.62 

tificates....      8,500,000.00 
Treas'y  notes 
of  1890  120,796,713.00 
$598,369,658.00 
Fund  for  re- 
demption of 
u  n  c  u  r  rent 

Aggregate  of  debt  bear- 
ing no  interest  $877,777,804.37 

CERTIFICATES  AND  NOTES  ISSUED  ON 
DEPOSITS  OF  COIN  AND  LEGAL-TEN- 
DER NOTES  AND  PURCHASES  OF  SIL- 
VER BULLION. 

Gold  certificates  $142  821,639.00 

banknotes..    $5,855,916.24 
Outstanding 
checks  and 
drafts  4,822,165.98 
Disb  ursing 
officers'  bal- 
ances      22,786,939.77 
A  g  e  n  c  y  ac- 
counts, etc.      3,281,906.86 

qfl  77«  007  fig 

Silver  certificates  326  251  304  00 

Currency  certificates                  8  500  000  00 

Treasury  notes  of  1890  120.796J  13.00 

ance  30,328.918.50 

130,328,918.50 

and    Treasury   notes 

Total    $765,474,8X)2.35 

offset  by  cash  in   the 
Treasury...               ...$598.369.666.00 

Cash  balance  in  the  Treas- 
ury, November  30,  1891.  .    $130,328,918.50 

FACTS  ABOUT  OUR  COUNTRY. 


35 


ARMIES  OF  THE  CIVIIv  WAR,  1861-65. 

Number  of  men  in  the  Union  Army,  furnished  by  each  state  and 
territory,  from  April  15,  1861,  to  close  of  war. 


STATES  AND 
TERRITORIES. 

NUMBER 
OF  MEN 

FURNISH'  D 

AGG'GATE 

REDUCED 
TOATHREE 
YEARS' 
STANDING. 

STATES   AND 
TERRITORIES. 

NUMBER 
OF  MEN 
FURNISH'  D 

AGG'GATE 

REDUCED 
TOATHREE 
YEARS' 
STANDIVG. 

Alabama  

2,556 
8.289 
15,725 
4,903 
55,864 
12,284 
1,290 

1,611 

7,836 
15,725 
3,697 
50,623 
10,322 
1,290 

New  York  
North  Carolina... 
Ohio  

448,850 
3,156 
313,180 
1.810 
337,936 
23,236 

392,270 
3,156 
240,514 
1.773 
265,517 
17,866 

Arkansas          

California  
Colorado  
Connecticut  
Delaware.  .  ,     
Florida  

Oregon 

Pennsylvania  
Rhode  Island  
South  Carolina  .  .  . 

Georgia  

Tennessee  
Texas  

31  ,092 
1,965 
33,288 

26,394 
1,632 
29,068 

Illinois 

259,092 
196,363 
76242 
80,149 
75,760 
5,224 
70,107 
46,638 
146,730 
87,364 
24,020 
545 
109,111 
3,157 
1,080 
33,937 
76,814 

214.133 
153.576 
68.630 
18,706 
70,833 
4.P54 
56,776 
41,275 
134,104 
80,111 
19,693 
545 
86,530 
2,175 
1,080 
30.849 
57,908 

Vermont 

Iowa  

Virginia  

Kansas 

West  Virginia  
Wisconsin  

32.068 
91,327 
206 
16534 
3,530 

27,714 
79,260 
206 
11.506 
3,530 

Kentucky  
Louisiana  

Dakota  
Dist.  of  Columbia. 
Indian  Te.ritory.. 
Montana  

Maine 

Maryland  

Massachusetts  
Michigan  

New  M  exico.  
Utah 

6.561 

4,432 

Mississippi  

Washington  Ter.  .  . 
U.  S.  Army  

964 

964 

Missouri             .  .   . 

Nebraska 

U.  S.  Volunteers  .  . 
U.S.  colored  troops 

'  Total  

Nevada  
New  Hampshire.  .  . 
New  Jersey  

93,441 

91,789 

2,778,408 

2.320,272 

The  armies  of  the  United  States  were  commanded  during  the  whole 
Civil  War  by  President  Lincoln  as  commander-in-chief  under  the  con- 
stitutional provision;  and  under  him,  as  general  commanders,  by  Brevet 
Lieutenant  General  Wiufield  Scott  until  November  6,  1861;  by  Major 
General  George  B.  McClellan  from  November  6,  1861,  to  March  11,  1862; 
by  Major  General  Henry  W.  Halleck  from  July  11,  1862,  to  March  12, 
1864  (there  being  no  general  commander  between  March  11  and  July  11, 
1862);  and  Lieutenant  General  and  General  U.  S.  Grant  from  March  12, 
1864,  to  March  4,  1869.  The  first  of  the  principal  armies  into  which 
the  force  of  the  United  States  was  divided  was  the  Army  of  the  Potomac. 
This  army  was  called  into  existence  in  July,  1861,  and  was  organized  by 
Major  General  George  B.  McClellan,  its  first  commander;  November  5, 

1862,  Major  General  A.  B.  Burnside  took  command  of  it;  January  25, 

1863,  Major  General  Joe  Hooker  was  placed  in  command,  and  June  27, 
1863,  Major  General  George  G.  Meade  succeeded  him.     The  Army  of  the 
Ohio  was  organized  by  General  D.  C.  Buell,  under  a  general  order  from 
the  War  Department  dated  November  9,  1861,  from  troops  in  the  military 
department  of  the  Ohio.     General  Buell  remained  in  command  until  Oc- 
tober 30,  1862,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  General  W.  S.  Rosecrans.     At 
this  time  the  Army  of  the  Ohio  became  the  Army  of  the  Cumberland  and 
a  new  department  of  the  Ohio  was  formed  and  Major  General  H.  G.Wright, 
assigned  to  the  command  thereof.     He  was  succeeded  by  Major  General 
Burnside,  who  was  relieved  by  Major  General  J.  G.  Foster  of  the  com- 
mand of  both  department  and  army.    Major  General  Schofield  took  com- 
mand January  28,  1864,  and  January  17,  1865,  the  department  was  merged 


36  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

into  the  Department  of  the  Cumberland.  It  continued  under  the  com  • 
mand  of  General  Rosecrans  until  October,  1863,  when  General  George 
H.  Thomas  took  command  of  it.  The  Army  of  the  Tennessee  was  origi- 
nally the  Army  of  the  District  of  Western  Tennessee,  fighting  as  such  at 
Shiloh.  It  became  the  Army  of  the  Tennessee  on  the  concentration  of 
troops  at  Pittsburgh  Landing  under  General  Halleck,  and  when  the  De- 
partment of  the  Tennessee  was  formed,  October  16,  1862,  the  troops  serv- 
ing therein  were  placed  under  command  of  Major  General  U.  S.  Grant. 
October  27,  1863,  Major  General  William  T.  Sherman  was  appointed  to 
the  command  of  this  army;  March  12,  1864,  Major  General  J.  B.  McPher- 
son  succeeded  him;  July  30,  1864,  McPherson  having  been  killed,  Major 
General  O.  O.  Howard  was  placed  in  command,  and  May  19,  1862,  Major 
General  John  A.  Logan  succeeded  him.  Other  minor  armies  were  the 
Army  of  Virginia,  which  was  formed  by  the  consolidation  of  the  forces 
under  Major  Generals  Fremont,  Banks  and  McDowell,  by  order  of  the 
War  Department,  August  12,  1862.  Major  General  John  Pope  was  placed 
in  command,  but  after  the  disastrous  defeat  of  this  general  at  Manassas 
the  army  as  such  was  discontinued  and  its  troops  transferred  to  other  or- 
ganizations. The  Army  of  the  James  was  formed  of  the  Tenth  and  Four- 
teenth corps  with  cavalry,  and  was  placed  under  the  command  of  Major 
General  Butler.  Its  operations  were  carried  on  in  conjunction  with  the 
Army  of  the  Potomac.  Other  temporary  arrangements  of  the  troops 
formed  the  Army  of  the  Mississippi  in  the  Mississippi  River  operations 
in  1862;  the  Army  of  the  Gulf  in  Louisiana  in  May,  1863;  the  Army  of 
West  Virginia,  in  the  valley  of  the  Shenandoah,  in  May,  1864;  and  the 
army  of  the  Middle  Military  Division  in  Virginia  in  the  fall  of  1864. 

THE  WORLD'S   FAIR  IN  A   NUTSHELL. 

The  World's  Columbian  Exposition,  or  the  World's  Fair,  was  created 
by  an  act  of  Congress,  approved  April  25,  1890,  entitled  "An  act  to  pro- 
vide for  celebrating  the  four  hundredth  anniversary  of  the  discovery  of 
America  by  Christopher  Columbus,  by  holding  an  international  exhibi~ 
tion  of  arts,  industries,  manufactures,  and  the  product  of  the  soil,  mine 
and  sea,  in  the  city  of  Chicago,  in  the  State  of  Illinois." 

The  act  provided  for  the  appointment  of  commissioners,  who  should 
organize  the  Exposition,  and  when  these  preliminaries  were  completed 
the  President  was  required  to  make  a  public  proclamation  of  the  fact  and 
officially  invite  "all  the  nations  of  the  earth"  to  participate  in  the  Expo- 
sition. This  proclamation  was  issued  December  24,  1890. 

The  dedication  ceremonies  took  place  October  21,  1892,  and  the  days 
preceding  and  following,  the  President  of  the  United  States  being  repre- 
sented by  the  Vice-President,  who,  accompanied  by  the  Cabinet  and 
many  prominent  officers  of  the  Government,  army  and  navy,  and  dis- 
tinguished citizens,  officially  dedicated  the  Exposition. 

Immediately  upon  the  completion  of  these  ceremonies  the  installing 
of  the  exhibits  began. 

The  great  Exposition  was  opened  to  the  public  on  May  1,  1893,  and 
will  continue  open  until  October  30  following.  The  admission  fee  is 
placed  at  50  cents. 

The  total  cost  of  the  Exposition,  from  its  beginning  to  its  close,  is 
estimated  at  $25,000,000. 

THE  LOCATION  OF  THE  GREAT  FAIR. 

So  far  as  visitors  to  the  Fair  are  concerned,  the  location  of  the 


FACTS  ABOUT  OUR  COUNTRY. 


37 


grounds  upon  which  the  main  buildings  stand  is  a  favorable  one.  Jack- 
son Park  and  Midway  Plaisance,  1  he  Exposition  site,  are  in  the  south- 
eastern part  of  the  city  of  Chicago.  The  two  together  embrace  six  hun- 
dred and  thirty-three  acres,  attractively  situated  on  the  shore  of  Lake 
Michigan,  the  park  front  being  a  mile  and  a  half  long  from  northwest  to 
southeast. 

THE  EXPOSITION  BUILDINGS. 


BUILDINGS. 

Dimensions 
in  Feet. 

Area  in 
Acres.* 

Approximate 
Cost. 

Art  Galleries  

320    x    500 

46  | 

Art  Annexes 

136     x     220 

144 

1670,500 

Fisheries  

162  1  x     S61  1 

L4 

Fisheries  Annexes 

135  diameter 

If 

224,750 

Manufactures 

787     x  1  687 

44 

1  600  750 

Agriculture  

500     x     800 

15     1 

Agriculture  Annex..        

312    x     550  5 

4     f 

691,500 

Machinery 

494     x     842 

17     1 

Machinery  Annex  .            ... 

490     x     551 

62f 

1,050,750 

Machinery,  Machine  Shop  and  Boiler  House  
Administration 

86     x  1,103.6 
262     x     262 

2.2 
4  5 

75,000 
436  500 

Electricity  

345     X     690 

93 

413500 

Mines              

350     x     700 

85 

266  500 

Transportation 

256     x     960 

94  | 

Transportation  Annex  

435     x    850 

85  f 

369,000 

Horticulture    

250  8  x    997  8 

8 

287  000 

Woman's 

198  8  x     398 

33 

138  000 

208    x    528 

2  6 

90  250 

Leather          

150    x     625 

43 

100  000 

Dairy 

94  1  x     199  8 

$ 

30  000 

Sawmill 

60     x     100 

2 

35  000 

Stock  Pavilion     

265    x     960 

58 

125  000 

Stock  Sheds 

25 

210  000 

Other  Buildings  —  Music  Hall,  Choral  Hall.  Ca- 
sino, Indian  School,  Education  Building.    'La 
Rabida,"   Merchant   Tailors.   Assembly  Hall, 

223 

1  203000 

United  States  Government  Building    .... 

351     x    421 

62 

400  000 

69  25  x    348 

5 

100  000 

Illinois  State  Building  

160    x    450 

32 

250000 

State  and  Foreign  Buildings  (approximate). 

12 

2000000 

9 

1  500000 

240 

$12,267,000 

*Floor  space  and  including  galleries. 
MANUFACTURES   AND   LIBERAL  ARTS  BUILDING. 

The  principal  building  in  point  of  area  and  importance  is  that  of 
Manufactures  and  Liberal  Arts,  a  mammoth  structure,  measuring  1,687 
to  1,787  feet  and  covering  44  acres— the  largest  exposition  structure  ever 
built.  It  cost  $1,600, 750. 

STATE  BUILDINGS. 

Nearly  all  the  States  and  Territories  of  the  United  States  have  made 
appropriations  toward  the  expense  of  special  exhibits  at  the  Exposition, 
and  most  of  them  have  characteristic  buildings  in  the  grounds.  The  New 
York  and  Illinois  buildings  are  conspicuously  fine. 

FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

The  following  are  the  countries  which  have  received  allotments : 
Argentine  Republic,  Austria,  Belgium,  Bolivia,  Brazil,  Bulgaria,  Chile, 
China,  Colombia,  Corea,  Costa  Rica,  Cuba,  Denmark,  Egypt,  Ecuador, 
France  and  its  provinces,  Great  Britain  and  all  the  British  Colonies, 
Greece,  Guatemala,  Hawaiian  Islands,  Haiti,  Honduras,  Hungary,  Italy, 
Japan,  Liberia,  Mexico,  Madagascar,  Netherlands  and  colonies,  Nica- 


38  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

ragua,  Norway,  Paraguay,  Persia,  Peru,  Russia,  Salvador,  Santo  Domingo, 
Servia,  Siam,  Sweden,  Switzerland,  Uruguay  and  Venezuela. 

Of  these  the  following  countries  have  independent  Government 
buildings:  Austria,  Canada,  Ceylon,  China,  Colombia,  Costa  Rica,  Ecua- 
dor, France,  Great  Britain,  Guatemala,  Haiti,  Italy,  Japan,  Nicaragua, 
Norway,  Russia,  Sweden  and  Turkey. 

THE   MIDWAY    PI,AISANCE    SHOWS. 

The  Midway  Plaisance,  which  is  a  great  tract  lying  between  59th  and 
60th  streets,  extending  east  and  west,  contains  the  principal  '  'side  shows, ' ' 
some  of  which  are  of  both  an  unique  and  elaborate  character.  Among 
these  are  the  Ferris  Wheel,  over  250  feet  high,  Bohemian  Glass  Factory, 
Japanese  Bazaars,  the  Animal  shows,  Dutch  Settlement,  German  Village, 
Natatorium,  Panorama  of  the  Bernese  Alps,  Turkish  Village,  Minaret 
Tower,  Moorish  Palace,  Street  in  Cairo,  Chinese  Theater,  Captive  Balloon, 
Indian  Village,  Roman  House,  Chinese  Tea  House,  Barre  Sliding  Rail- 
way, Ice  Railway,  etc. 

TRANSPORTATION. 

Means  of  easy  and  rapid  transportation  from  all  parts  of  Chicago  and 
from  railroad  stations  to  the  Exposition  are  provided.  The  steam,  elec- 
tric, cable  and  horse  railroads  and  the  elevated  railroad  convey  passen- 
gers by  land  to  the  principal  entrances,  and  numerous  steamboats  ply 
between  the  city  and  the  great  pier  on  the  water  side  of  the  grounds. 

In  the  extreme  south  part  of  the  grounds  the  stock  exhibit,  under 
sheds  covering  forty  acres,  is  located. 

During  the  Exposition  there  are  restaurants  and  dining-rooms  in  all 
the  main  buildings,  a  luncheon  place  in  the  Dairy  Building  and  a  rail- 
road luncheon  counter  in  the  Transportation  Building. 

GOVERNMENT. 

The  following  are  the  officers  of  the  "World's  Columbian  Com- 
mission: " 

President,  Thomas  W.  Palmer ;  Secretary,  John  T.  Dickinson  ; 
Director-General,  George  R.  Davis. 

Department  Chiefs. — Agriculture,  W  I.  Buchanan;  Horticulture, 
John  M.  Samuels;  Live  Stock,  Eber  W.  Cottrell;  Fish  and  Fisheries, 
John  W.  Collins;  Mines  and  Mining,  F.  J.  V  Skiff;  Machinery,  L.  W. 
Robinson;  Transportation,  W.  A.  Smith;  Manufactures,  James  Allison; 
Electricity,  John  P.  Barrett;  Fine  Arts,  Halsey  C.  Ives;  Liberal  Arts, 
S.  H.  Peabody;  Ethnology,  F.  W.  Putnam;  Forestry,  W.  I.  Buchanan, 
in  charge;  Publicity  and  Promotion,  Moses  P.  Handy;  Foreign  Affairs, 
Walker  Fearn;  Secretary  of  Installation,  Joseph  Hirst;  Traffic  Manager, 
E.  E.  Jaycox. 

There  are  eight  commissioners  at  large  and  two  from  each  State  and 
Territory  and  the  District  of  Columbia.  There  are  the  same  number  of 
lady  managers. 

President  of  the  Board  of  Lady  Managers,  Mrs.  Potter  Palmer;  Sec- 
retary, Mrs.  Susan  Gale  Cook. 

The  officers  of  the  World's  Columbian  Exposition  are  as  follows: 

President,  H.  N.  Higinbotham;  Secretary,  H.  O.  Edmonds;  Treas 
urer,  A.  F.  Seeberger;  Auditor,  William  K.  Ackerman;  Chief  of  Con- 
struction, D.  H.  Burnham. 

WORLD'S    CONGRESS   AUXltlARY. 

A  series  of  world's  congresses  in  all  departments  of  thought  are  a 
feature  during  the  Exposition  season.  This  work  is  divided  into  seven- 
teen great  departments,  as  follows:  Agriculture,  Art,  Commerce  and 


FACTS  ABOUT  OUR  COUNTRY.  39 

Finance,  Education,  Engineering,  Government,  Literature,  Labor,  Medi- 
cine, Moral  and  Social  Reform,  Music,  Public  Press,  Religion,  Science 
and  Philosophy,  Temperance,  Sunday  Rest,  and  a  General  Department, 
embracing  congresses  not  otherwise  assigned.  These  general  depart- 
ments have  been  divided  into  more  than  one  hundred  divisions,  in  each 
of  which  a  congress  is  to  be  held.  Each  division  has  its  own  local  com- 
mittee of  arrangements. 

Representative  men  from  all  parts  of  the  world  take  part  in  these 
gatherings.  They  assemble  for  the  most  part  in  the  Art  Institute.  The 
officers  of  the  Auxiliary  are  Charles  C.  Bonney,  President;  Thomas  B. 
Bryan,  Vice-President;  Lyman  J.  Gage,  Treasurer;  Benjamin  Butter- 
worth,  Secretary. 

ESSENCE  OF  THE  CONSTITUTION. 

Congress  must  meet  at  least  once  a  year. 

One  State  cannot  undo  the  acts  of  another. 

Congress  may  admit  as  many  new  States  as  desired. 

One  State  must  respect  the  laws  and  legal  decisions  of  another. 

The  Constitution  guarantees  every  citizen  a  speedy  trial  by  jury. 

Congress  cannot  pass  a  law  to  punish  a  crime  already  committed. 

A  State  cannot  exercise  a  power  which  is  vested  in  Congress  alone. 

Bills  for  revenue  can  originate  only  in  the  House  of  Representatives. 

A  person  committing  a  felony  in  one  State  cannot  find  refuge  in 
another. 

United  States  Senators  are  chosen  by  the  legislatures  of  the  States  by 
joint  ballot. 

The  Constitution  of  the  United  States  forbids  excessive  bail  or  cruel 
punishment. 

When  Congress  passes  a  bankruptcy  law  it  annuls  all  the  State  laws 
on  that  subject. 

Treaties  with  foreign  countries  are  made  by  the  President  and  rati- 
fied by  the  Senate. 

In  the  United  States  Senate  Rhode  Island  or  Nevada  has  an  equal 
voice  with  New  York. 

Writing  alone  does  not  constitute  treason  against  the  United  States. 
There  must  be  an  overt  act. 

Congress  cannot  la^  any  disabilities  on  the  children  of  a  person  con- 
victed of  crime  or  misdemeanor. 

The  Territories  each  send  a  delegate  to  Congress,  who  has  the  right 
of  debate,  but  not  the  right  to  vote. 

The  Vice-President,  who  ex-officio  presides  over  the  Senate,  has  no 
vote  in  that  body  except  on  a  tie  ballot. 

An  act  of  Congress  cannot  become  a  law  over  the  President's  veto 
except  on  a  two-thirds  vote  of  both  houses. 

An  officer  of  the  Government  cannot  accept  title  of  nobility,  order  or 
honor  without  the  permission  of  Congress. 

Money  lost  in  the  mails  cannot  be  recovered  from  the  Government, 
Registering  a  letter  does  not  insure  its  contents, 


40  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

It  is  the  House  of  Representatives  that  may  impeach  the  President 
for  any  crime,  and  the  Senate  hears  the  accusation. 

If  the  President  holds  a  bill  longer  than  ten  days  while  Congress  is 
still  in  session,  it  becomes  a  law  without  his  signature. 

Silver  coin  of  denominations  less  than  $1  is  not  a  legal  tender  for 
more  than  $5.00.  Copper  and  nickel  coin  is  not  legal  tender. 

The  term  of  a  Congressman  is  two  years,  but  a  Congressman  may  be 
re-elected  to  as  many  successive  terms  as  his  constituents  may  wish. 

Amendments  to  the  Constitution  require  a  two-thirds  vote  of  each 
house  of  Congress  and  must  be  ratified  by  at  least  three-fourths  of  the 
States. 

When  the  militia  is  called  out  in  the  service  of  the  General  Govern- 
ment, they  pass  out  of  the  control  of  the  various  States  under  the  com- 
mand of  the  President. 

The  President  of  the  United  States  must  be  thirty-five  years  of  age; 
a  United  States  Senator,  thirty;  a  Congressman,  twenty-five.  The  Presi- 
dent must  have  been  a  resident  of  the  United  States  fourteen  years. 

A  grand  jury  is  a  secret  tribunal,  and  may  hear  only  one  side  of  a 
case.  It  simply  decides  whether  there  is  good  reason  to  hold  for  trial. 
It  consists  of  twenty-four  men,  twelve  of  whom  may  indict. 

A  naturalized  citizen  cannot  become  President  or  Vice-President  of 
the  United  States.  A  male  child  born  abroad  of  American  parents  has 
an  equal  chance  to  become  President  with  one  born  on  American  soil. 


A  £)OZEN  AMERICAN  WONDERS. 

Croton  Aqueduct,  in  New  York  City. 

City  Park,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania.  The  largest  park  in  the 
world. 

Lake  Superior,  the  largest  lake  in  the  world. 

Mammoth  Cave,  in  Kentucky. 

Niagara  Falls.  A  sheet  of  water  three-quarters  of  a  mile  wide,  with 
a  fall  of  175  feet. 

Natural  Bridge,  over  Cedar  Creek,  in  Virginia. 

New  State  Capitol,  at  Albany,  N.  Y. 

New  York  and  Brooklyn  Bridge. 

The  Central  Park,  in  New  York  City. 

Washington  Monument,  Washington,  D.  C.,  555  feet  high. 

Yosemite  Valley,  California;  57  miles  from  Coulterville.  A  valley 
from  8  to  10  miles  long,  and  about  one  mile  wide.  Has  very  steep  slopes 
about  3,500  feet  high;  has  a  perpendicular  precipice  3,089  feet  high;  a 
rock  almost  perpendicular,  3,270  feet  high;  and  waterfalls  from  700  to 
1,000  feet. 

Jackson  Park,  Chicago,  with  the  World's  Columbian  Fair  of  1893. 


THE  AMERICAN  NOBILITY. 

Whoe'er  amidst  the  sons 
Of  reason,  valor,  liberty,  and  virtue 
Displays  distinguished  merit,  is  a  noble 
Of  Nature's  own  creating. 

THOMSON. 


TIME  AND  ITS  LANDMARKS. 


Time's  the  king  of  men— 
For  he's  their  parent,  and  he  is  their  grave, 
And  gives  them  what  he  will,  not  what  they  crave. 

— SHAKSPEARE. 

DATES  AND   FACTS  TO  REMEMBER. 

Twenty-four  hour  clock  time  is  gaining  in  favor. 

Fifteen  degress  of  longitude  represent  one  hour  of  time. 

All  over  Western  Canada  4  p.  M.  is  called  "sixteen  o'clock." 

The  axial  rotation  of  the  earth  is  the  measure  of  time  everywhere. 

The  astronomers  of  Egypt  were  the  first  to  give  names  to  the  days. 

It  takes  just  one  second  of  time  for  electricity  to  travel  288,000 
miles. 

Fenelon  says  suggestively:  "God  never  gives  us  two  moments  to- 
gether." 

A  vessel  sailing  eastwards  across  the  Pacific  has  two  consecutive 
days  of  the  same  name  and  date. 

The  old  advice  to  ' '  seize  time  by  the  forelock ' '  is  from  Pittacus, 
one  of  the  Seven  Wise  Men  of  Greece. 

The  first  clock  mentioned  in  history  was  a  gift  from  the  Sultan  of 
Egypt  to  Emperor  Frederic  II.,  A.  D.  1232. 

A  good  instrument  for  measuring  short  spaces  of  time,  invented  by 
Wheatstone  in  1840,  is  called  the  chronoscope. 

It  was  Montgomery  who  said  that  "man  cannot  make  a  single 
second  of  time,  but  can  waste  whole  years  of  it." 

Time  will  bring  to  light,  says  Horace,  whatever  is  hidden;  it  will 
conceal  and  cover  up  what  is  now  shining  with  the  greatest  luster. 

We  understand  by  a  generation  a  single  succession  in  natural 
descent,  the  children  of  the  same  parents;  in  years  three  generations  are 
accounted  to  make  a  century. 

The  sun-dial,  as  a  time-measurer,  was  known  in  very  early  ages, 
and  is  mentioned  in  Scripture  713  B.C.  A  sun-dial  only  agrees  with  a 
clock  on  four  days  in  the  year. 

It  is  the  science  of  chronology  which  arranges  the  events  of  history 
in  their  order  of  time.  The  earliest  modern  works  on  the  subject  appear 
to  have  been  compiled  by  the  Benedictines,  1783  et  seq. 

If  a  railway  were  built  to  the  sun,  and  trains  upon  it  were  run  at  the 
rate  of  30  miles  an  hour,  day  and  night,  without  a  stop,  it  would  require 
350  years  to  make  the  journey  from  the  earth  to  the  sun. 


42  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

A  chronograph  is  an  instrument  noting  time  within  the  fraction  of 
a  second.  By  the  electrical  chronograph ,  used  by  astronomers,  the  transit 
of  a  star  can  be  recorded  to  within  one-hundredth  of  a  second. 

Th,e  Christian  era  begins  with  the  birth  of  Christ.  Its  beginning 
coincides  with  the  middle  of  the  4th  year  of  the  194th  Olympiad;  the 
753rd  of  the  building  of  Rome,  and  the  4714th  of  the  Julian  era. 

The  clepsydra  is  an  instrument  to  measure  time  by  the  trickling  or 
escape  of  water.  In  Babylonia,  India  and  Egypt,  the  clepsydra  was 
used  from  before  the  dawn  of  history,  especially  in  astronomical  obser- 
vations. 

Decoration  Day,  or  Memorial  Day,  in  the  United  States,  is  a  day 
set  apart  on  which  the  graves  of  soldiers  are  visited  and  decorated  with 
flowers  by  surviving  comrades  and  friends.  It  has  been  created  a 
national  holiday. 

There  is  no  such  thing  as  time,  argues  Leigh  Richmond,  "it  is  but 
space  occupied  by  incident;  it  is  the  same  to  eternity  as  matter  is  to  infi- 
nite space — a  portion  out  of  the  immense,  occupied  with  something  within 
the  sphere  of  mortal  sense." 

Thanksgiving  Day  was  first  established  as  a  holiday  in  the  year  1622. 
The  custom  now  obtains  throughout  the  United  States,  the  last  Thursday 
in  November  being  usually  the  thanksgiving  day  appointed  by  the 
President  for  the  mercies  of  the  past  year. 

Watches  were  invented  at  Nuremberg  prior  to  1500,  and  were  brought 
to  England  from  Germany  in  1577.  The  spiral  hair-spring  was  invented 
by  Dr.  Hooke  in  1651,  the  compensation  balance  by  John  Harrison  in 
1726,  and  the  English  lever  escapement  by  Thomas  Mudge  in  1766. 

We  call  that  a  Chronicle  in  which  events  of  history  are  treated  in 
the  order  of  time.  A  chronicle  differs  from  annals  in  being  more  con- 
nected and  full,  the  latter  merely  recording  individual  occurrences  under 
the  successive  dates.  Most  of  the  older  histories  were  called  chronicles. 

The  familiar  hour  glass  is  an  instrument  made  up  of  two  glass  globes 
placed  one  above  another.  From  the  upper  globe,  through  a  small  hole 
of  communication,  there  runs  a  quantity  of  fine  sand.  The  name  is 
derived  from  the  time  the  sand  takes  to  run  from  the  upper  to  the  lower 
glass. 

In  America  Arbor  Day  is  a  day  set  apart  for  the  planting  of  shade 
trees,  shrubs,  etc.,  by  school  children.  Millions  of  trees  have  been 
planted  since  its  institution.  The  first  Friday  in  May  has  been  selected 
for  this  purpose  in  Canada;  in  the  United  States,  different  days  are 
chosen  in  the  several  States. 

Clocks  are  of  ancient  date,  one  having  been  made  by  Pacificus,  arch- 
deacon of  Verona,  in  the  ninth  century.  Clocks  with  wheels  wrere  used  in 
monasteries  about  the  twelfth  century,  and  were  made  to  strike  the  hour. 
Pendulum  said  to  have  been  first  applied  by  Harris,  1641;  dead-beat 
pendulum  invented,  1700;  and  the  compensating  pendulum,  1715. 

The  chronometer  is  an  instrument  for  measuring  time,  now  gener- 
ally applied  only  to  those  watches  specially  made  for  determining  longi- 
tude at  sea.  A  chronometer  which  gained  a  prize  of  $100,000,  offered  by 
the  British  Board  of  Longitude  for  a  timepiece  to  ascertain  longitude 
within  thirty  miles,  was  made  in  1761,  by  John  Harrison,  of  Foulby, 
near  Pontefract, 


TIME  AND  ITS  LANDMARKS.  43 

The  Japanese  divide  the  day  into  six  day  hours,  from  the  rising  to 
the  setting  of  the  sun,  and  six  night  hours,  from  sunset  to  sunrise.  Ac- 
cordingly, although  the  dials  of  their  clocks  are  figured  with  twelve 
numerals,  the  movement  of  the  hands  do  not  correspond  with  our  own, 
these  movements  being  regulated  by  ingenious  mechanism  to  correspond 
with  the  variations  in  the  length  of  days  and  nights. 

July  15  was  called  St.  Swithin's  Day  from  the  legend  of  St.  Swithin, 
Bishop  of  Winchester,  the  tutor  of  King  Alfred.  To  signify  his  displeas- 
ure at  an  attempt  to  bury  him  in  the  chancel  of  the  minster  instead  of  the 
churchyard,  according  to  his  directions,  the  bishop  is  said  to  have  caused 
rain  to  fall  for  forty  days.  From  this  the  popular  superstition  arose  that 
if  rain  falls  on  July  15  it  will  continue  for  forty  days. 

A  watch  on  shipboard  is  a  division  of  the  crew  into  two—  or  if  it  be  a 
large  crew  into  three— sections,  that  one  set  of  men  may  have  charge  of 
the  vessel  while  the  others  rest.  The  day  and  night  are  divided  into 
watches  of  four  hours  each,  except  the  period  from  4  to  8  p.  M.,  which  is 
divided  into  two  dog-watches  of  two  hours'  duration  each.  The  object 
of  the  dog-watches  is  to  prevent  the  same  men  being  always  on  duty  at 
the  same  hours. 

Another  name  for  Palm  Sunday  is  Fig  Sunday.  The  term  is  derived 
from  the  custom  in  some  countries  of  eating  figs  on  this  day,  as  snap- 
dragons on  Christmas  Eve,  plum-pudding  on  Christmas  Day,  oranges 
and  barley  sugar  on  St.  Valentine's  Eve,  pancakes  on  Shrove  Tuesday, 
salt  cod-fish  on  Ash  Wednesday,  frumenti  on  Mothering  Sunday  (Mid- 
leut),  cross-buns  on  Good  Friday,  gooseberry  tart  on  Whit  Sunday,  goose 
on  Michaelmas  Day,  nuts  on  All-Hallows,  and  so  on. 

A  Cycle  in  astronomy  and  mathematical  chronology  is  a  period  or 
interval  of  time  in  which  certain  phenomena  always  recur  in  the  same 
order.  There  are  two  great  natural  cycles,  that  of  the  sun  and  that  of 
the  moon.  The  solar  cycle  is  a  period  of  twenty-eight  Julian  years,  after 
which  the  same  days  of  the  week  recur  on  the  same  days  of  the  year. 
The  lunar  or  metonic  cycle  consists  of  nineteen  years  or  two  hundred 
and  thirty-five  lunations,  after  which  the  successive  new  moons  happen 
on  the  same  days  of  the  year  as  during  the  previous  cycle. 

Christmas  Day,  a  festival  of  the  Christian  church,  observed  on  the 
2~>th  of  December  in  memory  of  the  birth  of  Jesus  Christ.  There  is, 
however,  a  difficulty  in  accepting  this  as  the  date  of  the  nativity,  Decem- 
ber being  the  height  of  the  rainy  season  in  Judea,  when  neither  flocks 
nor  shepherds  could  have  been  at  night  in  the  fields  of  Bethlehem.  The 
Christian  communities  which  keep  Christmas,  however,  would  probably 
agree  in  laying  more  stress  on  keeping  a  day  in  memory  of  the  Nativity, 
than  on  success  in  fixing  the  actual  and  precise  date  of  the  event. 

The  third  season  of  the  year,  between  summer  and  winter,  is  called 
autumn.  Astronomically,  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  it  begins  at  the 
autumnal  equinox,  when  the  sun  enters  Libra,  22d  September,  and  ends 
at  the  winter  solstice,  when  the  sun  enters  Capricorn,  21st  December; 
but  popularly,  in  Great  Britain,  it  comprises  the  three  months,  August, 
September,  and  October.  According  to  Littre,  it  extends  in  France  from 
the  end  of  August  to  the  first  fortnight  of  November;  according  to  Web- 
ster, in  North  America  it  Includes  the  months  of  September,  October, 
and  November.  In  the  southern  hemisphere  it  corresponds  in  time  to 
the  northern  spring. 


44  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

The  era  of  the  Olympiads  is  a  system  of  dates  adopted  by  the  ancient 
Greeks.  An  Olympiad  was  the  interval  of  four  years  between  two  con- 
secutive celebrations  of  the  Olympic  games.  These  games  were  trials  of 
strength  and  agility  tested  by  running,  boxing,  leaping,  wrestling  and 
so  on,  held  at  Olympia,  a  plain  of  Elis,  every  fourth  year.  They  were 
first  employed  for  chronological  purposes  when  Chorcebos  won  the  foot- 
race, the  principal  match  before  chariot  races  were  introduced. 

A  merry  old  holiday  was  St.  Valentine's  Day,  the  14th  of  February, 
on  which,  in  England  and  Scotland  in  former  times,  each  young  bachelor 
and  maid  received  by  lot  one  of  the  opposite  sex  as  ' '  valentine ' '  for  the 
year.  It  was  a  kind  of  mock  betrothal,  and  was  marked  by  the  giving 
of  presents.  From  Pepys'  Diary  we  see  that  married  as  well  as  single 
people  could  be  chosen.  The  usage,  no  doubt,  grew  out  of  the  old 
notion,  alluded  to  by  Chaucer  and  Shakspeare,  that  on  this  day  birds 
first  choose  their  mates. 

In  Holland  the  following  names  for  the  months  are  in  use:  January — 
Lauromaand,  chilly  month;  February— Sprokelmaand,  vegetation  month; 
March  -  lyentmaand,  spring  month;  April— Grasmaand,  grass  month; 
May— Blowmaand,  flower  month;  June— Zomermaand,  summer  month; 
July — Hooymaand,  hay  month;  August — Oostmaand,  harvest  month; 
September— Hertsmaand,  autumn  month;  October — Wynmaand,  wine 
month;  November — Slagmaand,  slaughter  month;  December — Winter- 
maand,  winter  month. 

The  Roman  month  was  divided  into  Calends^  Nones  and  Ides.  The 
Calends  always  fell  upon  the  first  of  the  month;  in  March,  May,  July 
and  October,  the  Nones  on  the  7th  and  the  Ides  on  the  15th;  and  in 
the  remaining  months,  the  Nones  on  the  5th  and  the  Ides  on  the  13th. 
The  Roman  year  began  with  March,  and  the  months  corresponded  with 
ours  except  that  their  fifth  and  sixth  months  were  called  Quintilis  and 
Sextilis.  Afterwards  they  were  changed  to  July  and  August  in  honor  of 
the  emperors  Julius  and  Augustus. 

STANDARD  TIME. 

What  is  known  as  the  "new  standard  time  "  was  adopted  by  agree- 
ment by  all  the  principal  railroads  of  the  United  States,  at  12  o'clock, 
noon,  on  November  18,  1883.  The  system  divides  the  continent  into 
five  longitudinal  belts  and  fixes  a  meridian  of  time  for  each  belt.  These 
meridians  are  fifteen  degrees  of  longitude,  corresponding  to  one  hour  of 
time,  apart.  Eastern  Maine,  New  Brunswick  and  Nova  Scotia  use  the 
60th  meridian;  the  Canadas,  New  England,  the  Middle  States,  Virginia 
and  the  Carolinas  use  the  75th  meridian,  which  is  that  of  Philadelphia; 
the  States  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  Alabama,  Georgia  and  Florida,  and 
westward,  including  Texas,  Kansas,  and  the  larger  part  of  Nebraska  and 
Dakota,  use  the  90th  meridian,  which  is  that  of  New  Orleans.  The 
Territories  to  the  western  border  of  Arizona  and  Montana  go  by  the 
time  of  the  105th  meridian,  which  is  that  of  Denver;  and  the  Pacific 
States  employ  the  120th  meridian.  The  time  divisions  are  known  as 
intercolonial  time,  eastern  time,  central  time,  mountain  time  and  Pacific 
time.  A  traveler  passing  from  one  time  belt  to  another  will  find  his 
watch  an  hour  too  fast  or  too  slow,  according  to  the  direction  in  which 
he  is  going.  All  points  in  any  time  division  "using  the  time  of  the  mer- 
idian must  set  their  time-pieces  faster  or  slower  than  the  time  indicated 
by  the  sun,  according  as  their  position  is  east  or  west  of  the  line.  This 


TIME  AND  ITS  LANDMARKS.  45 

change  of  system  reduced  the  time  standards  used  by  the  railroads  from 
fifty-three  to  five,  a  great  convenience  to  the  railroads  and  the  traveling 
public.  The  suggestion  leading  to  the  adoption  of  this  new  system 
originated  with  Professor  Abbe  of  the  Signal  Bureau  at  Washington. 


WHERE  THE  SUN  JUMPS  A  DAY. 

Chatham  Island,  lying  off  the  coast  of  New  Zealand,  in  the  South 
Pacific  Ocean,  is  peculiarly  situated,  as  it  is  one  of  the  habitable  points 
of  the  globe  where  the  day  of  the  week  changes.  It  is  just  in  the  line  of 
demarkation  between  dates.  There,  at  high  12  Sunday,  noon  ceases,  and 
instantly  Monday  fneridian  begins.  Sunday  comes  into  a  man's  house 
on  the  east  side  and  becomes  Monday  by  the  time  it  passes  out  the  west- 
ern door.  A  man  sits  down  to  his  noonday  dinner  on  Sunday  and  it  is 
Monday  noon  before  he  finishes  it.  There  Saturday  is  Sunday  and  Sun- 
day is  Monday,  and  Monday  becomes  suddenly  transferred  into  Tuesday. 
It  is  a  good  place  for  people  who  have  lost  much  time,  for  by  taking  an 
early  start  they  can  always  get  a  day  ahead  on  Chatham  Island.  It  took 
philosophers  and  geographers  a  long  time  to  settle  the  puzzle  of  where 
Sunday  noon  ceased  and  Monday  noon  began  with  a  man  traveling  west 
fifteen  degrees  an  hour,  or  with  the  sun.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  next 
arctic  expedition  will  settle  the  other  mooted  question .  "Where  will  one 
stop  who  travels  northwest  continually?" 


HARVEST  MONTHS  OF  THE  WORLD. 

JANUARY. — The  greater  part  of  Chili,  portions  of  the  Argentine 
Republic^  Australia  and  New  Guinea. 

FEBRUARY  to  MARCH. — The  East  Indies. 

APRII,. — Mexico,  Egypt,  Persia  and  Syria. 

MAY. — Japan,  China,  Northern  Asia  Minor,  Tunis,  Algiers,  Morocco 
and  Texas. 

JUNE.— California,  Spain,  Portugal,  Italy,  Sicily,  Greece  and  some 
of  the  southern  departments  of  France. 

JULY. — The  larger  part  of  France,  Austria,  Southern  Russia  and  the 
larger  part  of  the  United  States  of  America. 

AUGUST. — Germany,  England,  Belgium,  Netherlands,  part  of  Rus- 
sia, Denmark,  part  of  Canada,  and  the  Northeastern  States  of  America. 

SEPTEMBER.  —  Scotland,  the  larger  part  of  Canada,  Sweden,  Norway 
and  the  north  midlands  of  Russia. 

OCTOBER. — The  northern  parts  of  Russia  and  the  northern  parts  of 
the  Scandinavian  peninsula. 

SHIP'S  TIME. 

On  shipboard  time  is  kept  by  means  of  "Bells,"  though  there  is  but 
one  bell  on  the  ship,  and  to  strike  the  clapper  properly  against  the  bell 
requires  some  skill. 

First,  two  strokes  of  the  clapper  at  the  interval  of  a  second,  then  an 
interval  of  two  seconds;  then  two  more  strokes  with  a  second's  interval 
apart,  then  a  rest  of  two  seconds,  thus: 

Bell,  one  second;  B.,  two  seconds;  B.  s;  B.  ss,  B.  s;  B.  ss;  B. 

1  Bell  is  struck  at  12:30,  and  again  at  4:30,  6:30,  8:30  P.  M.;  12:30,  4:30 
and  8:30  A.  M. 


46 


MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION, 


2  Bells  at  1  (struck  with  an  interval  of  a  second  between  each— B.  s, 
B.),  the  same  again  at  5,  7,  and  9  p.  M. ;  1,  5  and  9  A.  M. 

3  Bells  at  1:30  (B.  s,  B.  ss,  B.),  5:30,  7:30,  and  9:30  p.  M.;  1:30,  5:30 
and  9:30  A.  M. 

4  Bells  at  2  (B.  s,  B.  ss,  B.  s,  B.),  6  and  10  p.  M.;  2,  6,  and  10  A.  M. 

5  Bells  at  2:30  (B.  s,  B.  ss,  B.  s,  B.  ss,  B.)  and  10:30  p.  M.;  2:30,  6:30 
and  10:30  A.  M. 

6  Bells  at  3  (B.  s,  B.  ss,  B.  s,  B.  ss,  B.  s,  B.)  and  11  p.  M.;  7,  3  and  11 
p.  M. 

7  Bells  at  3:30  (B.  s,  B.  ss,  B.  s,  B.  ss,  B.  s,  B.  ss,  B.)  and  11:30  p.  M.; 
3:30,  7:30  and  11:30  A.  M. 

8  Bells  (B.  s,  B.  ss,  B.  s,  B.  ss,  B.  s,  B.  ss,  B.  s,  B.)^every  4  hours,  at 
noon,  at  4  P.  M.,  8  p.  M.,  midnight,  4  A.  M.  and  8  A.  M. 


FRENCH  REPUBLICAN   CALENDAR. 

I.  The  Months,  beginning  September  22.     Each  month  30  days. 

AUTUMN. 

Vendemiaire  (Vintage  month) September  22— October  21 . 

Brumaire  (Foggy  month) October  22— November  20. 

Frlmaire  (Sleety  month)  November  21— December  20. 

WINTEB. 

Nivose  (Snowy  month) December  21— January  19. 

Pluviose  (Rainy  month) January  20 — February  18. 

Ventose  (Windy  month) February  19— March  20. 

SPRING. 

Germinal  (Budding  month) .  March  21— April  19. 

Floral  (Flowery  month) April  20— Mny  19. 

Prairial  (Pasture  month) May  20— June  18. 

SUMMER. 

Messidor  (Harvest  month) June  19— July  18. 

Thermidor  (Hot  month) July  19— August  17. 

Fructidor  (Fruit  month) August  18 — September  16. 

From  September  16  to  September  22  are  five  days.  These  were  called  Sans  culot- 
tides  (4syl.),and  were  national  holidays;  17  dedicated  to  Venus,  18  to  Genius,  19  to 
Labor,  "JO  to  Opinion,  and  21  to  Rewards. 

II.  The  Years. 


Year          I.      From  September  22  1792,  to  September  21,  1793. 

II. 

' 

"    1793, 

'    1794. 

III. 

1 

"  1794, 

'   1795. 

IV. 

' 

'               "  1795, 

'    1796. 

V. 

• 

'              "  1796 

'    1797. 

VI. 

1 

'   1797, 

'   1798. 

VII. 

• 

« 

'  1798. 

1  1799. 

VIII. 

• 

1    1799. 

'   1800. 

IX. 

M 

'   1800, 

'   1801. 

X. 

" 

'   1801, 

'   1802. 

XI. 

" 

'   1802, 

•   1803. 

XII. 

11 

'  1803. 

1   1804. 

XIII. 

H 

'   1804. 

'   1805. 

XIV.        "                "              "  1805,  to  the  close  of  the  year,  when  the 
reckoning  was  abolished  by  Napoleon. 

THE  CHIEF   CHRISTIAN   FESTIVALS. 

Christian  Feasts  are  (a)  Fixed;  (t>)  Movable. 
(a)  The  Fixed  Christian  Festivals  are: 
All  Saints  or  All  Hallows,  November  1. 

All  Souls  in  honor  of  all  the  faithful  dead,  whether  canonized  or  not, 
November  2. 


TIME  AND  ITS  LANDMARKS.  47 

Candlemas  Day  or  the  Purification  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  February  2. 

Christmas  Day  or  the  Nativity,  December  25. 

Circumcision,  January  1. 

Epiphany  or  Twelfth  Day,  January  6. 

Innocents'  Day,  December  28. 

Lady  Day  or  Annunciation  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  March  25. 

The  following  are  also  called  Saints'  Days,  or  Red  Letter  Days: 

Andrew  November  30 

Barnabas June  11. 

James  the  Elder July  25. 

John  the  Baptist  (his  Nativity) June  24. 

John  the    Evangelist December  27. 

Luke  the  Evangelist October  18. 

Mark  the  Evangelist April  25. 

Matthew  the  Evangelist SeptemberSl. 

Matthias February  24. 

Michafl  (Michaelmas  Day) September  29. 

Paul  (his  Conversion) January  25. 

Peter  (by  Catholics  Peter  and  Paul) June  29. 

Philip  and  James  the  Less... May  1. 

Simon  and  Jude October  28. 

Stephen  (the  first  martyr) December  26. 

Thomas  (the  shortest  day) December  21. 

(£)   Movable  Christian  Feasts: 

Ascension  Day  or  Holy  Thursday,  ten  days  before  Whit  Sunday. 
Ash  Wednesday,  the  first  day  in  Lent. 
Easter  Sunday. 

Good  Friday,  the  Friday  before  Easter  Day. 
Palm  Sunday,  the  Sunday  before  Easter  Day. 
Pentecost  or  Whit  Sunday,  the  seventh  Sunday  after  Easter. 
Sexagesima  Sunday  (about)  sixty  days  before  Easter,  second  Sunday 
before  Lent. 

Trinity  Sunday,  the  Sunday  following  Whit  Sunday. 

THE    CALENDARS  OF    HISTORY. 

The  Jewish  Calendar  dates  all  the  years  downwards  from  the  crea- 
tion, which  it  reckons  at  3760  years  and  2  months  before  the  Christian 
era.  The  civil  year  begins  with  the  month  Tisri,  the  ecclesiastical  with 
the  month  Nisan. 

The  Mohammedan  Calendar  begins  with  the  first  day  of  the  first 
month  of  the  year  in  which  the  Hegira,  or  flight  of  Mohammed,  took 
place,  i.  e.  622  A.  D. ,  and  was  instituted  in  639  or  640. 

The  year  of  this  calendar  is  shorter  than  ours  by  10  days,  21  hours  and 
14|  seconds. 

The  Julian  Calendar,  that  adjusted  by  Julius  Caesar,  made  the  year 
to  consist  of  365  days  6  hours,  the  fourth  year  containing  366  days;  this 
was  superseded  by  that  of  the  Gregorian  Calendar  (New  Style),  so  called 
from  its  having  been  authorized  by  Pope  Gregory  XIII.  That  pontiff,  to 
harmonize  the  civil  with  the  solar  year,  the  former  being  in  arrear,  charged 
the  Council  of  Trent  with  the  correction  of  the  Julian  Calendar,  and  in 
1582  issued  a.  new  calendar,  omitting  ten  days,  October  5  becoming 
October  15.  All  the  nations  of  Europe,  excepting  Turkey,  Greece  and 
Russia,  have  adopted  it.  The  New  Style  came  into  force  in  Great  Brit- 
ain in  1751;  September  3  becoming  September  14  in  1752. 

In  1793  the  National  Convention  of  the  first  French  republic  decreed 
that  the  common  era  should  be  abolished  in  all  civil  affairs,  anc  that  a 
new  era  should  commence  from  the  foundation  of  the  republic,  Septem- 


48  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

ber  22,  1792.  The  year  was  to  be  divided  into  twelve  months  of  thirty 
days  each,  with  five  complementary  days  at  the  end,  which  were  to  be 
celebrated  as  festivals,  and  were  dedicated  to  Virtue,  Genius,  I/abor, 
Opinion,  Rewards.  Every  fourth  or  "Olympic"  year  was  to  have  a 
sixth  complementary  day  to  be  called  "Revolution  Day,"  and  every 
period  of  four  years  was  to  be  called  a  Franciade.  The  first,  second  and 
third  centurial  years— viz.  100,  200,  300  were  to  be  common  years,  the 
fourth  centurial  year  400  was  to  be  a  leap  year,  and  this  was  to  continue 
till  the  fortieth  centurial  year  4000,  which  was  to  be  a  common  year. 
The  months  were  to  be  divided  into  three  parts  of  ten  days  each,  called 
decades.  The  names  of  the  months  and  the  days  of  the  Gregorgian  Cal- 
endar to  which  they  corresponded  are  given  in  another  section. 


THE  MONTHS  AND  THEIR  NAMES. 

January,  the  first  month  of  the  year,  was  among  the  Romans  held 
sacred  to  Janus,  from  whom  it  derived  its  name,  and  was  added  to  the 
calendar  along  with  February  by  Numa  in  713  B.C.  It  was  not  till  the 
eighteenth  century  that  January  was  universally  adopted  by  European 
nations  as  the  first  month  of  the  year,  although  the  Romans  considered 
it  as  such  as  far  back  as  251  B.C. 

February  is  the  name  given  to  the  second  month,  in  which  were 
celebrated  the  Februa,  or  feasts  to  the  manes  of  deceased  persons. 

March,  the  first  month  of  the  Roman  year,  and  the  third  according 
to  our  present  calendar,  consists  of  31  days.  It  was  considered  as  the 
first  month  of  the  year  in  England  until  the  change  of  style  in  1752,  and 
the  legal  year  was  reckoned  from  the  25th  of  March.  Its  last  three  days 
(old  style)  were  once  popularly  supposed  to  have  been  borrowed  by 
March  from  April,  and  are  proverbially  stormy. 

To  the  fourth  month  of  our  year  the  Romans  gave  the  name  of 
Aprilis,  derived  from  aperire,  "to  open,"  probably  because  it  is  the  sea- 
son when  the  buds  begin  to  open.  By  the  Anglo-Saxons  it  was  called 
Eastermonth. 

The  name  of  the  fifth  month,  May,  is  said  to  be  derived  from  Maia, 
the  mother  of  Mercury,  to  whom  the  Romans  on  the  first  day  offered  sac- 
rifices. It  was  the  third  month  of  the  Roman  year. 

June,  the  sixth  month  of  the  year  in  our  calendar,  but  the  fourth 
among  the  Romans,  consisted  originally  of  26  days,  to  which  four  were 
added  by  Romulus,  one  taken  away  by  Numa,  and  the  month  again 
lengthened  to  30  days  by  Julius  Caesar. 

The  seventh  month  of  the  year  in  our  calendar,  and  fifth  in  the 
Roman  calendar,  was  originally  called  Quintilis  ("the  fifth").  At  first 
it  contained  36  days,  was  reduced  to  31,  then  to  30,  but  was  restored  to 
31  days  by  Julius  Caesar,  in  honor  of  whom  it  was  named  July. 

August,  the  eighth  month  of  the  year,  was  so  named  by  the  Emperor 
Augustus  (B.C.  63 — A.D.  14),  who  commanded  that  his  name  should  be 
given  to  the  month.  August  was  the  sixth  month  of  the  Roman  year  and 
was  previously  called  Sextilis. 

September  (Lat.  septem,  seven)  was  the  seventh  month  of  the  Roman 
calendar,  but  is  the  ninth  according  to  our  reckoning.  The  Anglo- 
Saxons  called  it gerst-monath,  "barley-month." 

October  (Lat.  octo,  eight)  was  the  eighth  month  of  the  so-called 
"year  of  Romulus,"  but  became  the  tenth  when  (according  to  tradition) 


TIME  AND  ITS  LANDMARKS.  49 

Numa  changed  the  commencement  of  the  year  to  January  1st,  though  it 
retained  its  original  name. 

November  (Lat.  novem,  "nine")  was  among  the  Romans  the  ninth 
month  of  the  year  (the  Ger.  Wind  "month)  at  the  time  when  the  year 
consisted  of  ten  months,  and  then  contained  30  days.  It  subsequently 
was  made  to  contain  only  29,  but  Julius  Caesar  gave  it  31;  and  in  the 
reign  of  Augustus  the  number  was  restored  to  30,  which  number  it  has 
since  retained. 

December  means  the  tenth  month,  and  received  that  name  frorr  the 
Romans  when  the  year  began  in  March,  and  has  retained  its  name  since 
January  and  February  were  put  at  the  beginning  of  the  year. 


THE  ORIGIN  OF  THE  DAYS  OF  THE  WEEK. 

The  names  of  these  are  derived  from  Saxon  idolatry.  The  Saxons 
had  seven  deities  more  particularly  adored  than  the  rest,  namely:  The 
Sun,  the  Moon,  Tuisco,  Woden,  Thor,  Friga  and  Saeter.  Sunday  being 
dedicated  to  the  sun,  was  called  by  them  Sunandaeg;  his  idol  represented 
the  bust  of  a  man,  with  the  face  darting  bright  rays,  holding  a  wheel  be- 
fore his  breast,  indicative  of  the  circuit  of  the  golden  orb  around  our 
sphere.  Monday  was  dedicated  to  the  moon,  and  was  represented  by  a 
female  on  a  pedestal,  with  a  very  singular  dress  and  two  long  ears.  Tues- 
day was  dedicated  to  Tuisco,  a  German  hero,  sire  of  the  Germans,  Scy- 
thians and  Saxons.  He  was  represented  as  a  venerable  old  man,  with  a 
long,  white  beard,  a  scepter  in  his  hand  and  the  skin  of  a  white  bear 
thrown  over  his  shoulders.  Wednesday  was  consecrated  to  Woden,  or 
Odin,  a  supreme  god  of  the  northern  nations,  father  of  the  gods  and  god 
of  war.  He  was  represented  as  a  warrior  in  a  bold  martial  attitude,  clad 
in  armor,  holding  in  his  right  hand  a  broad,  crooked  sword  and  a  shield 
in  his  left.  Thursday  was  consecrated  to  Thor,  eldest  son  of  Woden, 
who  was  the  Roman  Jupiter.  He  was  believed  to  govern  the  air,  preside 
over  lightning  and  thunder,  direct  the  wind,  rain,  and  seasons.  He  was 
represented  as  sitting  on  a  splendid  throne,  with  a  crown  of  gold  adorned 
with  twelve  glittering  stars,  and  a  scepter  in  his  right  hand.  Friday  was 
sacred  to  Friga — Hertha  or  Edith — the  mother  of  the  gods  and  wife  of 
Woden.  She  was  the  goddess  of  love  and  pleasure  and  was  portrayed  as 
a  female  with  a  naked  sword  in  her  right  hand  and  bow  in  her  left  hand, 
implying  that  in  extreme  cases  women  should  fight  as  well  as  men.  Sat- 
urday was  named  in  honor  of  Saeter,  who  is  the  Roman  Saturnus.  He 
was  represented  on  a  pedestal,  standing  on  the  back  of  a  prickly  fish 
called  a  perch,  his  head  bare,  with  a  thin,  meager  face.  In  his  left  hand 
he  held  a  wheel  and  in  his  right  a  pail  of  water  with  fruits  and  flowers. 
The  sharp  fins  of  the  fish  implied  that  the  worshipers  of  Saeter  should, 
pass  safely  through  every  difficulty.  The  wheel  was  emblematic  of  their 
unity  and  freedom,  and  the  pail  of  water  implied  that  he  could  water  the 
earth  and  make  it  more  beautiful. 


THE  HISTORIC  AGES. 

The  Age  of  the  Bishops,  according  to  Hallam,  was  the  ninth  century, 

The  Age  of  the  Popes,  according  to  Hallam,  was  the  twelfth  century. 

Varo  recognizes   Three  Ages:  1st.     From  the  beginning  of  man  to 

the  great  Flood  (the  period  wholly  unknown).     2nd.     From  the  Flood 

U.  I.— 4 


50  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

to  the  first  Olympiad  (the  mythical  period).  3rd.  From  the  first  Olym- 
piad to  the  present  time  (the  historical  period). 

The  Golden  Age,  a  mythical  period  when  the  earth  brought  forth 
spontaneously,  and  the  gods  held  converse  with  men. 

The  Silver  Age  the  second  period,  when  the  gods  taught  men  the 
useful  arts. 

The  Age  of  Bronze,  the  third  or  transition  period,  semi-historical. 
The  age  of  heroes.  It  followed  the  "Stone  Age." 

The  Iron  Age,  the  historic  period,  when  wars  abound,  and  man 
earns  his  food  by  labor.  

LEGAL  HOLIDAYS  IN  THE  VARIOUS  STATES. 

JANUARY  1.  NEW  YEAR'S  DAY:  In  all  the  States  except  Massachu- 
setts, New  Hampshire  and  Rhode  Island. 

JANUARY  8.  ANNIVERSARY  OF  THE  BATTLE  OF  NEW  ORLEANS:  In 
Louisiana. 

JANUARY  19.  LEE'S  BIRTHDAY:  In  Georgia,  North  Carolina  and 
Virginia. 

FEBRUARY  12.  LINCOLN'S  BIRTHDAY:  In  Illinois. 

FEBRUARY  14.  1893.  MARDI  GRAS:  In  Alabama  and  Louisiana. 

FEBRUARY  22.  WASHINGTON'S  BIRTHDAY:  In  all  the  States  except 
Arkansas,  Iowa  and  Mississippi. 

MARCH  2.  ANNIVERSARY  OF  TEXAN  INDEPENDENCE:  In  Texas. 

MARCH  4.  FIREMAN'S  ANNIVERSARY:  In  New  Orleans,  La. 

MARCH  31,  1893.  GOOD  FRIDAY:  In  Alabama,  Louisiana,  Maryland, 
Pennsylvania  and  Tennessee. 

APRIL  5,  1893.  STATE  ELECTION  DAY:  In  Rhode  Island. 

APRIL  21.  ANNIVERSARY  OF  THE  BATTLE  OF  SANJACINTO:  In 
Texas. 

APRIL  26.  MEMORIAL  DAY.  In  Alabama  and  Georgia. 

MAY  10.  MEMORIAL  DAY:  In  North  Carolina. 

MAY  20.  ANNIVERSARY  OF  THE  SIGNING  OF  THE  MECKLENBURG 
DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE:  In  North  Carolina. 

MAY  30.  DECORATION  DAY:  In  Arizona,  California,  Colorado,  Con- 
necticut, Iowa,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Kansas,  Maine,  Massachusetts,  Michi- 
gan, Minnesota,  Montana,  Nebraska,  Nevada,  New  Hampshire,  New 
Jersey,  New  York,  North  Dakota,  Ohio,  Oklahoma,  Oregon,  Pennsyl- 
vania, Rhode  Island,  Tennessee,  Utah,  Vermont,  Wisconsin,  Washing- 
ton and  Wyoming. 

JUNE  3.  JEFFERSON  DAVIS'  BIRTHDAY:  In  Florida. 

JULY  4.  INDEPENDENCE  DAY:  In  all  the  States. 

JULY  24.  PIONEERS'  DAY:  In  Utah. 

SEPTEMBER  4,  1893.  LABOR  DAY:  In  California,  Colorado,  Connecti- 
cut, Illinois,  Indiana,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Maine,  Massachusetts,  Montana, 
Nebraska,  New  Hampshire,  New  Jersey,  New  York,  Ohio,  Pennsylvania, 
South  Dakota,  Utah,  Virginia  and  Washington. 

SEPTEMBER  9.  ADMISSION  DAY:  In  California. 

OCTOBER  31.  ADMISSION  IN.THE  UNION  DAY:  Nevada. 

NOVEMBER  — .  GENERAL  ELECTION  DAY:  In  Arizona,  California, 
Florida,  Idaho,  Indiana,  Kansas,  Maryland,  Minnesota,  Missouri,  Mon- 
tana, Nevada,  New  Hampshire,  New  Jersey,  New  York,  North  Dakota, 
Ohio,  Oregon,  South  Carolina,  South  Dakota,  Tennessee,  Texas,  West 
Virginia,  Washington,  Wisconsin  and  Wyoming.  In  the  States  which 
hold  elections  in  November,  1893,  election  day  falls  on  the  7th  instant. 


TIME  AND  ITS  LANDMARKS.  51 

NOVEMBER  30,  1893.  THANKSGIVING  DAY:  Is  observed  in  all  the 
States,  though  in  some  it  is  not  a  statutory  holiday. 

NOVEMBER  25.  LABOR  DAY:  In  Louisiana. 

DECEMBER  25.  CHRISTMAS  DAY:  In  all  the  States,  and  in  South 
Carolina  the  two  succeeding  days  in  addition. 

Sundays  and  Fast  Days  (whenever  appointed)  are  legal  holidays  in 
nearly  all  the  States. 

ARBOR  DAY  is  a  legal  holiday  in  Kansas,  Rhode  Island  and  Wyom- 
ing, the  day  being  set  by  the  Governor — in  Nebraska,  April  22;  Califor- 
nia, September  9;  Colorado,  on  the  third  Friday  in  April;  Montana,  third 
Tuesday  in  April;  Utah,  first  Saturday  in  April;  and  Idaho,  on  Friday 
after  May  1. 

Every  Saturday  after  12  o'clock  noon  is  a  legal  holiday  in  New  York, 
New  Jersey,  and  the  city  of  New  Orleans,  and  from  June  15  to  September 
15  in  Pennsylvania. 

There  is  no  national  holiday,  not  even  the  Fourth  of  July.  Con- 
gress has  at  various  times  appointed  special  holidays,  and  has  recognized 
the  existence  of  certain  days  as  holidays,  for  commercial  purposes,  in 
such  legislation  as  the  Bankruptcy  act,  but  there  is  no  general  statute  on 
the  subject.  The  proclamation  of  the  President  designating  a  day  of 
Thanksgiving  only  makes  it  a  holiday  in  those  States  which  provide  by 
law  for  it.  

THE  ADJUSTMENT  OF  THE  CALENDAR. 

The  Chaldeans,  Egyptians  and  Indians,  and  indeed  almost  all  the 
nations  of  antiquity,  originally  estimated  the  year,  or  the  periodical  re- 
turn of  summer  and  winter,  by  12  lunations;  a  period  equal  to  354  days, 
8  hours,  48  minutes,  36  seconds.  But  the  solar  year  is  equal  to  365  days, 
5  hours,  48  minutes,  49  seconds;  or  10  days,  21  hours,  13  seconds  longer 
than  the  lunar  year,  an  excess  named  the  epad;  and  accordingly  the  sea- 
sons were  found  rapidly  to  deviate  from  the  particular  months  to  which 
they  at  first  corresponded;  so  that,  in  34  years,  the  summer  months  would 
have  become  the  winter  ones,  had  not  this  enormous  aberration  been  cor- 
rected by  the  addition  or  intercalation  of  a  few  odd  days  at  certain  in- 
tervals. Thus  was  the  calendar  first  adjusted,  and  the  solar  year  esti- 
mated to  consist  of  12  months,  comprehending  365  days.  But  no  account 
was  taken  of  the  odd  hours,  until  their  accumulation  forced  them  into 
notice;  and  a  nearer  approximation  to  the  exact  measurement  of  a  year 
was  made  about  45  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ,  when  Julius  Caesar, 
being  led  by  Sosigenes,  an  astronomer  of  his  time,  to  believe  the  error  to 
consist  of  exactly  6  hours  in  the  year,  ordained  that  these  should  be  set 
aside,  and  accumulated  for  four  years,  when,  of  course,  they  would  amount 
to  a  day  of  24  hours,  to  be  accordingly  added  to  every  fourth  year.  This 
was  done  by  doubling  or  repeating  the  24th  of  February;  and,  in  order  to 
commence  aright,  he  ordained  the  first  to  be  a  "year  of  confusion,"  made 
up  of  15  months,  so  as  to  cover  the  90  days  which  had  been  then  lost. 
The  "Julian  style"  and  the  "Julian  era"  were  then  commenced;  and  so 
practically  useful  and  comparatively  perfect  was  this  mode  of  time-reck- 
oning, that  it  prevailed  generally  amongst  Christian  nations,  and  re- 
mained undisturbed  till  the  renewed  accumulation  of  the  remaining 
error,  of  11  minutes  or  so,  had  amounted,  in  1582  years  after  the  birth  of 
Christ,  to  10  complete  days;  the  vernal  equinox  falling  on  the  llth  in- 
stead of  the  21st  of  March,  as  it  did  at  the  time  of  the  council  of  Nice,  325 


52  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

years  after  the  birth  of  Christ.  This  shifting  of  days  had  caused  great 
disturbances,  by  unfixing  the  times  of  the  celebration  of  Easter,  and 
hence  of  all  the  other  movable  feasts.  And,  accordingly,  Pope  Gregory 
XIII,  after  deep  study  and  calculation,  ordained  that  10  days  should  be 
deducted  from  the  year  1582,  by  calling  what,  according  to  the  old  cal- 
endar, would  have  been  reckoned  the  5th  of  October,  the  15th  of  October, 
1582.  In  Spain,  Portugal  and  parts  of  Italy,  the  pope  was  exactly  obeyed. 
In  France  the  change  took  place  in  the  same  year,  by  calling  the  10th 
the  20th  of  December.  In  the  Low  Countries  the  change  was  from  the 
15th  of  December  to  the  25th,  but  was  resisted  by  the  Protestant  part  of 
the  community  till  the  year  1700.  The  Catholic  nations  in  general  adopted 
the  style  ordained  by  their  sovereign  pontiff,  but  the  Protestants  were 
then  too  much  inflamed  against  Catholicism  in  all  its  relations  to  receive 
even  a  purely  scientific  improvement  from  such  hands.  The  Lutherans 
of  Germany,  Switzerland,  and,  as  already  mentioned,  of  the  Low  Coun- 
tries, at  length  gave  way  in  1700,  when  it  had  become  necessary  to  omit 
eleven  instead  of  ten  days.  A  bill  to  this  effect  had  been  brought  before 
the  Parliament  of  England  in  1585,  but  does  not  appear  to  have  gone 
beyond  a  second  reading  in  the  House  of  Lords.  It  was  not  till  1751, 
and  after  great  inconvenience  had  been  experienced  for  nearly  two  cent- 
uries, from  the  difference  of  the  reckoning,  that  an  act  was  passed  (24 
Geo.  II,  1751)  for  equalizing  the  style  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  with 
that  used  in  other  countries  of  Europe.  It  was  enacted,  in  the  first  place, 
that  eleven  days  should  be  omitted  after  the  2d  of  September,  1752,  so 
that  the  ensuing  day  should  be  the  14th;  and,  in  order  to  counteract  a 
certain  minute  overplus  of  time,  that  "the  years  1800,  1900,  2100,  2200, 
2300,  or  any  other  hundredth  year  of  our  Lord  which  shall  happen  in 
time  to  come,  except  only  every  fourth  hundredth  year  of  our  Lord, 
whereof  the  year  2000  shall  be  the  first,  shall  not.be  considered  as  leap 
years."  Our  present  Eastern  States  being  then  British  colonies,  the 
forefathers  of  the  Republic,  of  course,  used  this  altered  calendar  as  soon 
as  it  was  adopted.  A  similar  change  was  about  the  same  time  made  in 
Sweden  and  Tuscany;  and  Russia  is  now  the  only  country  which  adheres 
to  the  old  style;  an  adherence  which  renders  it  necessary,  when  a  letter 
is  thence  addressed  to  a  person  in  another  country,  that  the  date  should 

1          June  26 
be  given  thus: — April  —  or ;  for  it  will  be  observed,  the  year  1800 

13         July     9 

not  being  considered  by  us  as  leap  year,  has  interjected  another  (or 
twelfth)  day  between  old  and  new  style. 

The  twelve  calendar  or  civil  months  were  so  arranged  by  Julius 
Caesar,  while  reforming  the  calendar,  that  the  odd  months — the  first, 
third,  fifth,  and  so  on,  should  contain  31  days,  and  the  even  numbers  30 
days,  except  in  the  case  of  February,  which  was  to  have  30  only  in  what 
has  been  improperly  termed  leap  year,  while  on  other  years  it  was  as- 
signed 29  days  only;  a  number  which  it  retained  till  Augustus  Caesar 
deprived  it  of  another  day.  How  the  changes  were  effected  is  shown  in 
a  prior  chapter  on  "The  Months."1 


LANGUAGE:  ITS  USE  AND  MISUSE. 

The  grand  debate, 

The  popular  harangue,  the  tart  reply, 
The  logic,  and  the  wisdom,  and  the  wit, 
And  the  loud  laugh  -I  long  to  know  them  al'. 

— COWPER. 

PICKINGS  FOR  STUDENTS. 

There  are  said  to  be  2,754  languages. 

Rhetoric,  as  an  art,  dates  from  466  B.  C. 

A  poet  terms  words  "the  soul's  embassadors. " 

The  rude  speech  of  fishwives  is  called  Billingsgate. 

Lyric  poetry  has  to  do  with  the  feelings  and  emotions. 

A  terse  and  poetical  expression  of  an  idea  is  an  Epigram. 

Leibnitz  was  first  to  reduce  philology  to  a  science  of  induction. 

Appolonius  of  Alexandria  was  called  the  Prince  of  Grammarians. 

In  the  Turkish  language  are  to  be  met  the  longest  compound  words. 

When  we  express  a  principle  very  concisely  we  employ  an  Aphorism. 

The  tales,  ballads  and  legends  of  a  people  constitute  its  Folk-lore. 

A  pithy  saying  that  conveys  an  important  truth,  is  called  an  Apoph- 
thegm. 

Rhetoric  is  the  theory  and  practice  of  eloquence,  whether  spoken  or 
written. 

Language  is  claimed  to  have  begun  in  the  use  of  cries  to  help  out 
gestures. 

A  Hellenist  is  one  that  is  versed  in  the  Greek  languages  and 
literature. 

One  verse  in  the  Bible  (Ezra  vii.  21)  will  be  found  to  contain  all  the 
letters  of  our  alphabet. 

Orientals  aver  that  the  serpent  who  tempted  Eve  spoke  Arabic, 
'  'the  most  suasive  of  tongues. ' ' 

The  Italian,  Spanish,  French  and  other  tongues  derived  mainly  from 
Latin,  are  called  the  Romance  languages. 

It  was  not  Talleyrand,  but  Montron,  the  diplomat,  who  said:  "Lang- 
uage is  given  to  man  to  conceal  his  thoughts. ' ' 

Acrostic  is  a  term  for  any  given  number  of  verses,  the  first  letters  of 
which  in  their  order  form  a  given  word,  phrase  or  sentence. 

Didactic  poetry  is  that  class  which  aims,  or  seems  to  aim,  at  instruc- 
tion as  its  object,  making  pleasure  entirely  subservient  thereto. 

53 


54  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

The  combined  ingenuity  of  the  world  has  not  surpassed  this  sentence 
as  containing  all  the  letters  and  most  only  once:  "Quiz,  Jack;  thy  frowns 
vex.— G.  D.  PUJMB." 

If  the  riches  of  the  Indies,  says  Fenelon,  or  the  crowns  of  all  the 
kingdoms  of  Burope,  were  laid  at  my  feet  in  exchange  for  my  love  for 
reading,  I  would  spurn  them  all. 

The  ancient  Scandinavians  employed  an  alphabet  of  letters  formed 
principally  of  straight  lines,  which  has  been  called  Runic  from  an  Ice- 
landic word  r una,  meaning  a  furrow  or  line. 

Charles  V  used  to  say  that  he  would  talk  Spanish  to  the  gods,  Ital- 
ian to  ladies,  French  to  men,  German  to  soldiers,  English  to  geese, 
Hungarian  to  horses,  and  Bohemian  to  the  devil. 

Cipher  as  a  method  of  secret  writing  was  known  as  early  as  the  time 
of  Julius  Caesar.  It  consisted  of  a  transposition  of  the  letters  of  the 
alphabet.  The  most  complicated  ciphers  known  can  be  translated  by 
modern  experts. 

Taboo  is  a  Polynesian  word,  signifying  something  set  apart,  either 
as  sacred  or  accursed,  clean  or  unclean,  but  in  any  case  as  a  thing  for- 
bidden. All  the  law  and  morality  of  the  Polynesians  had  their  origin 
in  the  taboo  or  system  of  religious  prohibitions. 

The  writing  in  use  among  the  Arabs  between  the  sixth  and  eleventh 
centuries,  and,  supposed  to  have  been  invented  at  Cufa,  is  called  Cufic 
writing.  Cufic  coins  are  those  of  the  Mohammedan  sovereigns  and  are 
of  great  use  in  throwing  light  on  the  history  of  the  Bast. 

The  longest  words  in  the  language,  taken  from  the  "Century  Dic- 
tionary:" Suticonstitutionalist,  Incomprehensibility,  Philoprogenitive- 
ness,  Honorificibilitudinity,  Anthropophagenarian,  Disproportionable- 
ness,  Velocipedestrianistical,  Transubstantiationableness,  Palatopharyn- 
geolaryngeal. 

The  term  Colophon  applies  to  the  inscription  or  monogram  on  the  last 
page  of  a  book,  which  in  old  times  contained  the  author's  and  printer's 
names,  date  of  publication,  and  so  on.  It  is  derived  from  the  Greek 
phrase  "to  add  a  colophon,"  to  put  the  finishing  stroke  to  an  engagement 
by  a  cavalry  attack. 

Outside  of  medical  and  technical  terms  the  word  "unexceptionable- 
ness"  is,  according  to  some  lexicographers,  the  longest  English  word. 
"Incomprehensibility"'  has  the  same  complement  of  letters,  nineteen, 
but  four  of  them  are  "i,"  and  it  would  occupy  less  space  in  type  than  its 
sesquipedalian  brother. 

Americanisms  are  words  or  phrases  peculiar  to  the  United  States. 
Many  of  them,  however,  are  the  renewal  of  old  English  words  that  have 
become  obsolete  in  the  mother  country.  Others  have  sprung  into  exist- 
ence through  the  n~w  conditions  consequent  in  the  rapid  development 
of  our  western  territory. 

A  sonnet  is  a  poetic  form,  of  Italian  origin,  used  to  express  a  single 
thought  or  single  wave  of  emotion.  The  Petrarchan  sonnet  consists  of 
fourteen  lines,  divided  into  an  octave  of  two  rhymes,  and  a  sestet  of 
two  or  three  rhymes.  The  Shakspearian  sonnet  consists  of  six  alternate 
rhymes  clinched  by  a  couplet. 

In  1879,  Johann  Martin  Schleyer,  a  Swabian  pastor  and  latterly  a 
teacher  in  Constance,  invented  the  universal  language  called  Volapiik. 


LANGUAGE:  ITS  USE  AND  MISUSE.  55 

Of  the  vocabulary  about  one  third  is  of  English  origin,  while  the  Latin 
and  the  Romance  languages  furnish  a  fourth.  The  grammar  is  simplified 
to  the  utmost.  The  most  practical  disciples  limit  their  aims  to  making 
Volapiik  a  convenience  for  commercial  correspondence,  a  kind  of  ex- 
tended international  code. 

An  anagram  is  the  formation  of  a  new  word,  phrase  or  sentence  out 
of  anothor  by  a  transposition  of  the  letters.  To  be  effective  the  anagram 
must  have  the  element  of  sarcasm,  surprise  or  revelation  involved.  '  'Love 
to  ruin"  is  an  anagram  for  revolution,  "sly  ware"  for  lawyers,  "a  man 
to  wield  great  wills"  for  William  Ewart  Gladstone. 

Mac  (contracted  M')is  a  Gaelic  prefix  occurring  frequently  in  Scot- 
tish names,  as  Macdonald,  M'Lennan,  and  the  like, meaning  "son,"  "tribe" 
or  "kin."  It  corresponds  to  the  son  in  names  of  Teutonic  origin,  as  Da- 
vidson; the  Fitz  in  Norman  names,  as  Fitzherbert;  the  Irish  O,  as  in 
O'Connell;  and  the  Welsh  Map,  shortened  into  '« p  or  '/,  as  Ap  Richard, 
whence  Prichard. 

We  find  in  a  historical  incident  the  true  etymology  of  the  term  La- 
conisms.  When  Philip  of  Macedon  wrote  to  the  Spartan  magistrates,  "If 
I  enter  Laconia  I  will  level  Lacedaemon  to  the  ground,"  the  ephors  wrote 
back  the  single  word  "If."  Similarly,  in  1490,  O'Neill  wrote  to  O'Donnel, 
"Send  me  the  tribute,  or  else — ;"  to  which  O'Donnel  returned  answer,  "I 
owe  none,  and  if — ." 

The  Brogue  (Irish  and  Gaelic  brog}  is  a  light  shoe  formed  of  one 
piece  of  hide  or  half-tanned  leather,  gathered  round  the  ankle,  which 
was  formerly  much  in  use  among  the  native  Irish  and  the  Scottish  High- 
landers, and  of  which  there  were  different  varieties.  Whence  comes  the 
term  brogue  signifying  the  peculiar  pronounciation  of  English  that  dis- 
tinguishes natives  of  Ireland.  • 

An  allegory  is  a  "prolonged  metaphor"  or  figurative  representation 
conveying  some  moral  or  teaching.  Of  very  early  origin  it  is  especially 
common  among  the  Oriental  people.  It  is  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the 
Bible.  In  English  literature  there  are  many  fine  examples,  among  the 
most  familiar  of  which  are  Bunyan's  "Pilgrim's  Progress"  and  Spenser's 
"Faerie  Queen."  The  latter  is  a  double  allegory. 

Among  the  puzzle-pastimes  based  on  the  alphabet  a  logogram  is 
simply  a  complicated  or  multiplied  form  of  the  anagram,  where  the 
puzzle-monger,  instead  of  contenting  himself  with  the  formation  of  a 
single  new  word  or  sentence  out  of  the  old  by  the  transposition  of  the 
letters,  racks  his  brain  to  discover  all  the  words  that  may  be  extracted 
from  the  whole  or  from  any  portion  of  the  letters,  and  throws  the  whole 
into  a  series  of  verses  in  which  synonymic  expressions  for  these  words 
must  be  used. 

Sanscrit  is  one  of  the  Indo-European  group  of  languages,  intimately 
connected  with  the  Persian,  Greek,  Latin,  Teutonic,  Slavonian  and  Celtic 
languages.  It  is  the  classical  language  of  the  Hindus,  and  the  parent  of 
all  the  modern  Aryan  languages  of  India.  It  ceased  to  be  a  spoken  lan- 
guage about  the  second  century  B.  C.  Sanscrit  literature,  which  extends 
back  to  at  least  1,500  B.  C.  and  is  very  voluminous,  was  introduced  to 
the  western  world  by  Sir  Wm.  Jones,  who  founded  the  Asiatic  Society  in 
Calcutta  in  1784. 

Our  familiar  and  valuable  friends,  the  letters  of  the  common  alpha- 
bet, are  said  to  have  originated  in  the  hieroglyphic  symbols  of  Egypt, 


56  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL' INFORMATION. 

legendarily  ascribed  to  Memnon,  1822  B.  C.  From  the  Egyptians  and 
Assyrians  the  Phoenicians  introduced  the  chief  letters  of  the  present 
alphabet.  Cadmus  is  traditionally  stated  (149  B.  C.)  to  have  brought 
into  Greece  the  Phoenician  letters  which  ultimately  became  the  basis  of 
the  present  alphabet.  The  number  of  letters  composing  the  alphabet 
varies  among  different  nations.  The  true  theory  of  an  alphabet  requires 
a  single  sign  to  represent  each  single  sound. 

When  the  Ephraimites,  after  their  defeat  by  Jephthah,  tried  to  pass 
the  Jordan,  a  guard  stationed  on  the  banks  of  the  river  tested  everyone 
who  came  to  the  ford  by  asking  him  to  pronounce  the  word  "Shibboleth" 
which  the  men  of  Ephraim  called  sibboleth.  Everyone  who  said  "sibbo- 
leth"  was  immediately  cut  down  by  the  guard,  and  there  fell  in  one  day, 
42,000  Ephraimites  (Judges  xii:  1-6).  Hence  arises  the  present  meaning 
of  the  word  as  the  test,  criterion  or  watchword  of  a  party. 

To  "speak  for  bunkum"  is  a  common  expression  indicating  bombast 
or  mere  show.  The  phrase  no  doubt  owes  it  origin  to  the  perseverance 
of  an  old  mountainer,  Felix  Walter  by  name,  representative  in  Congress 
from  North  Carolina,  in  whose  district  was  the  county  of  Buncombe.  It 
was  at  the  close  of  the  famous  debate  on  the  Missouri  Compromise.  Mr. 
Walker  rose  to  speak.  The  House  was  impatient  and  frequent  calls  for 
the  "Question"  were  heard.  Mr.  Walker  insisted,  saying  that  he  was 
bound  to  "speak  for  Bumcombe." 

The  sixteen  Greek  letters,  said  to  have  been  introduced  into  Thebes 
(in  Bceotia)  by  Cadmus,  sou  of  Agenor,  king  of  Phoenicia,  are  called  the 
Cadmean  letters.  The  letters  are  a,  b,  g,  d,  e,  i,  k,  1,  m,  n,  o,  p,  r,  s,  t,  u. 
These  letters  were  subsequently  increased  by  eight  Ionic  letters,  z,  e,  th, 
x,  ph,  eh,  ch,  ps,  and  6.  Simonieds  of  Cos  is  credited  with  the  four  let- 
ters th,  z,  ph,  ch,  and  Epicharmos  the  Sicilian,  with  the  four  letters  x, 
e,  ps,  6.  The  lonians  were  the  first  to  employ  all  the  twenty-four  letters, 
whence  the  eight  added  were  called  Ionic  letters. 

We  use  the  term  "bull"  to  describe  a  ridiculous  blunder  in  speech 
implying  a  contradiction.  Bulls  in  their  best  form  are  usually  alleged 
to  be  an  especial  prerogative  of  Irishmen — at  least  it  is  certain  that  the 
best  examples  have  come  from  Ireland.  For  instance,  on  a  rustic  Irish- 
man being  asked  what  a  bull  was  he  naively  replied:  "Whin  ye  see  five 
cows  lyin'  down  in  a  field  the  wan  standin'  up  is  a  bull."  The  follow- 
ing sentence  is  also  a  good  illustration:  "All  along  the  untrodden  paths 
of  the  past  we  perceive  the  footprints  of  an  unseen  hand. " 

Critics  employ  the  term  Bathos  to  designate  a  ludicrous  descent  from 
the  elevated  to  the  commonplace  in  writing  or  speech,  or  a  sinking  below 
the  ordinary  level  of  thought  in  a  ridiculous  effort  to  aspire.  It  is  of  the 
essence  of  bathos  that  he  who  is  guilty  of  it  should  be  unconscious  of  his 
fall,  and  while  groveling  on  the  earth,  should  imagine  that  he  is  still 
cleaving  the  heavens.  A  good  example  of  bathos  is  the  well-known  cou- 

"And  thou,  Dalhousie,  thou  great  fjod  of  war, 
Lieutenant-general  to  the  Earl  of  Mar!" 

or  the  well-known  encomium  of  the  celebrated  Boyle:  "Robert  Boyle 
was  a  great  man,  a  very  great  man;  he*  was  father  of  chemistry  and 
brother  to  the  Earl  of  Cork." 

A  dictionary  is  a  book  containing  the  words  of  a  language  alpha- 
betically arranged,  with  their  definitions  and  significations  set  forth  more 
or  less  fully.  It  differs  from  a  mere  list  or  index,  in  that  it  contains 


LANGUAGE:  ITS   USE  AND  MISUSE.  57 

explanations  about  each  word  included  within  its  scope,  except  where  it 
is  more  convenient,  by  a  cross-reference,  to  refer  the  reader  for  a  part  or 
the  whole  of  the  account  of  one  word  to  what  is  said  under  some  other 
word.  There  are  several  other  terms  that  are  used  synonymously,  or 
nearly  so,  with  dictionary.  The  Greek  word  "lexicon  "  is  in  common 
use  for  a  dictionary  of  languages. 


CHIEF  LANGUAGES  OF  THE  WORLD. 

Some  estimate  that  there  are  over  three  thousand  languages  in  the 
world  ;  and  above  a  thousand  different  religions,  including  wrhat  are 
called  "sects."  English  is  spoken  by  above  one  hundred  and  thirty 
millions  of  the  human  race  ;  German  by  one  hundred  millions  ;  Russian 
by  seventy  millions ;  French  by  forty-five  millions  ;  Spanish  by  forty 
millions  ;  Italian  by  thirty  millions,  and  Portuguese  by  thirteen  millions. 

English  is  spoken  by  four  million  Canadians  ;  over  three  and  a  half 
million  West  Indians  ;  three  million  Australians ;  one  million  East 
Indians  ;  thirty-eight  millions  in  the  British  Isles,  and  sixty -three  mill- 
ions in  America  ;  besides  Africa,  Jamaica,  etc. 

German  is  spoken  by  two  millions  in  the  United  States  and  Canada  ; 
two  millions  in  Switzerland  ;  forty  thousand  Belgiums  ;  forty-six  millions 
in  the  German  empire,  and  ten  millions  in  the  Austro-Hungarian 
empire. 

French  is  spoken  by  two  and  a  quarter  million  Belgians  ;  one  million 
in  the  United  States  and  Canada  ;  one  million  in  Algiers,  India  and 
Africa  ;  six  hundred  thousand  Swiss  ;  six  hundred  thousand  in  Hayti ; 
two  hundred  thousand  in  Alsace-Lorraine  ;  and  thirty-eight  millions  in 
France. 

HOW  TO  SPEAK  CORRECTLY. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  errors  in  speaking.  The  most  objection- 
able are  those  in  which  words  are  employed  that  are  unsuitable  to  con- 
vey the  meaning  intended.  Thus,  a  person  wishing  to  express  his 
intention  of  going  to  a  given  place  says,  "I  propose  going,"  when,  in 
fact,  he  purposes  going.  The  following  affords  an  amusing  illustration 
of  this  class  of  error :  A  venerable  matron  was  speaking  of  her  son, 
who,  she  said,  was  quite  stage-struck.  "In  fact,"  remarked  the  old 
lady,  "  he  is  going  to  a  premature  performance  this  evening  !  "  Consid- 
ering that  most  amateur  performances  are  premature,  it  cannot  be  said 
that  this  word  was  altogether  misapplied  ;  though,  evidently,  the  ma- 
ternal intention  was  to  convey  a  very  different  meaning. 

Other  errors  arise  from  the  substitution  of  sounds  similar  to  the 
words  that  should  be  employed  ;  that  is,  spurios  words  instead  of  genu- 
ine ones.  Thus,  some  people  say  "  renumerative "  wrhen  they  mean 
"remunerative."  A  nurse,  recommending  her  mistress  to  have  a  per- 
ambulator for  her  child,  advised  her  to  purchase  a  preamputator! 

Other  errors  are  occasioned  by  imperfect  knowledge  of  the  English 
grammar;  thus,  many  people  say:  "Between  you  and  I,"  instead  of 
"Between  you  and  me."  And  there  are  numerous  other  departures 
from  the  rules  of  grammar,  which  will  be  pointed  out  hereafter. 

MISUSE  OF  THE  ADJECTIVE:  "What  beautiful  butter!"  "What  a 
nice  landscape!"  They  should  say:  "What  a  beautiful  landscape!" 
"What  nice  butter!"  Again  errors  are  frequently  occasioned  by  the 
following  causes ; 


58  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORM  A  TION. 

MISPRONUNCIATION  OK  WORDS:  Many  persons  say  prononnciatton 
instead  of  pronunciation;  others  say  pro-nun-ce-a-shun,  instead  of  pro- 
nun-she-a-shun. 

MISDI VISION  OF  WORDS  AND  SYLLABLES:  This  defect  makes  the 
words  an  ambassador  sound  like  a  nambassador ,  or  an  adder  like  a  nadder. 

IMPERFECT  ENUNCIATION,  as  when  a  person  says  hebben  for  heaven, 
ebber  for  ever,  jocholate  for  chocolate. 

To  correct  these  errors  by  a  systematic  course  of  study  would  involve 
a  closer  application  than  most  persons  could  afford,  but  the  simple  and 
concise  rules  and  hints  here  given,  founded  upon  usage  and  the  authority 
of  scholars,  will  be  of  great  assistance  to  inquirers. 

Who  and  whom  are  used  in  relation  to  persons,  and  which  in  rela- 
tion to  things.  But  it  was  once  common  to  say,  "the  man  which." 
This  should  now  be  avoided.  It  is  now  usual  to  say,  "  Our  Father  who 
art  in  heaven;"  instead  of  "  which  art  in  heaven." 

Whose  is,  however,  sometimes  applied  to  things  as  well  as  persons. 
We  may  therefore  say,  "  The  country  whose  inhabitants  are  free." 

Thou  is  employed  in  solemn  discourse  and  you  in  common  lang- 
uage. Ye  (plural)  is  also  used  in  serious  addresses,  and  you  in  familiar 
language. 

The  uses  of  the  word  it  are  various,  and  very  perplexing  to  the  un- 
educated. It  is  not  only  used  to  imply  persons,  but  things,  and  even 
ideas,  and  therefore  in  speaking  or  writing,  its  assistance  is  constantly 
required.  The  perplexity  respecting  this  word  arises  from  the  fact  that 
in  using  it  in  the  construction  of  a  long  sentence,  sufficient  care  is  not 
taken  to  insure  that  when  it  is  employed  it  really  points  out  or  refers 
to  the  object  intended.  For  instance,  "It  was  raining  when  John  set 
out  in  his  cart  to  go  to  market,  and  he  was  delayed  so  long  that  it 
was  over  before  he  arrived."  Now  what  is  to  be  understood  by  this  sen- 
tence? Was  the  rain  over?  or  the  market?  Either  or  both  might  be  in- 
ferred from  the  construction  of  the  sentence,  which,  therefore,  should  be 
written  thus:  "  It  was  raining  when  John  set  out  in  his  cart  to  go  to 
market,  and  he  was  delayed  so  long  that  the  market  was  over  before  he 
arrived." 

Rule. — After  writing  a  sentence  always  look  through  it,  and  see  that 
wherever  the  word  it  is  employed,  it  refers  to  or  carries  the  mind  back 
to  the  object  which  it  is  intended  to  point  out. 

The  general  distinction  between  this  and  that  may  be  thus  defined: 
this  denotes  an  object  present  or  near,  in  time  or  place;  that  something 
which  is  absent. 

These  refers,  in  the  same  manner,  to  present  objects,  while  those 
refers  to  things  that  are  remote. 

Who  changes,  under  certain  conditions,  into  whose  and  whom;  but 
that  and  which  always  remain  the  same,  with  the  exception  of  the  pos- 
sessive case,  as  noted  above. 

That  may  be  applied  to  nouns  or  subjects  of  all  sorts;  as  the  girl 
that  went  to  school,  the  dog  that  bit  me,  the  opinion  that  he  entertains. 

The  misuse  of  these  pronouns  gives  rise  to  more  errors  in  speaking 
and  writing  than  any  other  cause. 

When  you  wish  to  distinguish  between  two  or  more  persons,  say, 
"  Which  is  the  happy  man? "  not  who — "  Which  of  those  ladies  do  you 
admire?  " 

Instead  of  "  Whom  do  you  think  him  to  be? "  say,  "  Who  do  you 
think  him  to  be  ?" 


LANGUAGE:  ITS  USE  AND  MISUSE.  59 

Whom  should  I  see  ? 

To  whom  do  you  speak  ? 

Who  said  so  ? 

Who  gave  it  to  you  ? 

Of  whom  did  you  procure  them  ? 
Who  was  he? 

Who  do  men  say  that  /  am  ? 

Self  should  never  be  added  to  his,  their,  mine,  or  thine. 

Each  is  used  to  denote  every  individual  of  a  number. 

Every  denotes  all  the  individuals  of  a  number. 

Either  and  or  denote  an  alternative:  "I  will  take  either  road,  at 
your  pleasure,"  "I  will  take  this  or  that." 

Neither  means  not  either;  and  nor  means  not  the  other. 

Either  is  sometimes  used  for  each — "Two  thieves  were  crucified,  on 
either  side  one." 

"  Let  each  esteem  others  as  good  as  themselves,"  should  be,  "Let 
each  esteem  others  as  good  as  himself" 

"  There  are  bodies  each  of  which  are  so  small,"  should  be,  "  each  of 
which  is  so  small." 

Do  not  use  double  superlatives,  such  as  most  straightest,  most  high- 
est, most  finest. 

The  term  worser  has  gone  out  of  use;  but  lesser  is  still  retained. 

The  use  of  such  words  as  chief est,  extremest,  etc. ,  has  become  obso- 
lete, because  they  do  not  give  any  superior  force  to  the  meanings  of  the 
primary  words,  chief ,  extreme,  etc. 

Such  expressions  as  more  impossible,  more  indispensable,  more  uni- 
versal, more  uncontrollable,  more  unlimited,  etc.,  are  objectionable,  as 
they  really  enfeeble  the  meaning  which  it  is  the  object  of  the  speaker  or 
writer  to  strengthen.  For  instance,  impossible  gains  no  strength  by 
rendering  it  more  impossible.  This  class  of  error  is  common  with  per- 
sons who  say  "  A  great  large  house,"  "A  great  big  animal,"  "A  little 
small  foot, "  "A  tiny  little  hand. ' ' 

Hence,  whence  and  thence,  denoting  departure,  etc.,  may  be  used 
without  the  word  from.  The  idea  of/Vow  is  included  in  the  word  whence 
— therefore  it  is  unnecessary  to  say,  "From  whence.'1'' 

Hither,  thither  and  whither,  denoting  to  a  place.have  generally  been 
superseded  by  here*  there  and  where.  But  there  is  no  good  reason  why 
they  should  not  be  employed.  If,  however,  they  are  used,  it  is  unnec- 
essary to  add  the  word  to,  because  that  is  implied— "  Whither  are  you 
going  ?  "  "  Where  are  you  going  ?' '  Each  of  these  sentences  is  complete. 

Two  negatives  destroy  each  other,  and  produce  an  affirmative.  "Nor 
did  he  not  observe  them,"  conveys  the  idea  that  he  did  observe  them. 

But  negative  assertions  are  allowable.  "His  manners  are  not  im- 
polite," which  implies  that  his  manners  are  in  some  degree  marked  by 
politeness. 

Instead  of  "Let  you  and  /,"  say  "Let  you  and  me." 

Instead  of  "I  am  not  so  tall  as  him"  say  "I  am  not  so  tall  as  he." 

When  asked  "Who  is  there?"  do  not  answer  "Me,"  but  "I." 

Instead  of  "For  you  and  /,"  say  "For  you  and  me." 

Instead  of  "Says  /,"  say  "I  said." 

Instead  of  "You  are  taller  than  me,"  say  "You  are  taller  than  I." 

Instead  of  ."I  ain't,"  or  "I  arri*t,"  say  "I  am  not." 

Instead  of  "Whether  I  be  present  or  no,"  say  "Whether  I  be  pres- 
ent or  not." 


60  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

For  "Not  that  I  know  on,"  say  "Not  that  I  know." 
Instead  of  "  Was  I  to  do  so,"  say  "Were  I  to  do  so." 
Instead  of  "I  would  do  the  same  if  I  was  him,'  say  "I  would  do  the 

same  if  I  were  he." 

Though  "I  had  as  lief  go  myself,"  is  not  incorrect,  some  prefer  "I 

would  as  soon  go  myself,"  or  "I  would  rather  go  myself." 

It  is  better  to  say  "Six  weeks  ago,"  than  "Six  weeks  back." 
It  is  better  to  say  "Since  which  time,"  than  "Since  when." 
It  is  better  to  say  "I  repeated  it,"  than  "I  said  so  over  again." 

Instead  of  "He  was  too  young  to  have  suffered  much,"  say  "He  was  too 

young  to  suffer  much." 

Instead  of  "Less  friends, "    say    "Fewer    friends."     Less  refers  to 

quantity. 

Instead  of  "A  quantity  of  people,"  say  "A  number  of  people. " 
Instead  of  "As  far  as  I  can  see,"  say  "So  far  as  I  can  see." 
Instead  of  "A  new  pair  of  gloves, "  say  "A  pair  of  new  gloves." 
Instead  of  "I  hope  you'll  think  nothing  on  it,"  say  "I  hope  you'll 

think  nothing  of  it." 

Instead  of  "Restore  it  back  to  me,"  say  "Restore  it  to  me." 
Instead  of  "I  suspect  the  veracity  of  his  story,"  say  "I  doubt  the 

truth  of  his  story. ' ' 

Instead  of  "I  seldom  or  ever  see  him,"  say  "I  seldom  see  him." 
Instead  of  "I  expected  to  have  found  him,"  say  "I  expected  to  find 

him." 

Instead  of  "Who  learns  you  music  ?  "  say  "Who  teaches  you  music  ?" 
Instead  of  I  never  sing  whenever  I  can  help  it,"  say  "I  never  sing 

when  I  can  help  it." 

Instead  of  "Before  I  do  that  I  must  first  ask  leave,"  say  "Before  I 

do  that  I  must  ask  leave." 

Instead  of  saying  "The  observation  of  the  rule,"  say   "The  observ- 
ance of  the  rule." 

Instead  of  "A  man  of  eighty  years  of  age,"  say   "A  man  eighty 

years  old. ' ' 

Instead  of  "Here  lays  his  honored  head,"  say   "Here  lies  his  hon- 
ored head." 

Instead  of  "He  died  from  negligence"  say  "He  died  thro  ugh  neglect," 

or  "in  consequence  of  neglect." 

Instead  of  "Apples  are  plenty,"  say  "Apples  are  plentiful." 
Instead  of  "The  latter  end  of  the  year,"  say  "The  end,  or  the  close  of 

the  year." 

Instead  of  "The  then  government,"  say  "The  government  of  that 

age,  or  century,  or  year  or  time." 

Instead  of  "A  couple  of  chairs,"  say  "Two  chairs." 

Instead  of  "They  are  united  together  in  the  bonds  of  matrimony," 

say  "They  are  united  in  matrimony,"  or  "They  are  married." 
Instead  of  "We  travel  slow"  say  "We  travel  slowly." 
Instead  of  "He  plunged  down  into  the  river,"  say  "He  plunged  into 

the  river." 

Instead  of  "He  jumped  from  off  of  the  scaffolding,"  say  "He  jumped 

off  the  scaffolding." 

Instead  of  "He  came  the  last  of  all,"  say  "He  came  last." 

Instead  of  "universal,"  with  reference  to  things  that  have  any  limit, 

say  "general;"  "generally  approved, "  instead  of  "universally  approved;" 

"generally  beloved,"  instead  of  "universally  beloved." 


LANGUAGE:  ITS  t7S£  AND  MISUSE.  61 

Instead  of  "They  ruined  one  another,"  say  "They  ruined  each 
other. ' ' 

Instead  of  "If  incase  I  succeed,"  say  "If  I  succeed." 

Instead  of  "A  large  enough  room,"  say  "A  room  large  enough." 

Instead  of  "I  am  slight  in  comparison  to  you,"  say  "I  am  slight  in 
comparison  with  you." 

Instead  of  "I  went_/bf  to  see  him,"  say  "I  went  to  see  him." 

Instead  of  "The  cake  is  all  eat  up,"  say  "The  cake  is  all  eaten." 

Instead  of  "The  book  fell  on  the  floor,"  say  "The  book  fell  to  the 
floor." 

Instead  of  "His  opinions  are  approved  of  by  all,"  say  "His  opinions 
are  approved  by  all. ' ' 

Instead  of  "I  will  add  one  more  argument,"  say  "I  will  add  one  ar- 
gument more,"  or  "another  argument." 

Instead  of  "He  stands  six  foot  high,"  say  "He  measures  six  feet," 
or  "His  height  is  six  feet." 

Say  "The  first  two,"  "and  the  last  two,"  instead  of  "the  two  first" 
"the  two  last." 

Instead  of  "Except  I  am  prevented,"  say  "Unless  I  am  prevented." 

Instead  of  "It  grieves  meto.y<?<?  you,"  say  "I  am  grieved  to  see  you." 

Instead  of  "Give  me  them  papers,"  say  "Give  me  those  papers." 

Instead  of  "Those  papers  I  hold  in  my  hand,"  say  "These  papers  I 
hold  in  my  hand." 

Instead  of  "I  could  scarcely  imagine  but  what"  say  "I  could  scarcely 
imagine  but  that." 

Instead  of  "He  was  a  man  notorious  for  his  benevolence,"  say  "He 
was  noted  for  his  benevolence." 

Instead  of  "She  was  a  woman  celebrated  for  her  crimes,"  say  "She 
was  notorious  on  account  of  her  crimes." 

Instead  of  "What  may  your  name  be?"  say  "What  is  your  name?" 

Instead  of  "I  lifted  it  up,"  say  "I  lifted  it.'" 

Instead  of  "It  is  equally  of  the  same  value,"  say  "  It  is  of  the  same 
value,"  or  "equal  value." 

Instead  of  "I  knew  \i  previous  to  your  telling  me,"  say  "I  knew  it 
previously  to  your  telling  me." 

Instead  of  "You  was  out  when  I  called,"  say  "You  were  out  when 
I  called." 

Instead  of  "I  thought  I  should  have  won  this  game,"  say  "I  thought 
I  should  win  this  game." 

Instead  of  "This  much  is  certain,"  say,  "Thus  much  is  certain,"  or 
"So  much  is  certain." 

Instead  of  "Put  your  watch  in  your  pocket,"  say  "Put  your  watch 
into  your  pocket." 

Instead  of  "He  has  got  riches,"  say  "He  has  riches." 

Instead  of  "Will  you  set  down  ?"  say  "Will  you  sit  down  ?" 

Instead  of  "No  thankee  "  say  "No,  thank  you." 

Instead  of  "I  cannot  do  it  without  farther  means,"  say  "I  cannot  do 
it  without  further  means." 

Instead  of  "No  sooner  but"  or  "No  other  but"  say  "than." 

Instead  of  "Nobody  else  but  her,"  say  "Nobody  but  her." 

Instead  of  "He  fell  down  from  the  balloon,"  say  "He  fell  from  the 
balloon." 

Instead  of  "He  rose  up  from  the  ground,"  say  "He  rose  from  the 
ground." 


62  MANUAL  OP  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

Instead  of  "These  kind  of  oranges  are  not  good,"  say  "This  kind  of 

oranges  is  not  good." 

Instead  of  "Somehow  or  another,"  say  "Somehow  or  other." 
Instead  of  "  Will  I  give  you  some  more  tea?"  say  "Shall  I  give  you 

some  more  tea?" 

Instead  of  "Oh,  dear!  what  willl  do?"  say  "What  shall  I  do?" 

Instead  of  "To  be  given  away  gratis,'"  say  "To  be  given  away." 

Instead  of  "Will  you  enter  in?"  say  "Will  you  enter?" 

Instead  of ' '  This  three  days  or  more, ' '  say  '  'These  three  days  or  more. ' ' 

Instead  of  "Heisabad^rawzwdTzaw,"  say  "He  is  not  a  grammarian." 

Instead  of  "We  accuse  him  for,"  say  "We  accuse  him  of." 

Instead  of  We  acquit  "hinifrom,"  say  "We  acquit  him  of." 

Instead  of  "I  am  averse  from  that,"  say  "I  am  averse  to  that." 

Instead  of  "I  confide  on  you,"  say  "I  confide  in  you." 

Instead  of  "As  soon  as  ever"  say  "As  soon  as." 

Instead  of  "The  very  best,"  or  "The  very  worst,"  say  "The  best,  or 

the  worst." 

Avoid  such  phrases  as  "No  great  shakes,"   "Nothing  to  boast  of," 

"Down  in  my  boots,"  "Suffering  from  the  blues."     All  such  sentences 

indicate  vulgarity. 

Instead  of  "No  one  hasn't  called,"  say  "No  one  has  called." 
Instead  of  "You  have  a  right  to  pay  me,"  say  "It  is  right  that  you 

should  pay  me." 

Instead  of  "I  am  going  over  the  bridge,"  say  "I  am  going  across  the 

bridge." 

Instead  of  "I  should  just  think  I  could,"  say  "I  think  I  can." 
Instead  of  "There  has  been  a  good  deal,"    say  "There  has  been 

much." 

Instead  of  saying,  "The  effort  you  are  makingy^  meeting  the  bill," 

say  "The  effort  you  are  making  to  meet  the  bill." 

To  say  "Do  not  give  him  no  more  of  your  money,"  is  equivalent  to 

saying  "Give  him  some  of  your  money."     Say  "Do  not  give  him  any  of 

your  money." 

Instead  of  saying  "They  are  not  what  nature  designed  them,"  say 

"They  are  not  what  nature  designed  them  to  be." 

Instead  of  saying  ' '  I  had  not   the   pleasure  of  hearing   his  senti- 

jnents  when  I  wrote  the  letter,"   say  "I  had  not  the  pleasure  of  hav- 
ing heard,"  etc. 

Instead  of  "The  quality  of  the  apples  were  good,"  say  "The  quality 

of  the  apples  was  good." 

Instead  of  "The  want  of  learning,  courage  and  energy  are  more  vis- 
ible," say  "Is  more  visible." 

Instead  of  "We  die/<?rwant,"  say  "We  die  of  want." 

Instead  of  "He  died  by  fever,"  say  "He  died  of  fever." 

Instead  of  "I  enjoy  bad  health,"  say  "My  health  is  not  good." 

Instead  of  "Either  of  the  three,"  say  "Any  one  of  the  three." 

Instead  of  "Better  nor  that,"  say  "Better  than  that." 

Instead  of  "We  often  think  on  you,"  say  "We  often  think  of  you." 

Instead  of  "Mine  is  so  good  as  yours,"  say  "Mine  is  as  good  as 

yours. ' ' 

Instead  of  "This  town  is  not  as  large  as  we  thought, "  say  "This  town 

is  not  so  large  as  we  thought." 

Instead  of  "£ecausevf\\yl"  say  "Why?" 
Instead  of  "That  there  boy,"  say  "That  boy." 


LANGUAGE:  ITS  USE  AND  MISUSE.  63 

Instead  of  "  That  horse  is  not  much  worth,"  say  "The  horse  is  not 
worth  much." 

Instead  of  "The  subject-matter  of  debate,"  say  "The  subject  of  de- 
bate." 

Instead  of  saying  "When  he  was  come  back,"  say  "When  he  had 
come  back." 

Instead  of  saying  "His  health  has  been  shook,"  say  "His  health  has 
been  shaken.' 

Instead  of  "It  was  spoke  in  my  presence,"  say  "It  was  spoken  in  my 
presence." 

Instead  of  "Very  right,"  or  "  Very  wrong,"  say  "Right,"  or 
"Wrong." 

Instead  of  "The  mortgageor  paid  him  the  money,"  say  "The  mort- 
gagee paid  him  the  money,"  the  mortgagee  lends;  the  mortgageor 
borrows. ' ' 

Instead  of  "I  took  you  to  be  another  person,"  say  "I  mistook  you  for 
another  person." 

Instead  of  "On  either  side  of  the  river,"  say  "On  each  side  of  the 
river." 

Instead  of  "There's  fifty,"  say  "There  are  fifty." 

Instead  of  "The  best  of  the  two,"  say  "The  better  of  the  two." 

Instead  of  "My  clothes  have  become  too  snta  I  for  me,"  say  "I  have 
grown  too  stout  for  my  clothes." 

Instead  of  "Two  spoonsful  of  physic,"  say  "Two  spoonfuls  of 
physic." 

Instead  of  "She  said,  says  she,"  say  "She  said." 

Avoid  such  phrases  as  "I  said,  says  I,"  "Thinks  I  to  myself,"  etc. 

Instead  of  "I  don't  think  so,"  say  "I  think  not." 

Instead  of  "He  was  in  eminent  danger,"  say  "He  was  in  imminent 
danger." 

Instead  of  "The  weather  is  hot, "  say  "The  weather  is  very  warm." 

Instead  of  "I  sweat,"  say  "I  perspire." 

Instead  of  "I  only  want  two  dollars,"  say  "I  want  only  two  dollars." 

Instead  of  "Whatsomever,"  say  "Whatever,"  or  "Whatsoever." 

Avoid  such  exclamations  as  "God  bless  me!"  "God  deliver  me!" 
"By  Gosh  !"  "My  Lord  !"  "Upon  my  soul !"  etc.,  which  are  vulgar  on 
the  one  hand,  and  savor  of  impiety  on  the  other,  for — "Thou  shalt  not 
take  the  name  of  the  Lord  thy  God  in  vain." 


THE  ART  OF  LETTER-WRITING. 

A  business  letter  should  be  clear,  explicit  and  concise. 

Figures  should  be  written  out,  except  dates;  sums  of  money  should 
be  both  in  writing  and  figures. 

Copies  of  all  business  letters  should  be  kept. 

When  you  receive  a  letter  containing  money  it  should  be  immedi- 
ately counted  and  the  amount  marked  on  the  top  margin. 

Letters  to  a  stranger  about  one's  own  personal  affairs,  requesting 
answer,  should  always  inclose  a  stamp. 

Short  sentences  are  preferable  to  long  ones. 

Letters  requiring  an  answer  should  have  prompt  attention. 

Never  write  a  letter  while  under  excitement  or  when  in  an  unpleas- 
ant humor. 

Never  write  an  anonymous  letter. 


64  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

Do  not  fill  your  letter  with  repetitions  and  apologies. 

Avoid  writing  with  a  pencil.  Use  black  ink.  Blue  or  violet  may  be 
used,  but  black  is  better. 

In  acknowledging  receipt  of  a  letter  always  mention  date. 

Note,  packet  or  letter  size  should  be  used.  It  is  unbusiness-like  and 
very  poor  taste  to  use  foolscap  or  mere  scraps. 

If  single  sheets  are  used  they  should  be  carefully  paged.  Business 
letters  should  be  written  on  but  one  side  of  the  sheet. 

A  letter  sheet  should  be  folded  from  bottom  upward.  Bring  lower 
edge  near  the  top  so  as  to  make  the  length  a  trifle  shorter  than  the  enve- 
lope, then  fold  twice  the  other  way.  The  folded  sheet  should  be  just 
slightly  smaller  than  the  envelope. 

If  note  sheet,  fold  twice  from  bottom  upward.  If  envelope  is  nearly 
square,  single  fold  of  note  sheet  is  sufficient. 

Envelopes,  like  the  paper,  should  be  white,  and  of  corresponding 
size  and  quality.  It  is  poor  taste  to  use  colored  paper,  or  anything  but 
black  ink. 

The  postage  stamp  should  be  placed  at  the  upper  right  hand  corner. 

The  address  should  be  so  plainly  written  that  no  possible  mistake 
could  be  made  either  in  name  or  address.  It  is  unnecessary  to  add  the 
letters  P.  O.  after  the  name  of  the  place.  When  the  letter  reaches  the 
town  it  is  not  likely  to  go  to  the  court  house  or  jail.  Letters  of  introduc- 
tion should  bear  upon  envelope  the  name  and  address  of  the  person  to 
whom  sent,  also  the  words  in  the  lower  left  hand  corner,  "Introducing 
Mr.  . 

PUNCTUATION  AS  IT  SHOULD  BE. 

A  period  (.)  after  every  declarative  and  every  imperative  sentence;  as, 
It  is  true.  Do  right. 

A  period  after  every  abbreviation;  as,  Dr.,  Mr.,  Capt. 

An  interrogation  point  (?)  after  every  question. 

The  exclamation  point  (!)  after  exclamations;  as,  Alas!  Oh,  how 
lovely! 

Quotation  marks  ("  ")  enclose  quoted  expressions;  as,  Socrates  said: 
"I  believe  the  soul  is  immortal." 

A  colon  (:)is  used  between  parts  of  a  sentence  that  are  subdivided  by 
semicolons. 

A  colon  is  used  before  a  quotation,  enumeration,  or  observation,  that 
is  introduced  by  as  follows,  the  following,  or  any  similar  expression;  as, 
Send  me  the  following:  10  doz.  "Armstrong's  Treasury." 

A  semicolon  (;)  between  parts  that  are  subdivided  by  commas. 

The  semicolon  is  used  also  between  clauses  or  members  that  are  dis- 
connected in  sense;  as,  Man  grows  old;  he  passes  away;  all  is  uncertain. 
When  as,  namely,  that  is,  is  used  to  introduce  an  example  or  enumera- 
tion, a  semicolon  is  put  before  it  and  a  comma  after  it;  as,  The  night 
was  cold;  that  is,  for  the  time  of  year. 

A  comma  (,)  is  used  to  set  off  co-ordinate  clauses,  and  subordinate 
clauses  not  restrictive;  as,  Good  deeds  are  never  lost,  though  sometimes 
forgotten. 

A  comma  is  used  to  set  off  transposed  phrases  and  clauses;  as,  "When 
the  wicked  entice  thee,  consent  thou  not. ' ' 

A  comma  is  used  to  set  off  interposed  words,  phrases  and  clauses;  as, 
Let  us,  if  we  can,  make  others  happy. 


LANGUAGE:  ITS  USE  AND  MISUSE.  65 

A  comma  is  used  between  similar  or  repeated  words  or  phrases;  as, 
The  sky,  the  water,  the  trees,  were  illumined  with  sunlight. 

A  comma  is  used  to  mark  an  ellipsis,  or  the  omission  of  a  verb  or 
other  important  word. 

A  comma  is  used  to  set  off  a  short  quotation  informally  introduced; 
as,  Who  said,  ''The  good  die  young"? 

A  comma  is  used  whenever  necessary  to  prevent  ambiguity. 

The  marks  of  parenthesis  ( )  are  used  to  enclose  an  interpolation  where 
such  interpolation  is  by  the  writer  or  speaker  of  the  sentence  in  which  it 
occurs.  Interpolations  by  an  editor  or  by  anyone  other  than  the  author 
of  the  sentence,  should  be  inclosed  in  brackets,  [  ]. 

Dashes  ( — )  may  be  used  to  set  off  a  parenthetical  expression,  also  to 
denote  an  interruption  or  a  sudden  change  of  thought  or  a  significant 
pause. 

THE  USE  OF  CAPITALS. 

1.  Every  entire  sentence  should  begin  with  a  capital. 

2.  Proper  names,  and  adjectives  derived  from  these,  should  begin 
with  a  capital. 

3.  All  appellations  of  the  Deity  should  begin  with  a  capital. 

4.  Official  and  honorary  titles  begin  with  a  capital. 

5.  Every  line  of  poetry  should  begin  with  a  capital. 

6.  Titles  of  books  and  the  heads  of  their  chapters  and  divisions  are 
printed  in  capitals. 

7.  The  pronoun  I,  and  the  exclamation,  O,  are  always  capitals. 

8.  The  days  of  the  week,  and  the  months  of  the  year,  begin  with 
capitals. 

9.  Every  quotation  should  begin  with  a  capital  letter. 

10.  Names  of  religious  denominations  begin  with  capitals. 

11.  In  preparing  accounts,  each  item  should  begin  with  a  capital. 

12.  Any  word  of  special  importance  may  begin  with  a  capital. 


ANALYSIS  OF  VOLAPUK. 

Numerous  efforts  have  been  made  for  two  centuries  past  to  found  a 
universal  language,  but  these  have  all  seemed  to  lack  some  important 
particular  of  success.  The  most  recent  attempt  in  this  line  is  much  more 
promising  than  any  which  has  preceded  it.  Volapuk  is  the  invention  of 
the  Rev.  Dr.  Johan  Martin  Schleyer,  of  Baden,  Germany,  an  accom- 
plished linguistic  student.  He  can  speak  and  write,  it  is  said,  twenty- 
eight  languages.  He  had  been  working  upon  his  universal  language 
scheme  for  some  time  when  in  1879  he  announced  it,  and  he  had  so  far 
perfected  the  plan  of  it  in  1880  as  to  publish  a  pamphlet  concerning  it. 
The  name  is  from  vola,  of  the  world,  and  puk,  language.  It  is  founded 
on  the  model  of  the  Aryan  tongues,  the  signs  representing  letters  and 
words,  not  ideas;  and  all  the  root  words,  or  nearly  all,  are  taken  from 
living  modern  tongues,  the  English  being  used  to  a  much  greater  extent 
than  any  other  language.  The  Roman  alphabet  is  used,  with  some  Ger- 
man dotted  letters,  and  the  continental  sounds  are  given  to  all  letters. 
All  words  are  phonetically  spelled.  The  Arabic  numerals  are  used,  and 
the  names  of  the  numbers  are  indicated  by  the  use  of  the  vowels  in  reg- 
ular order.  All  plurals  are  formed  in  "s."  All  verbs  are  regular,  and 
there  is  only  one  conjugation.  Tenses  are  shown  by  vowels  before  the 
verbs;  preceding  these  vowels  by  "p"  gives  the  passive  voice.  The  per- 

U.  I.- 


MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORM  A  TION. 


sonal  pronoun  placed  after  the  root  shows  the  person.  One  advantage 
of  this  language  is  that  it  can  be  learned  very  quickly.  It  is  estimated 
that  over  10,000  persons  in  Europe  have  mastered  it,  and  it  has  been  tried 
to  some  extent  in  this  country  also.  If  it  could  be  adopted  in  commer- 
cial transactions  between  nations  speaking  different  languages  it  would, 
no  doubt,  prove  a  very  great  advantage  as  well  as  an  economy. 


THE  MEANING  OF   CHRISTIAN   NAMES. 

To  trace  the  origin  of  names  is  always  a  pleasing  and  interesting 
task.  We  have  prepared  for  our  readers  the  subjoined  list  of  Christian 
or  first  names  of  men  and  women: 

CHRISTIAN   NAMES   OF  MEN. 


Aaron,  Hebrew,  a  mountain,  a  loft. 

Abel,  Hebrew,  vanity. 

Abraham,  Hebrew,  the  father  of  many. 

Absalom,  Hebrew,  the  father  of  peace. 

Adam,  Hebrew,  red  earth. 

Adolphus,  Saxon,  happiness  and  help. 

Adrian,  Latin,  one  who  helps. 

Alan,    Celtic,    harmony;     or    Slavonic,    a 

hound. 

Albert,  Saxon,  all  bright. 
Alexander,  Greek,  a  helper  of  men. 
Alfred,  Saxon,  all  peace. 
Alonzo,  form  of  Alphonso,  q.  v. 
Alphonso,  German,  ready  or  willing. 
Ambrose,  Greek,  immortal. 
Amos,  Hebrew,  a  burden. 
Andrew,  Greek,  courageous. 
Anthony,  Latin,  flourishing. 
Archibald,  German,  a  bold  observer. 
Arnold,  German,  a  maintainer  of  honor. 
Arthur,  British,  a  strong  man. 

ASfSSS      \*"tin,  venerable,  grand. 
Baldwin,  German,  a  bold  winner. 
Bardulph,  German,  a  famous  helper. 
Barnaby,  Hebrew,  a  prophet's  son. 
Bartholomew,  Hebrew,  the  son  of  him  who 

made  the  waters  to  rise. 
Beaumont,  French,  a  pretty  mount. 
Bede,  Saxon,  prayer. 

Benjamin,  Hebrew,ihQ  son  of  a  right  hand. 
Beuuet,  Latin,  blessed. 
Bernard,  German,  bear's  heart. 
Bertram,  German,  fair,  illustrious. 
Bertrand,  German,  bright  raven. 
Boniface,  Latin,  a  well  doer. 
Brian,  French,  having  a  thundering  voice. 
Cadwallader,  British,  valiant  in  war. 
Caesar,  Latin,  adorned  with  hair. 
Caleb,  Hebrew,  a  dog. 
Cecil,  Latin,  dim-sighted. 
Charles,  German,  noble-spirited. 
Christopher,  Greek,  bearing  Christ. 
Clement,  Latin,  mild  tempered. 
Conrad,  German,  able  counsel. 
Constantine,  Latin,  resolute. 
Cornelius,  Latin,  meaning  uncertain. 
Crispin,  Latin,  having  curled  locks. 
Cuthbert,  Saxon,  known  famously. 
Dan,  Hebrew,  judgment. 
Daniel,  Hebrew,  God  is  judge. 
David,  Hebrew,  well-beloved. 
Denis,    Greek,  belonging    to   the    God  of 

wine. 


Douglas,  Gaelic,  dark  gray. 

Duncan,  Saxon,  brown  chief. 

Dunstan,  Saxon,  most  high. 

Edgar,  Saxon,  happy  honor. 

Edmund,  Saxon,  happy  peace. 

Edward,  Saxon,  happy  keeper. 

Edwin,  Saxon,  happy  conqueror. 

Egbert,  Saxon,  ever  bright. 

Elijah,  Hebrew,  God  the  Lord. 

Elisha,  Hebrew,  the  salvation  of  God. 

Emmanuel,  Hebrew,  God  with  us. 

Enoch,  Hebrew,  dedicated. 

Ephraim,  Hebrew,  fruitful. 

Erasmus,    Greek,    lovely,    worthy    to   be 

loved. 

Ernest,  Greek,  earnest,  serious. 
Esau,  Hebrew,  hairy. 
Eugene,  Greek,  noble,  descended. 
Eustace,  Greek,  standing  firm. 
Evan  or  Ivan,  British,  the  same  as  John.. 
Everard,  German,  well  reported. 
Ezekiel,  Hebrew,  the  strength  of  God. 
Felix,  Latin,  happy. 
Ferdinand,  German,  pure  peace. 
Fergus,  Saxon,  manly  strength. 
Francis,  German,  free. 
Frederic,  German,  rich  peace. 
Gabriel,  Hebrew,  the  strength  of  God. 
Goeffrey,  German,  joyful. 
George,  Greek,  a  husbandman. 
Gerard,  Saxon,  strong  with  a  spear. 
Gideon,  Hebrew,  a  breaker. 
Gilbert,  Saxon,  bright  as  gold. 
Giles,  Greek,  a  little  goat. 
Godard,  German,  a  godly  disposition. 
Godfrey,  German,  God's  peace. 
Godwin,  German,  victorious  in  God. 
Griffith,  British,  having  great  faith. 
Guy,  French,  a  leader. 
Hannibal,  Punic,  a  gracious  lord. 
Harold,  Saxon,  a  champion. 
Hector,  Greek,  a  stout  defender. 
Henry,  German,  a  rich  lord. 
Herbert,  German,  a  bright  lord. 
Hercules,  Greek,  the  glory  of  Hera  or  Juno. 
Hezekiah,  Hebrew,  cleaving  to  the  I,ord. 
Horace,  Latin,  meaning  uncertain. 
Horatio,  Italian,  worthy  to  be  beheld. 
Howell,  British,  sound  or  whole. 
Hubert,  German,  a  bright  color. 
Hugh,  Dutch,  high,  lofty. 
Humphrey,  German,  domestic  peace. 
Ignatius,  Latin,  fierv. 
Ingram,  German,  of  angelic  purity. 


LANGUAGE:  ITS  USE  AND  MISUSE. 


Isaac,  Hebrew,  laughter. 

Jabez,  Hebrew,  one  who  causes  pain. 

Jacob,  Hebrew,  a  supplanter. 

James  or  Jacques,  beguiling. 

Joab,  Hebrew,  Fatherhood. 

Job,  Hebrew,  sorrowing. 

Toel,  Hebrew,  acquiescing. 

ohn,  Hebrew,  the  grace  of  the  Lord. 

onah,  Htbrew,  a  dove. 

onathan,  Hebrew,  the  gift  of  the  Lord. 

oscelin,  German,  just. 

oseph,  Hebrew,  addition. 

oshua,  Hebrew,  a  Savior. 

osiah  or  Josias,  Hebrew,  the  fire  of  the 
Lord. 

Julius,  Latin,  soft  hair. 
Lambert,  Saxon,  a  fair  lamb. 
Lancelot,  Spanish,  a  little  lance. 
Laurence,  Latin,  crowned  with  laurels. 
Lazarus,  Hebrew,  destitute  of  help. 
Leonard,  German,  like  a  lion. 
Leopold,  German,  defending  the  people. 
Lewis  or  Louis,  French,   the  defender  oi 

the  people. 

Lionel,  Latin,  a  little  lion. 
Llewellin,  British,  like  a  lion. 
Llewellyn,  Celtic,  lightning. 
Lucius,  Latin,  shining. 
Luke,  Greek,  a  wood  or  grove. 
Manfred,  German,  great  peace. 
Mark,  Latin,  a  hammer. 
Martin,  Latin,  martial. 
Matthew,  Hebrew,  a  gift  or  present. 
Maurice,  Latin,  sprung  of  a  Moor. 
Meredith,  British,  the  roaring  of  the  sea. 
Michael,  Hebrew,  Who  is  like  God  ? 
Morgan,  British,  a  mariner. 
Moses,  Hebrew,  drawn  out. 
Nathaniel,  Hebrew,  the  gift  of  God. 
Neal,  French,  somewhat  black. 
Nicholas,  Greek,  victorious  over  the  people. 
Noel,  French,  belonging  to  one's  nativity. 
Norman,  French,  one  born  in   Normandy. 
Obadiah,  Hebrew,  the  servant  of  the  Lord. 
Oliver,  Latin,  an  olive. 
Orlando,  Italian,  counsel  for  the  land. 
Orson,  Latin,  a  bear. 
Osmund,  Saxon,  house  peace. 
Oswald,  Saxon,  ruler  ofa  house. 
Owen,  British,  well  descended. 
Patrick,  Latin,  a  nobleman. 
Paul,  Latin,  small,  little. 
Paulinus,  Latin,  little  Paul. 


Percival,  French,  a  place  in  France. 
"Percy, English,  adaptation  of  "pierce  eye." 
Peregrine,  Latin,  outlandish. 
Peter,  Greek,  a  rock  or  stone. 
Philip,  Greek,  a  lover  of  horses. 
Phineas,  Hebrew,  of  bold  countenance. 
Ralph,  contracted  from  Randolph,  or 
Randal,  or  Ranulph,  Saxon,  pure  help. 
Raymond,  German,  quiet  peace. 
Reuben,  Hebrew,  the  son  of  vision. 
Reynold,  German,  a  lover  of  purity. 
Richard,  Saxon,  powerful. 
Robert,  German,  famous  in  counsel. 
Roderick,  German,  rich  in  fame. 
Roger,  German,  strong  counsel. 
Roland  or  Rowland,    German,  counsel  for 

the  land. 

Rollo,  form  of  Roland,  q.  v. 
Rufus,  Latin,  reddish. 
Samson,  Hebrew,  a  little  son. 
Samuel,  Hebrew,  heard  by  God. 
Saul,  Hebrew,  desired. 
Sebastian,  Greek,  to  be  reverenced. 
Seth,  Hebrew,  appointed. 
Silas,  Latin,  sylvan  or  living  in  the  woods. 
Simeon,  Hebrew,  hearing. 
Simon,  Hebrew,  obedient. 
Solomon,  Hebrew,  peaceable. 
Stephen,  Greek,  a  crown  or  garland. 
Swithin,  Saxon,  very  high. 
Theobald,  Saxon,  bold  over  the  people. 
Theodore,  Greek,  the  gift  of  God. 
Theodosius,  Greek,  given  of  God. 
Theophilus,  Greek,  a  lover  of  God. 
Thomas,  Hebrew,  a  twin. 
Timothy,  Greek,  a  fearer  of  God. 
Titus,  Greek,  meaning  uncertain. 
Toby,  or  Tobias,  Hebrew,  the  goodness  of 

the  Lord. 

Valentine,  Latin,  powerful. 
Victor,  Latin,  conqueror. 
Vincent,  Latin,  conquering. 
Vivian,  Latin,  living. 
Walter,  German,  a  conqueror. 
Walwin,  German,  a  conqueror. 
Wilfred,  Saxon,  bold  and  peaceful. 
William,  German,  defending  many. 
Zaccheus,  Syriac,  innocent. 
Zachary,  Hebrew,  remembering  the  Lord. 
Zachariah,    Hebrew,    remembered   of  the 

Lord. 

Zebedee,  Syriac,  having  an  inheritance. 
Zedekiah,  Hebrew,  the  justice  of  the  Lord- 


CHRISTIAN   NAMES   OF  WOMEN. 


Ada,  German,  same  as  Edith,  q.  v. 

Adela,  German,  same  as  Adeline,  q.  -v. 

Adelaide,  German,  same  as  Adeline,  ,q.  v. 

Adeline,  German,  a  princess. 

Agatha,  Greek,  good. 

Agnes,  German,  chaste. 

Alethea,  Greek,  the  truth. 

Althea,  Greek,  hunting. 

Alice,  Alicia,  German,  noble. 

Alma,  Latin,  benignant. 

Amabel,  Latin,  lovable. 

Amy,  Amelia,  French,  a  beloved. 

Angelina,  Greek,  lovely,  angelic. 

Anna,  or  Anne,  Hebrew,  gracious. 

Arabella,  Latin,  a  fair  altar. 

Aureola,  Latin,  like  gold. 


Aurora,  Latin,  morning  brightness. 

Barbara,  Latin,  foreign  or  strange' 

Beatrice,  Latin,  making  happy. 

Bella,  Italian,  beautiful. 

Benedicta,  Latin,  blessed. 

Bernice,  Greek,  bringing  victory. 

Bertha,  Greek,  bright  or  famous. 

Bessie,  short  form  of  Elizabeth,  q.  v. 

Blanch,  French,  fair. 

Bona,  Latin,  good. 

Bridget,  Irish,  shining  bright 

Camilla,  Latin,  attendant  at  a  sacrifice. 

Carlotta,  Italian,  same  as  Charlotte,  q.  v. 

Caroline,  feminine  o/Carolus,  the  Latin  of 

Charles,  noble  spirited. 
Cassandra,  Greek,  a  reformer  of  men. 


68 


MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION, 


Catherine,  Greek,  pure  or  clean. 

Cecilia,  Latin,  from  Cecil. 

Cecily,  a  corruption  of  Cecilia,  q.  v. 

Chanty,  Greek,  love,  bounty. 

Charlotte,  French,  all  noble. 

Chloe,  Greek,  a  green  herb. 

Christiana,  Greek,  belonging  to  Christ. 

Clara,  Latin,  clear  or  bright. 

Clarissa,  Latin,  clear  or  bright. 

Constance,  Latin,  constant. 

Dagmar,  German,  joy  of  the  Danes. 

Deborah,  Hebrew,  a  bee. 

Diana,  Greek,  Jupiter's  daughter. 

Dorcas,  Greek,  a  wild  rose. 

Dorothea  or  Dorothy,   Greek,   the   gift  of 

God. 

Edith,  Saxon,  happiness. 
Eleanor,  Saxon,  all  fruitful. 
Eliza,  Elizabeth,  Hebrew,  the  oath  of  God. 
Ellen,  another  form  0/Helen,  q.  v. 
Emily,  corrupted  from  Amelia. 
Emma,  German,  a  nurse. 
Esther,  Hesther,  Hebrew,  secret. 
Eudoia,  Greek,  prospering  in  the  way. 
Eudora,  Greek,  good  gift. 
Eudosia,  Greek,  good  gift  or  well-given. 
Eugenia,  French,  well-born. 
Eunice,  Greek,  fair  victory. 
Eva,  or  Eve,  Hebrew,  causing  life. 
Fanny,  diminutive  of  Frances,  q.  v. 
Fenella,  Greek,  bright  to  look  on. 
Flora,  Latin,  flowers. 
Florence,  Latin,  blooming,  flourishing. 
Frances,  German,  free. 
Gertrude,  German,  all  truth. 
Grace,  Latin,  favor. 
Hagar,  Hebrew,  a  stranger. 
Hadassah,  Hebrew,  form  o/Esther,  q.  v. 
Hannah,  Hebrew,  gracious. 
Harriet,  German,  head  of  the  house. 
Helen,  or  Helena,  Greek,  alluring. 
Henrietta,  fern,  and  dim.  of  Henry,  q.  v. 
Hephzibah,  Hebrew,  my  delight  is  in  her. 
Hilda,  German,  warrior  maiden. 
Honora,  Latin,  honorable. 
Huldah,  Hebrew,  a  weazel. 
Isabella,  Spanish,  fair  Eliza. 
Jane,  or  Jeanne,  fern.  of  John,  q.  v. 
Janet,  Jeanette,  little  Jane. 
Jemima,  Hebrew,  a  dove. 
Joan,  Hebrew,  fern,  of  John,  q.  v. 
Joanna,  or  Johanna,  form  o/Joan,  q.  v. 
Joyce,  French,  pleasant. 
Judith,  Hebrew,  praising. 
Julia,  Juliana,  feminine  oj  Julius,  q.  v. 
Katherine,ybrw  of  Catherine,  q.  v. 
Keturah,  Hebrew,  incense. 
Kezsiah,  Hebrew,  cassia. 
Laura,  Latin,  a  laurel. 
Lavinia,  Latin,  of  Latium. 
Letitia,  Latin,  joy  or  gladness. 
Lilian,  Lily,  Latin,  a  lily. 
Lois,  Greek,  better. 
Louisa,  German,  fem.  of  Louis,  q.  v. 
Lucretia,  Latin,  a  chaste  Roman  lady. 


Lucy,  Latin,  feminine  of  Lucius. 

Lydia,  Greek,  descended  from  Lud. 

Mabel,  Latin,  lovely  or  lovable. 

Madeline,  form  of  Magdalen,  q.  v. 

Magdalen,  Syriac,  magnificent. 

Margaret,  Greek,  a  pearl. 

Maria,  Marie,  form  s  of  Mary,  q.  v. 

Martha,  Hebrew,  bitterness. 

Mary,  Hebrew,  bitter. 

Matilda,  German,  a  lady  of  honor. 

Maud,  German  form  of  Matilda,  q.  v. 

May,    Latin,    month  of  May,  or    dim,  cf 

Mary,  q.  v. 

Mercy,  English,  compassion. 
Mildred,  Saxon,  speaking  mild. 
Minnie,  dim.  of  Margaret,  q.  v. 
Naomi,  Hebrew,  alluring. 
Nest,  British,  the  same  as  Agnes. 
Nicola,  Greek,  feminine  0/Nichclas. 
Olive,  Olivia,  Latin,  an  olive. 
Olympia,  Greek,  heavenly. 
Ophelia,  Greek,  a  serpent. 
Parnell,  or  Petronilla,  little  Peter. 
Patience,  Latin,  bearing  patiently. 
Paulina,  Latin,  feminine  of  Pauliuus. 
Penelope,  Greek,  a  weaver. 
Persis,  Greek,  destroying. 
Philadelphia,  Greek,  brotherly  love. 
Philippa,  Greek,  feminine  of  Philip. 
Phoebe,  Greek,  the  light  of  life. 
Phyllis,  Greek,  a  green  bough. 
Polly,  variation  of  Molly,  dim.  of  Ma.~y,  q.  v. 
Priscilla,  Latin,  somewhat  old. 
Prudence,  Latin,  discretion. 
Pysche,  Greek,  the  soul. 
Rachel,  Hebrew,  a  lamb. 
Rebecca,  Hebrew,  fat  or  plump. 
Rhoda,  Greek,  a  rose. 
Rosa,  or  Rose,  Latin,  a  rose. 
Rosalie,  or  Rosaline,  Latin,  little  Rose. 
Rosalind,  Latin,  beautiful  as  a  rose. 
Rosabella,  Italian,  a  fair  rose. 
Rosamond,  Saxon,  Rose  of  peace. 
Roxana,  Persian,  dawn  of  day. 
Ruth,  Hebrew,  trembling,  or  beauty. 
Sabina,  Latin,  sprung  from  the  Sabines. 
Salome,  Hebrew,  perfect. 
Sapphira,  Greek,  like  a  sapphire  stone. 
Sarah,  Hebrew,  a  princess. 
Selina,  Greek,  the  moon. 
Sibylla,  Greek,  the  counsel  of  God. 
Sophia,  Greek,  wisdom. 
Sophronia,  Greek,  of  a  sound  mind 
Susan,  Susanna,  Hebrew,  a  lily. 
Tabitha,  Syriac,  a  roe. 
Temperance,  Latin,  moderation 
Theodosia,  Greek,  given  by  God 
Tryphena,  Greek,  delicate. 
Tryphosa,  Greek,  delicious. 
Victoria,  Latin,  victory. 
Vida,  Erse,  feminine  of  David. 
Ursula,  Latin,  a  she  bear. 
Walburga,  Saxon,  gracious. 
Winifred,  Saxon,  winning  peace 
Zenobia,  Greek,  life  from  Jupitei 


A    PUABLE    LANGUAGE. 


trated 


The  flexibility   of  the  English  language  is  in  no  way  better  illus- 
ed  than  by  the  use  made  of  it  by  sportsmen  in  designating  particular 


LANGUAGE:  ITS  USE  AND  MISUSE.  69 

groups  of  animals.     The  following   is  a  list  of  the  terms  which  have 
been  applied  to  the  various  classes: 


A  covey  of  patridges. 

A  nide  of  pheasants. 

A  wisp  of  snipe. 

A  flight  of  doves  or  swallows. 

A  muster  of  peacocks. 

A  siege  of  herons. 

A  building  of  rooks. 

A  brood  of  grouse. 

A  plump  of  wild  fowl. 

A  stand  of  plovers. 

A  watch  of  nightingales. 

A  clattering  of  cloughs. 

A  flock  of  geese. 

A  herd  or  bunch  of  cattle. 

A  bevy  of  quails. 


A.  cast  of  hawks. 
Atripofdottrell. 
A  swarm  of  bees. 
A  school  of  whales. 
A  shoal  of  herrings. 
A  herd  of  swine. 
A  skulk  of  foxes. 
A  pack  of  wolves. 
A  drove  of  oxen. 
A  sounder  of  hogs. 
A  troop  of  monkeys. 
A  pride  of  lions. 
A  sleuth  of  bears. 
A  gang  of  elk. 


GUIDE  TO  CORRECT  PRONUNCIATION. 

Accent  is  a  particular  stress  or  force  of  the  voice  upon  certain  sylla- 
bles or  words.  This  mark  '  in  printing  denotes  the  syllable  upon  which 
the  stress  or  force  of  the  voice  should  be  placed. 

A  word  may  have  more  than  one  accent.  Take  as  an  instance  aspira- 
tion. In  uttering  this  word  we  give  a  marked  emphasis  of  the  voice 
upon  the  first  and  third  syllables,  and  therefore  those  syllables  are  said 
to  be  accented.  The  first  of  these  accents  is  less  distinguishable  than  the 
second,  upon  which  we  dwell  longer,  therefore  the  second  accent  in  point 
of  order  is  called  the  primary,  or  chief  accent  of  the  word. 

When  the  full  accent  falls  on  a  vowel,  that  vowel  should  have  a  long 
sound,  as  in  vo'cal;  but  when  it  falls  on  or  after  a  consonant,  the  preced- 
ing vowel  has  a  short  sound,  as  in  hab'it. 

To  obtain  a  good  knowledge  of  pronunciation,  it  is  advisable  for  the 
reader  to  listen  to  the  examples  given  by  good  speakers,  and  by  educated 
persons.  We  learn  the  pronunciation  of  words,  to  a  great  extent,  by 
imitation,  just  as  birds  acquire  the  notes  of  other  birds  which  may  be 
near  them. 

But  it  will  be  very  important  to  bear  in  mind  that  there  are  many 
words  having  a  double  meaning  or  application,  and  that  the  difference  of 
meaning  is  indicated  by  the  difference  of  the  accent.  Among  these 
words,  nouns  are  distinguished  from  verbs  by  this  means:  nouns  are 
mostly  accented  on  the  first  syllable,  and  verbs  on  the  last. 

Noun  signifies  name:  nouns  are  the  names  of  persons  and  things,  as 
well  as  of  things  not  material  and  palpable,  but  of  which  we  have  a  con- 
ception and  knowledge,  such  as  courage,  firmness,  goodness,  strength; 
and  verbs  express  actions,  movements,  etc.  If  the  word  used  signifies 
that  anything  has  been  done,  or  is  being  done,  or  is,  or  is  to  be  done, 
then  that  word  is  a  verb. 

Thus  when  we  say  that  anything  is  "an  in'sult,"  that  word  is  a  noun, 
and  is  accented  on  the  first  syllable;  but  when  we  say  he  did  it  "to  insult 
another  person,"  the  word  insult7  implies  acting  and  becomes  a  verb, 
and  should  be  accented  on  the  last  syllable. 

A  list  of  nearly  all  the  words  that  are  liable  to  similar  variation  is 
given  here.  It  will  be  noticed  that  those  in  the  first  column,  having  the 
accent  on  the  first  syllable,  are  mostly  nouns;  and  that  those  in  the 
second  column,  which  have  the  accent  on  the  second  and  final  syllable, 
are  mostly  verbs: — 


MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 


Noun,  etc. 

Verb,  etc. 

Noun,  etc. 

Verb,  etc. 

Noun,  etc. 

Verb,  etc. 

Ab'ject 

abject' 

Con'trast 

contrast' 

In'lay 

inlay' 

Ab'sent 

absent' 

Con'verse 

converse' 

In'su  t 

insult' 

Ab'-trac 

abstract' 

Con  vert 

convert' 

Ob'ject 

object' 

Ac'cent 

accent' 

Con'vict 

convict' 

Out  leap 

outleap' 

Affix 

affix' 

Con'voy 

convoy' 

Per  feet  per  f 

ct  or  perfect 

As'pect 

aspect' 

De'crease 

decrease' 

Per'fume 

perfume' 

At'tribute 

attrib'ute 

Des'cant 

descant' 

Per  mit 

permit' 

Aug'ment 

augment' 

i>es'ert 

desert' 

Prefix 

prefix' 

Au'gust 

august' 

De'tail 

detail' 

Prem'ise 

premise' 

Bom'bard 

bombard' 

L4'gest 

digest' 

Pres  age 

presage' 

Col'league 

colleague' 

Dis'cord 

discord' 

Pres'ent 

present' 

Collect 

collect' 

Dis'count 

discount' 

Prod'uce 

produce 

Com'ment 

comment' 

Efflux 

efflux' 

Proj'ect 

project' 

Com  'pact 

compact' 

Es'cort 

escort' 

Protest 

protest' 

Com'plot 

complot' 

Es  say 

essay' 

Reb'el 

rebel' 

Com'port 

comport' 

Ex'ile 

exile' 

.  Rec  ord 

record 

Com'pound 

compound' 

Ex'port 

export' 

Refuse 

refuse' 

Com'press 

compress' 

Extract 

extract' 

Re'tail 

retail' 

Con'cert 

concert' 

Fer'ment 

ferment' 

Sub'ject 

subject' 

Con'crete 

concrete7 

Fore'cast 

forecast' 

Su'pine 

supine' 

Con  'duct 

conduct' 

Fore  'taste 

f  >rt  taste' 

Sur'vey 

survey' 

Con'fine 

confine' 

Fre  quent 

frequent' 

Tor'ment 

torment' 

Conflict 

conflict' 

Im'part 

impart' 

Tra'j  ct 

traject' 

Con'serve 

conserve' 

Im'port 

import' 

Trans  fer 

transfer' 

Con'sort 

consort' 

Im'press 

impress' 

Trans'port 

transport' 

Con  'test 

contest' 

I  m  print 

imprint' 

Un'dress 

undress' 

Con  'text 

context' 

In  'cense 

incense' 

Upcast 

upcast' 

Con  'tract 

contract 

In'crease 

increase' 

Up'start 

upstart' 

RULES    OF    PRONUNCIATION. 

C  before  a,  o,  and  u,  and  in  some  other  situations,  is  a  close  articula- 
tion, like  k.  Before  e,  i,  and  y,  c  is  precisely  equivalent  to  s  in  same, 
this;  as  in  cedar,  civil,  cypress,  capacity. 

E  final  indicates  that  the  preceding  vowel  is  long  ;  as  in  hate,  mete, 
sire,  robe,  lyre,  abate,  recede,  invite,  remote,  intrude. 

B  final  indicates  that  c  preceding  has  the  sound  of  s;  as  in  lace,  lance; 
and  that  g  preceding  has  the  sound  of/,  as  in  charge,  page,  challenge. 

E  final  in  proper  English  words,  never  forms  a  syllable,  and  in  the 
most  used  words,  in  the  terminating  unaccented  syllable  it  is  silent. 
Thus,  motive,  genuine,  examine,  granite,  are  pronounced  motiv,genuin. 
examin,  granit. 

E  final  in  a  few  words  of  foreign  origin,  forms  a  syllable  ;  as  syncope  s 
simile. 

E  final  is  silent  after  /  in  the  following  terminations, — ble,  cle,  die, 
fle,  gle,  kle,  pie,  tie,  zle;  as  in  able,  manacle,  cradle,  ruffle,  mangle, 
wrinkle,  supple,  rattle,  puzzle,  which  are  pronounced  ab'l,  mana'cle^ 
cra'dl,  ruf'fl,  man'gl,  wrin'kl,  sup' pi,  puz'zl. 

E  is  usually  silent  in  the  termination  en;  as  in  token,  broken;  pro- 
nounced tokn,  brokn. 

OUS  in  the  termination  of  adjectives  and  their  derivatives  is  pro- 
nounced us;  as  in  gracious,  pious,  pompously. 

CE,  CI,  TI,  before  a  vowel,  have  the  sound  of  sh;  as  in  cetaceous, 
gracious,  motion,  partial,  ingratiate:  pronounced  cetashus,  grashus, 
moshun,  parshal,  ingrashiate. 

SI,  after  an  accented  vowel,  is  pronounced  like  zh;  as  in  Ephesian, 
confusion;  pronounced  Epezhan,  confuzhon. 

GH,  both  in  the  middle  and  at  the  end  of  words  is  silent ;  as  in  caught, 
bought,  fright,  nigh,  sigh:  prounced  caut,  baut,  frite,  ni,  si.  In  the 


following  exceptions,  however,  gh  is  pronounced  as// — cough,  chough, 
dough,  enough,  laugh,  rough,  slough, 


tough,  trough. 


LANGUAGE:  ITS  USE  AND  MISUSE.  71 

When  WH  begins  a  word,  the  aspirate  h  precedes  TV  in  pronuncia- 
tion: as  in  what,  whiff,  whale;  pronounced  hwat,  hwiff,  hwale,  w  hav- 
ing precisely  the  sound  of  oo,  French  ou.  In  the  following  words  w  is 
silent: — who,  whom,  whose,  whoop,  whole. 

H  after  r  has  no  sound  or  use;  as  in  rheum,  rhyme;  pronounced  rcum, 
ryme. 

H  should  be  sounded  in  the  middle  of  words;  as  in  forehead,  ab/?or, 
behold,  exhaust,  inhabit,  un//orse. 

H  should  always  be  sounded  except  in  the  following  words;— heir, 
herb,  honest,  honor,  hour,  humor,  and  humble,  and  all  their  derivatives, 
^— such  as  humorously,  derived  from  humor. 

K  and  G  are  silent  before  n;  as  know,  gnaw;  pronounced  no,  naw 

W  before  r  is  silent;  as  in  wring,  wreath:  pronounced  ring,  reath. 

B  after  m  is  silent;  as  in  dumb,  numb;  pronounced  dum,  num. 

L  before  k  is  silent  as  in  balk,  walk,  talk;  pronounced  bauk,  wank, 
tauk. 

PH  has  the  sound  of/;  as  in  philosophy;  pronounced  filosofy. 

NG  has  two  sounds,  one  as  in  singer,  the  other  as  \njin-ger. 

N  after  m,  and  closing  a  syllable,  is  silent;  as  in  hymn,  condemn. 

P  before  ^  and  /  is  mute;  as  va.  psalm,  pseudo,  ptarmigan;  pronounced 
salm,  sudo,  tarmigan. 

R  has  two  sounds,  one  strong  and  vibrating,  as  at  the  beginning  of 
Words  and  syllables,  such  as  robber,  reckon,  error;  the  other  is  at  the 
terminations  of  the  words,  or  when  succeeded  by  a  consonant,  as  farmer, 
morn. 

There  are  other  rules  of  pronunciation  affecting  the  combinations 
of  vowels,  etc.,  but  as  they  are  more  difficult  to  describe,  and  as  they  do 
not  relate  to  errors  which  are  commonly  prevalent,  it  will  suffice  to  give 
examples  of  them  in  the  following  list  of  words.  When  a  syllable  in  any 
word  in  this  list  is  printed  in  italics,  accent  or  stress  of  voice  should  be 
laid  on  that  syllable. 

COMMON   ERRORS  OF  SPEECH. 

Again,   usually  pronounced  a-gen,  not  as  Chaos,  ka-oss. 

spelled.  Charlatan,  .s/zar-latan. 

Alien,  ale-yen,  not  a-li-en.  Chasm,  kazm. 

Antipodes,  an-/fz>o-dees.  Chasten,  chasn. 

Apostle,  as  a-pos'l,  without  the  t.  Chivalry,  sfriv-alry. 

Arch,  artch  in  compounds  of  our  own  Ian-  Cheniistry,  keni-ts-try. 

guage,  as  in   archbishop,  archduke;  but  Choir,  kwire. 

ark  in  words  derived  from  the  Greek,  as  Combat,  kom-bai  or  knm-bat. 

archaic,  ar-^a-ik;  archaeology,  ar-ke-o/-o-  Conduit,  kon-dit.  kun-dit. 

gy,   archangel,     ark-az'w-gel;    archetype,  Corps,  kor,  the  plural  corps  is  pronounced 

ar-ke-type;     archiepiscopal,    ar-ke-e-//j-        korz. 

co-pal;     archipelago,    ar-ke-/>£/-a-go;  ar-  Covetous,  cuv-e-lus,  not  cuv-e-chus. 

chives,  ar-kivz,  etc.  Courteous,  curt-yus. 

Asia,  a-shia.  Courtesy,  (politeness),  cwr-te-sey. 

Asparagus,  as  spelled,  not  asparagrass.  Courtesy  (a  lowering  of  the  body),  curt-sey 

Aunt,  ant,  not  azemt.  Cresses,  as  spelled,  not  cr^-ses. 

Awkward,  awk-wurd,  not  aw'k.-urd.  Cu'riosity,  cu-re-os-e-ty,  not  curority. 

Bade,  bad.  Cushion,  coosh-un,  not  coosh-z'w. 

Because,  be-cazus,  not  be-cos.  Daunt,  dazt/nt,  not  dant  or  darnt. 

Been,  bin.  Design  and  desist  have  the  sound  of  5,  not 
Beloved,  as  a  verb,  be-luvd;  as  an  adjective        of  z. 

be-luv-ed.     Blessed,  cursed,  etc.,  are  sub-  Desire  should  have  the  sound  of  z. 

ject  to  the  same  rule.  Dew,  due,  not  doo. 

Beneath,  with  the  th  in  breath,  not  with  Diamond,  as  spelled,  not  rfz'-mond. 

the  th  in  breathe.  Diploma,  de-/>/o-ma,  not  dip-lo-ma. 

Biog'raphy,  as  spelled,  not  beography.  Diplomacy,  de-/>/o-ma-cy,  not  rf/^-lo-ma-cy. 

Caprice,  capree^e.  Divers  (several),  rfz-verz;  but  diverse  (dif- 
Catch,  as  spelled,  not  ketch.  ferent),  rfz'-verse. 


72 


MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 


Drought,  drowt,  not  drawt. 

Duke,  as  spelled,  not  dook. 

Dynasty,  rfjy-nas-ty,  not  rfjv 

Edict,  e-dickt,  not  ^rf-ickt. 

E'en,  and  e'er,  een  and  air. 

Egotism,  ^-go-tism,  not  ^-o-tism. 

Either,  ether. 

Engine,  en-jin,  not  m-jin. 

Epistle,  without  the  /. 

Epitome,  e-^z/'-o-me. 

Epoch,  ep-ock.,  not  e-pock.. 

Equinox,  equi-nox,  not  ^-kwe-nox. 

Europe,  £/-rup,  not  t/-rope. 

European,  not  Eu-ro-pean. 

Every,  ^-er-y,  not  ev-ry. 

Executor,  egz-<?£-utor,  not  with  the  sound 

of.*-. 
Extraordinary,     ex-^ror-di-ner-i,    not   ex- 

traordinary, nor  extrornary. 
February,  as  spelled,  not  Febuary. 
Finance,  ^?-nans,  noty?-nance. 
Foundling,  as  spelled,  notybwrf-ling. 
Garden,  gar-An,  not  gar-den,  nor  garding. 
Gauntlet,  gawnt-let,  not^awMet. 
Geography,   as  spelled,  not  jography,  or 


eograpy 

gehography. 

eometry, 


Geometry,  as  spelled,  not/o/w-etry. 

Haunt,  hawnt,  not  hant. 

Height,  hite,  not  highth. 

Heinous,  Jiay-nus,  not  hee-nus. 

Horizon,  ho-ri-zn,  not  hor-'\  zon. 

Hymeneal,  hy-men-<?-al,  not  hy-menal. 

Instead,  in-sted,  not  instid. 

Isolate,  z-so-late,  not  z>-olate,  nor  zs-olate. 

Jalap,  jal-ap,  notjolup. 

January,    as     spelled,     not  Jenuary  nor 

Janewary. 

Leave,  as  spelled,  not  leaf. 
I,egend,  lej-end,  or  fe-gend. 
Many,  men-ney,  not  man-ny. 
Marchioness,  »zar-shun-ess,  not  as  spelled. 
Massacre,  waj-sa-ker. 
Mattress,  as  spelled,  not  wzaMrass. 
Matron,  wa-trun,  not  mat-ron. 
Medicine,  med-e-cin,  not  med-cin. 
Minute  (sixty  seconds),  min-it. 
Minute  (small),  mi-nute. 
Mischievous,  ww-chiv-us,  not  mis-cA^z'-us. 
Ne'er,  for  never,  nare. 
New,  nu,  not  noo. 
Oblige,  as  spelled,  not  obleege. 
Oblique.  ob-leek,  or  o-blike. 
Odorous,  o-der-us,  not  <?rf-ur-us. 

when  compounded  with 


Ostrich,  ctf-trich,  not  o^-tridge. 

Pageant,  poj-ent,  not/>a-jaut. 

Parent,  pare-ent,  notpar-ent. 

Partisan,   par-te-zan,   not  par-te-^aw,   nor 

^ar-ti-zan. 
Physiognomy,  asjiz-i-og-nomy,  not  physi- 

onnomy. 

Pincers,  />m-cerz,  not  pinch-erz. 
Plaintiff,  as  spelled,  not  plantiff. 
Precedent  (an  example,  pres-e-deui\  pre- 

cedent (going  before  in  point  of  time, 

previous,  former)  is  the  pronunciation  of 

the  adjective. 

Prologue,  pro-log,  noiprol-og. 
Radish,  as  spelled,  not  red-ish. 
Raillery,     raz7'er-y,     or    ral-er-y,    not   as 

spelled. 

Rather,  ra-ther,  not  rayther. 
Resort,  re-zort. 
Resound,  se-zound. 
Respite,  res-pit,  not  as  spelled. 
Rout  (a  party;  and  to  rout)  should  be  pro- 

nounced rowt.    Route  (a  roacT,  root  or 

rowt. 

Saunter,  sawn-ter,  not  sarn-ter  or  sa«-ter. 
Sausage,  jaw-sage,  not  .sw-sidge,  .raj-sage. 
Schedule,  sked-u\e,  not  shed-z/fe. 
Seamstress  is  pronounced  seem-stre&s,  or 


Shire,  as  spelled,  when  uttered  as  a  single 
word,  but  shortened  into  shir  in  compo- 
tion. 

Shone,  shon,  not  shun,  nor  as  spelled. 

Soldier,  sole-\er. 

Solecism,  w/-e-cizm,  not  w-le-cizm. 

Soot,  as  spelled,  not  sut. 

Sovereign,  sov-er-in,  orsuv-er-in. 

Specious,  spe-shus,  not  spesh-us. 

Stomacher,  stum-a-dier. 

Stone  (weight),  as  spelled,  not  stun. 

Synod,  stn-od,  not  .ry-nod. 

Tenure,  ^w-ure,  not  te-nure. 

Tenet,  ten-zt,  not  te-net. 

Than,  as  spelled,  not  thun. 

Twelfth  should  have  the  th  sounded. 

Umbrella,  as  spelled,  not  um-ber-el-la. 

Vase,  vaiz  or  vahz,  not  vawze. 

Was,  woz,  not  wuz. 

Weary,  weer-\,  not  wary. 

Were,  wer,  not  ware. 

Wrath,  ath,  (as  in  arm)  not  rath;  as  an  ad- 
jective it  is  spelled  wroth,  and  pro- 
nounced with  the  vowel  sound  shorter, 
as  in  wrathful,  etc. 


Of,    ov,    except  .  ,  „. 

there,  here,  and  where,  which  should  be  Yacht,  yot,  not  yat. 

pronounced  here-q/",  there-o/,  and  where-  Zenith,  ze-nith  or  zen-ith. 

of.  Zodiac,  ^o-de-ak. 

Off,  as  spelt,  not  awf.  Zoology  should  have  both  o's  sounded  as 
Organization,  or-gan-i-^a-shun.  zo-ol-o-gy,  not  .eoo-lo-gy. 

— ace,  not  iss,  as  furnace,  not  furniss. 

—age,  not  idge,  as  cabbage,  courage,  postage,  village. 

— ain,  ane,  not  in,  as  certain,  certane,  not  c~ert*«. 

— ate,  not  it,  as  moderate,  not  modenV. 

— ect,  not  ec,  as  aspect,  not  aspec;  subj^,  not  subj^r. 

— ed,  not  id,  or  ud,  as  wick<?d,  not  wickzd,  or  wickwd. 

—el,  notl,  model,  not  modi;  novel,  not  nov\. 

Note. — The  tendency  of  all  good  elocutionists  is  to  pronounce  as  nearly  in  accord- 
ance with  the  spelling  as  possible. 


LANGUAGE:  ITS  USE  AND  MISUSE.  73 

-en,  not  n,  as  sudden,  not  suddw. — Burden,  burthen,  garden, 
lengthen,  seven,  strengthen,  often,  and  a  few  others,  have  the  e 
silent. 

-ence,  not  unce,  as  influence,  not  innu-unce. 

-es,  not  is,  as  please,  not  pleaszs. 

-ile,  should  be  pronounced  il,  as  fertz/,  not  fertzYe,  in  all  words  ex- 
cept chamomile,  (cam),  exile,  gentile,  infantile,  reconcile,  and 
senile,  which  should  be  pronounced  ile. 

-in,  not  n,  as  Latz'w,  not  Latw. 

-nd,  not  n,  as  husba«d,  not  husba«d,  thousaw,  not  thousaw. 

-ness,  not  m'ss,  as  carefulness,  not  carefulness. 

-ng,  not  n,  as  singing,  not  singi«/  speakz>/g-,  not  speakz/z. 

-ngth,  not  nth,  as  strength,  not  strewth. 

-son,  the  o  should  be  silent;  as  in  treason,  tre-zn,  not  ire-son. 

-tal,  not  tie,  as  capital,  not  capitle;  metal,  not  mettle;  mortal,  not 
mortle;  periodic/,  not  periodic. 

-xt,  not  x,  as  next,  not  nex. 


TWELVE  THOUSAND  SYNONYMS  AND  ANTONYMS. 

No  two  words  in  the  English  language  have  exactly  the  same  signif- 
icance, but  to  express  the  precise  meaning  that  one  intends  to  convey, 
and  to  avoid  repetition,  it  is  often  desirable  to  have  at  hand  a  Dictionary 
of  Synonyms.  Take  President  Cleveland's  famous  phrase,  "innocuous 
desuetude."  If  he  had  said  simply,  ' 'harmless  disuse,"  it  would  have 
sounded  clumsy,  whereas  the  words  he  used  expressed  the  exact  shade 
of  meaning,  besides  giving  the  world  a  new  phrase  and  the  newspapers 
something  to  talk  about. 

The  following  list  of  SYNONYMS,  while  not  exhaustive,  is  quite  com- 
prehensive, and  by  cross-reference  will  answer  most  requirements.  The 
appended  ANTONYMS,  or  words  of  opposite  meaning,  enclosed  in  paren- 
theses, will  also  be  found  extremely  valuable,  for  one  of  the  strongest  fig- 
ures of  speech  is  antithesis,  or  contrast: 

ABANDON,  leave,  forsake,  desert,  renounce,  relinquish,  quit,  forego, 
let  go,  waive.  (Keep,  cherish.)  ABANDONED,  deserted,  forsaken,  wicked, 
reprobate,  dissolute,  profligate,  flagitious,  corrupt,  depraved,  vicious. 
(Cared  for,  virtuous.)  ABANDONMENT,  leaving,  desertion,  dereliction, 
renunciation,  defection.  ABASEMENT,  degradation,  fall,  degeneracy, 
humiliation,  abjection,  debasement,  servility.  (Honor.)  ABASH,  be- 
wilder, disconcert,  discompose,  confound,  confuse,  shame.  (Embolden.) 
ABBREVIATE,  shorten,  abridge,  condense,  contract,  curtail,  reduce.  (Ex- 
tend.) ABDICATE,  give  up,  resign,  renounce,  abandon,  forsake,  relin- 
quish, quit,  forego.  ABET,  help,  encourage,  instigate,  incite,  stimulate, 
aid,  assist.  (Resist.)  ABETTOR,  assistant,  accessory,  accomplice,  pro- 
moter, instigator,  particeps  criminis,  coadjutor,  associate,  companion, 
co  operator.  (Opponent.)  ABHOR,  dislike  intensely,  view  with  horror, 
hate,  detest,  abominate,  loathe,  nauseate.  (Love.)  ABILITY,  capability, 
talent,  faculty,  capacity,  qualification,  aptitude,  aptness,  expertness,  skill, 
efficiency,  accomplishment,  attainment.  (Incompetency.)  ABJECT, 
grovelling,  low,  mean,  base,  ignoble,  worthless,  despicable,  vile,  servile, 
contemptible.  (Noble.)  ABJURE,  recant,  forswear,  disclaim,  recall,  re- 
voke, retract,  renounce.  (Maintain.)  ABLE,  strong,  powerful,  muscu- 
lar, stalwart,  vigorous,  athletic,  robust,  brawny,  skillful,  adroit,  compe- 
tent, efficient,  capable,  clever,  self-qualified,  telling,  fitted.  (Weak.) 


74  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

ABODK,  residence,  habitation,  dwelling,  domicile,  home,  quarters,  lodg- 
ings. ABOLISH,  quash,  destroy,  revoke,  abrogate,  annul,  cancel,  anni- 
hilate, extinguish,  vitiate,  invalidate,  nullify.  (Establish,  enforce.) 
ABOMINABLE,  hateful,  detestable,  odious,  vile,  execrable.  (Lovable.) 
ABORTIVE,  fruitless,  ineffectual,  idle,  inoperative,  vain,  futile.  (Effec- 
tual.) ABOUT,  concerning,  regarding,  relative  to,  with  regard  to,  as  to, 
respecting,  with  respect  to,  referring  to,  around,  nearly,  approximately. 
ABSCOND,  run  off,  steal  away,  decamp,  bolt.  ABSENT,  a.,  inattentive, 
abstracted,  not  attending  to,  listless,  dreamy.  (Present.)  ABSOLUTE, 
entire,  complete,  unconditional,  unqualified,  unrestricted,  despotic,  ar- 
bitrary, tyrannous,  imperative,  authoritative,  imperious.  (Limited.) 
ABSORB,  engross,  swallow  up,  engulf,  imbibe,  consume,  merge,  fuse. 
ABSURD,  silly,  foolish,  preposterous,  ridiculous,  irrational,  unreasonable, 
nonsensical,  inconsistent.  (Wise,  solemn.)  ABUSE,  Z'.,  asperse,  revile, 
vilify,  reproach,  calumniate,  defame,  slander,  scandalize,  malign,  tra- 
duce, disparage,  depreciate,  ill-use.  (Praise,  protect.)  ABUSE,  n.,  scur- 
rility, ribaldry,  contumely,  obloquy,  opprobrium,  foul,  invective,  vitu- 
peration, ill-usage.  (Praise,  protection.)  ACCEDE,  assent  to,  consent, 
acquiesce,  comply  with,  agree,  coincide,  concur,  approve.  (Protest.) 
ACCELERATE,  hasten,  hurry,  expedite,  forward,  quicken,  despatch.  (Re- 
tard.) ACCEPT,  receive,  take,  admit.  (Refuse.)  ACCEPTABLE,  agree- 
able, pleasing,  pleasurable,  gratifying,  welcome.  (Displeasing.)  ACCI- 
DENT, casualty,  incident,  contingency,  adventure,  chance.  ACCOMMO- 
DATE, serve,  oblige,  adapt,  adjust,  fit,  suit.  (Disoblige,  impede.)  AC- 
COMPLICE, confederate,  accessory,  abettor,  coadjutor,  assistant,  ally, 
associate,  particeps  criminis.  (Adversary.)  ACCOMPLISH,  do,  effect, 
finish,  execute,  achieve,  complete,  perfect,  consummate.  (Fail.)  AC- 
COMPLISHMENT, attainment,  qualification,  acquirement.  (Defect.)  AC- 
CORD, grant,  allow,  admit,  concede.  (Deny.)  ACCOST,  salute,  address, 
speak  to,  stop,  greet.  ACCOUNT,  narrative,  description,  narration,  rela- 
tion, detail,  recital,  moneys,  reckoning,  bill,  charge.  ACCOUNTABLE, 
punishable,  answerable,  amenable,  responsible,  liable.  ACCUMULATE, 
bring  together,  amass,  collect,  gather.  (Scatter,  dissipate.)  ACCUMULATION, 
collection,  store,  mass,  congeries,  concentration.  ACCURATE,  correct, 
exact,  precise,  nice,  truthful.  (Erroneous,  careless.)  ACHIEVE,  do,  ac- 
complish, effect,  fulfill,  execute,  gain,  win.  ACHIEVEMENT,  feat,  ex- 
ploit, accomplishment,  attainment,  performance,  acquirement,  gain. 
(Failure.)  ACKOWLEDGE,  admit,  confess,  own,  avow,  grant,  recognize, 
allow,  concede.  (Deny.)  ACQUAINT,  inform,  enlighten,  apprise,  make 
aware,  make  known,  notify,  communicate.  (Deceive.)  ACQUAINTANCE, 
familiarity,  intimacy,  cognizance,  fellowship,  companionship,  knowl- 
edge. (Unfamiliarity.)  ACQUIESCE,  agree,  accede,  assent,  comply,  con- 
sent, give  way,  coincide  with.  (Protest.)  ACQUIT,  pardon,  forgive,  dis- 
charge, set  free,  clear,  absolve.  (Condemn,  convict.)  ACT,  do,  operate, 
make,  perform,  play,  enact.  ACTION,  deed,  achievement,  feat,  exploit, 
accomplishment,  battle,  engagement,  agency,  instrumentality.  ACTIVE, 
lively,  sprightly,  alert,  agile,  nimble,  brisk,  quick,  supple,  prompt,  vigi- 
lant, laborious,  industrious.  (Lazy,  passive.)  ACTUAL,  real,  positive, 
genuine,  certain.  (Fictitious.)  ACUTE,  shrewd,  intelligent,  penetrating, 
piercing,  keen.  (Dull.)  ADAPT,  accommodate,  suit,  fit,  conform.  AD- 
DICTED, devoted,  wedded,  attached,  given  up  to,  dedicated.  ADDITION, 
increase,  accession,  augmentation,  reinforcement.  (Subtraction,  separa- 
tion.) ADDRESS,  speech,  discourse,  appeal,  oration,  tact,  skill,  ability, 
dexterity,  deportment,  demeanor.  ADHESION,  adherence,  attachment, 


LANGUAGE:  ITS  USE  AND  MISUSE.  75 

fidelity,  devotion.  (Aloofness.)  ADJACENT,  near  to,  adjoining,  contigu- 
ous, conterminous,  bordering,  neighboring.  (Distant.)  ADJOURN,  defer, 
prorogue,  postpone,  delay.  ADJUNCT,  appendage,  appurtenance,  appen- 
dency,  dependency.  ADJUST,  set  right,  fit,  accomodate,  adapt,  arrange, 
settle,  regulate,  organize.  (Confuse.)  ADMIRABLE,  striking,  surprising, 
wonderful,  astonishing.  (Detestable.)  ADMIT,  allow,  permit,  suffer, 
tolerate.  (Deny.)  ADVANTAGEOUS,  beneficial.  (Hurtful.)  AFFECTION, 
love.  (Aversion.)  AFFECTIONATE,  fond,  kind.  (Harsh.)  AGREEABLE, 
pleasant,  pleasing,  charming.  (Disagreeable.)  ALTERNATING,  halting, 
intermittent.  (Continual.)  AMBASSADOR,  envoy,  plenipotentiary,  min- 
ister. AMEND,  improve,  correct,  better,  mend.  (Impair.)  ANGER,  ire, 
wrath,  indignation,  resentment.  (Good  nature.)  APPROPRIATE,  as- 
sume, ascribe,  arrogate,  usurp.  ARGUE,  debate,  dispute,  reason  upon. 
ARISE,  flow,  emanate,  spring,  proceed,  rise,  issue.  ARTFUL,  disingen- 
uous, sly,  tricky,  insincere.  (Candid.)  ARTIFICE,  trick,  stratagem, 
finesse.  ASSOCIATION,  combination,  company,  partnership,  society. 
ATTACK,  assail,  assault,  encounter.  (Defend.)  AUDACITY,  boldness, 
effrontery,  hardihood.  (Meekness.)  AUSTERE,  rigid,  rigorous,  severe, 
stern.  (Dissolute.)  AVARICIOUS,  niggardly,  miserly,  parsimonious. 
(Generous.)  AVERSION,  antipathy,  dislike,  hatred,  repugnance.  (Affec- 
tion.) AWE,  dread,  fear,  reverence.  (Familiarity.)  AWKWARD,  clumsy. 
(Graceful.)  AXIOM,  adage,  aphorism,  apothegm,  by-word,  maxim,  prov- 
.  erb,  saying,  saw. 

BABBLE,  chatter,  prattle,  prate.  BAD,  wicked,  evil.  (Good.)  BAFFLE, 
confound,  defeat,  disconcert.  (Aid,  abet.)  BASE,  vile,  mean.  (Noble.) 
BATTLE,  action,  combat,  engagement.  BEAR,  carry,  convey,  transport. 
BEAR,  endure,  suffer,  support.  BEASTLY,  brutal,  sensual,  bestial.  BEAT, 
defeat,  overpower,  overthrow,  rout.  BEAUTIFUL,  fine,  handsome,  pretty. 
(Homely,  ugly.)  BECOMING,  decent,  fit,  seemly,  suitable.  (Unbecoming.) 
BEG,  beseech, crave,  entreat,  implore,  solicit,  supplicate.  (Give.)BEHAViOR, 
carriage,  conduct,  deportment,  demeanor.  BELIEF,  credit,  faith,  trust. 
(Doubt.)  BENEFICIENT,  bountiful,  generous,  liberal,  munificent.  (Cove- 
tous, miserly.)  BENEFIT,  favor,  advantage,  kindness,  civility.  (Injury.) 
BENEVOLENCE,  beneficence,  benignity,  humanity,  kindness,  tenderness. 
(Malevolence.)  BLAME,  censure,  condemn,  reprove,  reproach,  upbraid. 
(Praise.)  BLEMISH,  flaw,  speck,  spot,  stain.  (Ornament.)  BLIND,  sightless, 
heedless.  (Far-sighted.)  BLOT,  cancel,  efface,  expunge,  erase,  obliterate. 
BOLD,  brave, daring,  fearless,  intrepid,  undaunted.  (Timid.)  BORDER,  brim, 
brink,  edge,  margin,  rim,  verge,  boundary,  confine,  frontier.  BOUND, 
circumscribe,  confine,  limit,  restrict.  BRAVE,  dare,  defy.  BRAVERY, 
courage,  valor.  (Cowardice.)  BREAK,  bruise,  crush,  pound,  squeeze. 
BREEZE,  blast,  gale,  gust,  hurricane,  storm,  tempest.  BRIGHT,  clear, 
radiant,  shining.  (Dull.)  BURIAL,  interment,  sepulture.  (Resurrection,; 
^BUSINESS,  avocation,  employment,  engagement,  occupation,  art,  pro- 
fession, trade.  BUSTLE,  stir,  tumult,  fuss.  (Quiet.) 

CALAMITY,  disaster,  misfortune,  mischance,  mishap.  (Good  fortune.) 
CALM,  collected,  composed,  placid,  serene.  (Stormy,  unsettled.)  CAPA- 
BLE, able,  competent.  (Incompetent.)  CAPTIOUS,  fretful,  cross,  peev- 
ish, petulant.  (Good-natured.)  CARE,  anxiety,  concern,  solicitude, 
heed,  attention.  (Heedlessness,  negligence.)  CARESS,  kiss,  embrace. 
(Spurn,  buffet.)  CARNAGE,  butchery,  massacre,  slaughter.  CAUSE,  mo- 
tive, reason.  (Effect,  consequence.)  CEASE,  discontinue,  leave  off,  end. 
(Continue.)  CENSURE,  animadvert,  criticise.  (Praise.)  CERTAIN,  se- 
cure, sure.  (Doubtful.)  CESSATION,  intermission,  rest,  stop.  (Contin- 


76  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

uance.)  CHANCE,  fate,  fortune.  (Design.)  CHANGE,  barter,  exchange^ 
substitute.  CHANGEABLE,  fickle,  inconstant,  mutable,  variable.  (Un- 
changeable.) CHARACTER,  reputation,  repute,  standing.  CHARM,  cap- 
tivate, enchant,  enrapture,  fascinate.  CHASTITY,  purity,  continence, 
virtue.  (L/ewdness.)  CHEAP,  inexpensive,  inferior,  common.  (Dear.) 
CHEERFUL,  gay,  merry,  sprightly.  (Mournful.)  CHIEF,  chieftain,  head, 
leader.  (Subordinate.)  CIRCUMSTANCE,  fact,  incident.  CLASS,  degree, 
order,  rank,  CLEAR,  bright,  lucid,  vivid.  (Opaque.)  CLEVER,  adroit, 
dexterous,  expert,  skillful.  (Stupid.)  CLOTHED,  clad,  dressed.  (Naked.) 
COARSE,  rude,  rough,  unpolished.  (Fine.)  COAX,  cajole,  fawn,  wheedle. 
COLD,  cool,  frigid,  wintry,  unfeeling,  stoical.  (Warm.)  COLOR,  dye, 
stain,  tinge.  COLORABLE,  ostensible,  plausible,  specious.  COMBINA- 
TION, cabal,  conspiracy,  plot.  COMMAND,  injunction,  order,  precept. 
COMMODITY,  goods,  merchandise,  ware.  COMMON,  mean,  ordinary, 
vulgar.  (Uncommon,  extraordinary.)  COMPASSION,  sympathy,  pity, 
clemency.  (Cruelty,  severity.)  COMPEL,  force,  oblige,  neccesitate. 
(Coax,  lead.)  COMPENSATION,  amends,  recompense,  remuneration,  re- 
quital, reward.  COMPENDIUM,  compend,  abridgment.  (Enlargement.) 
COMPLAIN,  lament,  murmur,  regret,  repine.  (Rejoice.)  COMPLY,  ac- 
cede, conform,  submit,  yield.  (Refuse.)  COMPOUND,  complex.  (Simple.) 
COMPREHEND,  comprise,  include,  embrace,  grasp,  understand,  perceive. 
(Exclude,  mistake.)  COMPRISE,  comprehend,  contain,  embrace,  include. 
CONCEAL,  hide,  secrete.  (Uncover.)  CONCEIVE,  comprehend,  under- 
stand. CONCLUSION,  inference,  deduction.  CONDEMN,  censure, 
blame,  disapprove.  (Justify,  exonerate.)  CONDUCT,  direct,  guide,  lead, 
govern,  regulate,  manage.  CONFIRM,  corroborate,  approve,  attest.  (Con- 
tradict.) CONFLICT,  combat,  contest,  contention,  struggle.  (Peace, 
quiet.)  CONFUTE,  disprove,  refute,  oppugn.  (Approve.)  CONQUER, 
overcome,  subdue,  surmount,  vanquish.  (Defeat.)  CONSEQUENCE,  effect, 
event,  issue,  result.  (Cause.)  CONSIDER,  reflect,  ponder,  weigh.  CON- 
SISTENT, constant,  compatible.  (Inconsistent.)  CONSOLE,  comfort, 
solace.  (Harrow,  worry.)  CONSTANCY,  firmness,  stability,  steadiness. 
(Fickleness.)  CONTAMINATE,  corrupt,  defile,  pollute,  taint.  CONTEMN, 
despise,  disdain,  scorn.  (Esteem.)  CONTEMPLATE,  meditate,  muse. 
CONTEMPTIBLE,  despicable,  paltry,  pitiful,  vile,  mean.  (Noble.)  CON- 
TEND, contest,  dispute,  strive,  struggle,  combat.  CONTINUAL,  constant, 
continuous,  perpetual,  incessant.  (Intermittent.)  CONTINUANCE,  con- 
tinuation, duration.  (Cessation.)  CONTINUE,  persist,  persevere,  pur- 
sue, prosecute.  (Cease.)  CONTRADICT,  deny,  gainsay,  oppose.  (Con- 
firm.) COOL,  cold,  frigid.  (Hot.)  CORRECT,  rectify,  reform.  COST, 
charge,  expense,  price.  CovETOUSNESS,  avarice,  cupidity.  (Beneficence.) 
COWARDICE,  fear,  timidity,  pusillanimity.  (Courage.)  CRIME,  sin,  vice, 
misdemeanor.  (Virtue.)  CRIMINAL,  convict,  culprit,  felon,  malefactor. 
CROOKED,  bent,  curved,  oblique.  (Straight.)  CRUEL,  barbarous,  brutal, 
inhuman,  savage.  (Kind.)  CULTIVATION,  culture,  refinement.  CURSORY, 
desultory,  hasty,  slight.  (Thorough.)  CUSTOM,  fashion,  manner,  prac- 
tice. 

DANGER,  hazard,  peril.  (Safety.)  DARK,  dismal,  opaque,  obscure, 
dim.  (Light.)  DEADLY,  fatal,  destructive,  mortal.  DEAR,  beloved, 
precious,  costly,  expensive.  (Despised,  cheap.)  DEATH,  departure,  de- 
cease, demise.  (Ivife.)  DECAY,  decline,  cousumption.  (Growth.) 
DECEIVE,  delude,  impose  upon,  over-reach,  gull,  dupe,  cheat.  DECEIT, 
cheat,  imposition,  trick,  delusion,  guile,  beguilement,  treachery,  sham. 
(Truthfulness.)  DECIDE,  determine,  settle,  adjudicate,  terminate,  re- 


LANGUAGE:  ITS  USE  AND  MISUSE.  77 

solve.  DECIPHER,  read,  spell,  interpret,  solve.  DECISION,  determina- 
tion, conclusion,  resolution,  firmness.  (Vacillation.)  DECLAMATION, 
oratory,  elocution,  harangue,  -effusion,  debate.  DECLARATION,  avowal, 
manifestation,  statement,  profession.  DECREASE,  diminish,  lessen,  wane, 
decline,  retrench,  curtail,  reduce.  (Growth.)  DEDICATE,  devote,  conse- 
crate, offer,  set,  apportion.  DEED,  act,  action,  commission,  achievement, 
instrument,  document,  muniment.  DEEM,  judge,  estimate,  consider, 
think,  suppose,  conceive.  DEEP,  profound,  subterranean,  submerged, 
designing,  abstruse,  learned.  (Shallow.)  DEFACE,  mar,  spoil,  injure, 
disfigure.  (Beautify.)  DEFAULT,  lapse,  forfeit,  omission,  absence,  want, 
failure.  DEFECT,  imperfection,  flaw,  fault,  blemish.  (Beauty,  improve- 
ment.) DEFEND,  guard,  protect,  justify.  DEFENSE,  excuse,  plea,  vin- 
dication, bulwark,  rampart.  DEFER,  delay,  postpone,  put  off,  prorogue, 
adjourn.  (Force,  expedite.)  DEFICIENT,  short,  wanting,  inadequate, 
scanty,  incomplete.  (Complete,  perfect.)  DEFINE,  v.,  pollute,  corrupt, 
sully.  (Beautify.)  DEFINE,  fix,  settle,  determine,  limit.  DEFRAY, 
meet,  liquidate,  pay,  discharge.  DEGREE,  grade,  extent,  measure.  DE- 
LIBERATE, v.,  consider,  meditate,  consult,  ponder,  debate.  DELIBERATE, 
a.,  purposed,  intentional,  designed,  determined.  (Hasty.)  DELICACY, 
nicety,  dainty,  refinement,  tact,  softness,  modesty.  (Boorishness,  indeli- 
cacy.) DELICATE,  tender,  fragile,  dainty,  refined.  (Coarse.)  DELICIOUS, 
sweet,  palatable.  (Nauseous.)  DELIGHT,  enjoyment,  pleasure,  happi- 
ness, transport,  ecstasy,  gladness,  rapture,  bliss.  (Annoyance.)  DE- 
LIVER, liberate,  free,  rescue,  pronounce,  give,  hand  over.  (Retain.) 
DEMONSTRATE,  prove,  show,  exhibit,  illustrate.  DEPART,  leave,  quit, 
decamp,  retire,  withdraw,  vanish.  (Remain.)  DEPRIVE,  strip,  bereave, 
despoil,  rob,  divest.  DEPUTE,  appoint,  commission,  charge,  intrust, 
delegate,  authorize,  accredit.  DERISION,  scorn,  contempt,  contumely, 
disrespect.  DERIVATION,  origin,  source,  beginning,  cause,  etymology, 
root.  DESCRIBE,  delineate,  portray,  explain,  illustrate,  define,  picture. 
DESECRATE,  profane,  secularize,  misuse,  abuse,  pollute.  (Keep  holy.) 
DESERVE,  merit,  earn,  justify,  win.  DESIGN,  n., delineation, sketch,  draw- 
ing, cunning,  artfulness,  contrivance.  DESIRABLE,  expedient,  advisable, 
valuable,  acceptable,  proper,  judicious,  beneficial,  profitable,  good. 
DESIRE,  n.,  longing,  affection,  craving.  DESIST,  cease,  stop,  discontinue, 
drop,  abstain,  forbear.  (Continue,  persevere.)  DESOLATE,  bereaved, for- 
lorn, forsaken,  deserted,  wild,  waste,  bare,  bleak,  lonely.  (Pleasant, 
happy.)  DESPERATE,  wild,  daring,  audacious,  determined,  reckless, 
hopeless.  DESTINY,  fate,  decree,  doom,  end.  DESTRUCTIVE,  detri- 
mental, hurtful,  noxious,  injurious,  deleterious,  baleful,  baneful,  sub- 
versive. (Creative,  constructive.)  DESUETUDE,  disuse,  discontinuance. 
(Maintenance.)  DESULTORY,  rambling,  discursive,  loose,  unmethodical, 
superficial,  unsettled,  erratic,  fitful.  (Thorough.)  DETAIL,  «.,  partic- 
ular, specification,  minutiae.  DETAIL,  v.,  particularize,  enumerate, 
specify.  (Generalize.)  DETER,  warn,  stop,  dissuade,  terrify,  scare. 
(Encourage.)  DETRIMENT,  loss,  harm,  injury,  deterioration.  (Benefit.) 
DEVELOP,  unfold,  amplify,  expand,  enlarge.  DEVICE,  artifice,  expedient, 
contrivance.  DEVOID,  void,  wanting,  destitute,  unendowed,  unpro- 
vided. (Full,  complete.)  DEVOTED,  attached,  fond,  absorbed,  dedi- 
cated. DICTATE,  prompt,  suggest,  enjoin,  order,  command.  DICTATOR- 
IAL, imperative,  imperious,  domineering,  arbitrary,  tyrannical,  over- 
bearing. (Submissive.)  DIE,  expire,  depart,  perish,  decline,  languish, 
pass  away,  fade,  decay.  DIET,  food,  victuals,  nourishment,  nutriment, 
sustenance,  fare.  DIFFERENCE,  separation,  disagreement,  discord,  dis- 


78  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

sent,  estrangement,  variety.  DIFFERENT,  various,  manifold,  diverse, 
unlike,  separate,  distinct.  (Similar,  homogeneous.)  DIFFICULT,  hard, 
intricate,  involved,  perplexing,  obscure,  -unmanageable.  (Easy.)  DIF- 
FUSE, discursive,  prolix,  diluted,  copious.  DIGNIFY,  aggrandize,  elevate, 
invest,  exalt,  advance,  promote,  honor.  (Degrade.)  DILATE,  stretch, 
widen,  expand,  swell,  distend,  enlarge,  descant,  expatiate.  DILATORY, 
tardy,  procrastinating,  behindhand,  lagging,  dawdling.  (Prompt.) 
DILIGENCE,  care,  assiduity,  attention,  heed,  industry.  (Negligence.) 
DIMINISH-,  lessen,  reduce,  contract,  curtail,  retrench.  (Increase.)  DISA- 
BILITY, unfitness,  incapacity.  DISCERN,  descry,  observe,  recognize,  see, 
discriminate,  separate,  perceive.  DISCIPLINE,  order,  strictness,  training, 
coercion,  punishment,  organization.  (Confusion,  demoralization.)  DIS- 
COVER, make  known,  find,  invent,  contrive,  expose,  reveal.  DISCRED- 
ITABLE,  shameful,  disgraceful,  scandalous,  disreputable.  (Creditable.) 
DISCREET,  cautious,  prudent,  wary,  judicious.  (Indiscreet.)  DISCREP- 
ANCY, disagreement,  difference,  variance.  (Agreement.)  DISCRIMINA- 
TION, acuteness,  discernment,  judgment,  caution.  DISEASE,  complaint, 
malady,  disorder,  ailment,  sickness.  DISGRACE,  n. ,  disrepute,  reproach, 
dishonor,  shame,  odium.  (Honor.)  DISGRACE,  v.,  debase,  degrade,  de- 
fame, discredit.  (Exalt.)  DISGUST,  dislike,  distaste,  loathing,  abomi- 
nation, abhorrence.  (Admiration.)  DISHONEST,  unjust,  fraudulent, 
unfair,  deceitful,  cheating,  deceptive,  wrongful.  (Honest.)  DISMAY,  z/., 
terrify,  frighten,  scare,  daunt,  appall,  dishearten.  (Encourage.)  DISMAY, 
«.,  terror,  dread,  fear,  fright.  (Assurance.)  DISMISS,  send  off,  discharge, 
discard,  banish.  (Retain.)  DISPEL,  scatter,  drive  away,  disperse,  dissi- 
pate. (Collect.)  DISPLAY,  show,  spread  out,  exhibit,  expose.  (Hide.) 
DISPOSE,  arrange,  place,  order,  give,  bestow.  DISPUTE,  v.,  argue,  con- 
test, contend,  question,  impugn.  (Assent.)  DISPUTE,  n.,  argument,de- 
bate,  controversy,  quarrel,  disagreement.  (Harmony.)  DISSENT,  disa- 
gree, differ,  vary.  (Assent.)  DISTINCT,  clear,  plain,  obvious,  different, 
separate.  (Obscure,  indistinct.)  DISTINGUISH,  perceive,  discern,  mark 
out,  divide,  discriminate.  DISTINGUISHED,  famous,  glorious,  far-famed, 
noted,  illustrious,  eminent,  celebrated.  (Obscure,  unknown,  ordinary.) 
DISTRACT,  perplex,  bewilder.  (Calm,  concentrate.)  DISTRIBUTE,  allot, 
share,  dispense,  apportion,  deal.  (Collect.)  DISTURB, derange, discompose, 
agitate,  rouse,  interrupt,  confuse,  annoy,  trouble,  vex,  worry.  (Pacify, 
quiet.)  DISUSE,  discontinuance,  abolition,  desuetude.  (Use.)  DIVIDE, 
part,  separate,  distribute,  deal  out,  sever,  sunder.  DIVINE,  godlike,  holy, 
heavenly,  sacred,  a  parson,  clergyman,  minister.  Do,  effect,  make,  per- 
form, accomplish,  finish,  transact.  DOCILE,  tractable,  teachable,  com- 
pliant, tame.  (Stubborn.)  DOCTRINE,  tenet,  articles  of  belief,  creed, 
dogma,  teaching.  DOLEFUL,  dolorous,  woe-begone,  rueful,  dismal, 
piteous.  (Joyous.)  DOOM,  n.,  sentence,  verdict,  judgment,  fate,  lot, 
destiny.  DOUBT,  n.,  uncertainty,  suspense,  hesitation,  scruple,  ambi 
guity.  (Certainty.)  DRAW,  pull,  haul,  drag,  attract,  inhale,  sketch,  de- 
scribe. DREAD,  ?/.,  fear,  horror,  terror,  alarm,  dismay,  awe.  (Boldness, 
assurance.)  DREADFUL,  fearful,  frightful,  shocking,  awful,  horrible, 
horrid,  terrific.  DRESS,  n.,  clothing,  attire,  apparel,  garments,  costume, 
garb,  livery.  DRIFT,  purpose,  meaning,  scope,  aim,  tendency,  direction. 
DROLL,  funny,  laughable,  comic,  whimsical,  queer,  amusing.  (Solemn.) 
DROWN,  inundate,-  swamp,  submerge,  overwhelm,  engulf.  DRY,  a., 
arid,  parched,  lifeless,  dull,  tedious,  uninteresting,  meagre.  (Moist,  in- 
teresting, succulent.)  DUE,  owing  to,  attributable  to,  just,  fair,  proper, 
debt,  right.  DULL,  stupid,  gloomy,  sad,  dismal,  commonplace. (Bright.) 


LANGUAGE:  ITS  USE  AND  MISUSE.  79 

DUNCE,  simpleton,  fool,  ninny,  idiot.  (Sage.)  DURABLE,  lasting,  per- 
manent, abiding,  continuing.  (Ephemeral,  perishable.)  DWELL,  stay, 
stop,  abide,  sojourn,  linger,  tarry.  DWINDLE,  pine,  waste,  diminish,  de- 
crease, fall  off.  (Grow.) 

EAGER,  hot,  ardent,  impassioned,  forward,  impatient.  (Diffident.) 
EARN,  acquire,  obtain,  win,  gain,  achieve.  EARNEST,  «.,  ardent,  serious, 
grave,  solemn,  warm.  (Trifling.)  EARNEST,  n.,  pledge,  pawn.  EASE,  n., 
comfort,  rest.  (Worry.)  EASE,  v,,  calm,  alleviate,  allay,  mitigate,  ap- 
pease, assuage,  pacify,  disburden,  rid.  (Annoy,  worry.)  EASY,  light, 
comfortable,  unconstrained.  (Difficult,  hard.)  ECCENTRIC,  irregular, 
anomalous,  singular,  odd,  abnormal,  wayward,  particular,  strange. 
(Regular,  ordinary.)  ECONOMICAL,  sparing,  saving,  provident,  thrifty, 
frugal,  careful,  niggardly.  (Wasteful.)  EDGE,  border,  brink,  rim,  brim, 
margin,  verge.  EFFACE,  blot  out,  expunge,  obliterate,  wipe  out,  cancel, 
erase.  EFFECT,  «.,  consequence,  result,  issue,  event,  execution,  opera- 
tion. EFFECT,  z/.,  accomplish,  fulfill,  realize,  achieve,  execute,  operate, 
complete.  EFFECTIVE,  efficient,  operative,  serviceable.  (Vain,  inef- 
fectual. )  EFFICACY,  efficiency,  energy,  agency,  instrumentality.  EFFI- 
CIENT, effectual,  effective,  competent,  capable,  able,  fitted.  ELIMINATE, 
drive  out,  expel,  thrust  out,  eject,  cast  out,  oust,  dislodge,  banish,  pro- 
scribe. ELOQUENCE,  oratory,  rhetoric,  declamation.  ELUCIDATE,  make 
plain,  explain,  clear  up,  illustrate.  ELUDE,  evade,  escape,  avoid,  shun. 
EMBARRASS,  perplex,  entangle,  distress,  trouble.  (Assist.)  EMBELLISH, 
adorn,  decorate,  bedeck,  beautify,  deck.  (Disfigure.)  EMBOLDEN,  in- 
spirit, animate,  encourage,  cheer,  urge;  impel,  stimulate.  (Discourage.) 
EMINENT,  distinguished,  signal,  conspicuous,  noted,  prominent,  elevated, 
renowned,  famous,  glorious,  illustrious.  (Obscure,  unknown.)  EMIT, 
give  out,  throw  out,  exhale,  discharge,  vent.  EMOTION,  perturbation, 
agitation,  trepidation,  tremor,  mental  conflict.  EMPLOY,  occupy,  busy, 
take  up  with,  engross.  EMPLOYMENT,  business,  avocation,  engagement, 
office,  function,  trade,  profession,  occupation,  calling,  vocation.  EN- 
COMPASS, z>.,  encircle,  surround,  gird,  beset.  ENCOUNTER,  attack,  con- 
flict, combat,  assault,  onset,  engagement,  battle,  action.  ENCOURAGE, 
countenance,  sanction,  support,  foster,  cherish,  inspirit,  embolden,  ani- 
mate, cheer,  incite,  urge,  impel,  stimulate.  (Deter.)  END,  n.,  aim,  ob- 
ject, purpose,  result,  conclusion,  upshot,  close,  expiration,  termination, 
extremity,  sequel.  ENDEAVOR,  attempt,  try,  essay,  strive,  aim.  EN- 
DURANCE, continuation,  duration,  fortitude,  patience,  resignation.  EN- 
DURE, v.,  last,  continue,  support,  bear,  sustain,  suffer,  brook,  submit  to, 
undergo.  (Perish.)  ENEMY,  foe,  antagonist,  adversary,  opponent. 
(Friend.)  ENERGETIC,  industrious,  effectual,  efficacious,  powerful,  bind- 
ing, stringent,  forcible,  nervous.  (Lazy.)  ENGAGE,  employ,  busy,  oc- 
cupy, attract,  invite,  allure,  entertain,  engross,  take  up,  enlist.  ENGROSS, 
absorb,  take  up,  busy,  occupy,  engage,  monopolize.  ENGULF,  swallow 
up,  absorb,  imbibe,  drown,  submerge,  bury,  entomb,  overwhelm.  EN- 
JOIN, order,  ordain,  appoint,  prescribe.  ENJOYMENT,  pleasure,  gratifica- 
tion. (Grief,  sorrow,  sadness.)  ENLARGE,  increase,  extend,  augment, 
broaden,  swell.  (Diminish.)  ENLIGHTEN,  illumine,  illuminate,  in- 
struct, inform.  (Befog,  becloud.)  ENLIVEN,  cheer,  vivify,  stir  up, 
animate,  inspire,  exhilarate.  (Sadden,  quiet.)  ENMITY,  animosity, 
hostility,  ill-will,  maliciousness.  (Friendship.)  ENORMOUS,  gigantic, 
colossal,  huge,  vast,  immense,  prodigious.  (Insignificant.)  ENOUGH, 
sufficient,  plenty,  abundance.  (Want.)  ENRAGED,  infuriated,  raging, 
wrathful.  (Pacified.)  ENRAPTURE,  enchant,  fascinate,  charm,  capti- 


80  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMAJ^ION. 

vate,  bewitch.  (Repel.)  ENROLL,  enlist,  list,  register,  record.  ENTER- 
PRISE, undertaking,  endeavor,  venture,  energy.  ENTHUSIASM,  earnest 
devotion,  zeal,  ardor.  (Ennui,  lukewarmness. )  ENTHUSIAST,  fanatic, 
visionary.  EQUAL,  equable,  even,  like,  alike,  uniform.  (Unequal.) 
ERADICATE,  root  out,  extirpate,  exterminate.  ERRONEOUS,  incorrect, 
inaccurate,  inexact.  (Exact.)  ERROR,  blunder,  mistake.  (Truth.) 
ESPECIALLY,  chiefly,  particularly,  principally.  (Generally.)  ESSAY, 
dissertation,  tract,  treatise.  ESTABLISH,  build  up,  confirm.  (Overthrow.) 
ESTEEM,  regard,  respect.  (Contempt.)  ESTIMATE,  appraise,  appre- 
ciate, esteem,  compute,  rate.  ESTRANGEMENT,  abstraction,  alienation. 
ETERNAL,  endless,  everlasting.  (Finite.)  EVADE,  equivocate,  prevari- 
cate. EVEN,  level,  plain,  smooth.  (Uneven.)  EVENT,  accident,  advent- 
ure, incident,  occurrence.  EVIL,  ill,  harm,  mischief,  misfortune.  (Good.) 
EXACT,  nice,  particular,  punctual.  (Inexact.)  EXALT,  ennoble,  dignify, 
raise.  (Humble.)  EXAMINATION,  investigation,  inquiry,  research, 
search,  scrutiny.  EXCEED,  excel,  outdo,  surpass,  transcend.  (Fall 
short.)  EXCEPTIONAL,  uncommon,  rare,  extraordinary.  (Common.) 
EXCITE,  awaken,  provoke,  rouse,  stir  up.  (Lull.)  EXCURSION,  jaunt, 
ramble,  tour,  trip.  EXECUTE,  fulfill,  perform.  EXEMPT,  free,  cleared. 
(Subject.)  EXERCISE,  practice.  EXHAUSTIVE,  thorough,  complete. 
(Cursory.)  EXIGENCY,  emergency.  EXPERIMENT,  proof,  trial,  test. 
EXPLAIN,  expound,  interpret,  illustrate,  elucidate.  EXPRESS,  declare, 
signify,  utter,  tell.  EXTEND,  reach,  stretch.  (Abridge.)  EXTRAVAGANT, 
lavish,  profuse,  prodigal.  (Parsimonious.) 

FABLE,  apologue,  novel,  romance,  tale.  FACE,  visage,  countenance. 
FACETIOUS,  pleasant,  jocular,  jocose.  (Serious. )  FACTOR,  agent.  FAIL, 
to  fall  short,  be  deficient.  (Accomplish.)  FAINT,  languid.  (Forcible.) 
FAIR,  clear.  (Stormy.)  FAIR,  equitable,  honest,  reasonable.  (Unfair.) 
FAITH,  creed.  (Unbelief,  infidelity.)  FAITHFUL,  true,  loyal,  constant. 
(Faithless.)  FAITHLESS,  perfidious,  treacherous.  (Faithful.)  FALL, 
drop,  droop,  sink,  tumble.  (Rise.)  FAME,  renown,  reputation.  FAMOUS, 
celebrated,  renowned,  illustrious.  (Obscure.)  FANCIFUL,  capricious, 
fantastical,  whimsical.  FANCY,  imagination.  FAST,  rapid,  quick,  fleet, 
expeditious.  (Slow.)  FATIGUE,  weariness,  lassitude.  (Vigor.)  FEAR, 
timidity,  timorousness.  (Bravery.)  FEELING,  sensation,  sense.  FEEL- 
ING, sensibility,  susceptibility.  (Insensibility.)  FEROCIOUS,  fierce,  sav- 
age, wild,  barbarous.  (Mild.)  FERTILE,  fruitful,  prolific,  plenteous, 
productive.  (Sterile.)  FICTION,  falsehood,  fabrication.  (Fact.)  FIG- 
URE, allegory,  emblem,  metaphor,  symbol,  type.  FIND,  find  out,  descry, 
discover,  espy.  (Lose,  overlook.)  FINE,  «.,  delicate,  nice.  (Coarse.) 
FINE,  forfeit,  forfeiture,  mulct,  penalty.  FIRE,  glow,  heat,  warmth. 
FIRM,  constant,  solid,  steadfast,  fixed,  stable.  (Weak.)  FIRST,  fore- 
most, earliest.  (Last.)  FIT,  accommodate,  adapt,  adjust,  suit.  Fix,  de- 
termine, establish,  settle,  limit.  FLAME,  blaze,  flare,  flash,  glare.  FLAT, 
level,  even.  FLEXIBLE,  pliant,  pliable,  ductile,  supple,  (Inflexible.) 
FLOURISH,  prosper,  thrive.  (Decay.)  FLUCTUATING,  wavering,  hesitat- 
ing, oscillating,  vacillating,  change.  (Firm,  steadfast,  decided.)  FLUENT, 
flowing,  glib,  voluble,  unembarrassed,  ready.  (Hesitating.)  FOLKS, 
persons,  people,  individuals.  FOLLOW,  succeed,  ensue,  imitate,  copy, 
pursue.  FOLLOWER,  partisan,  disciple,  adherent,  retainer,  pursuer, 
successor.  FOLLY,  silliness,  foolishness,  imbecility,  weakness.  (Wis- 
dom.) FOND,  enamored,  attached,  affectionate.  (Distant.)  FONDNESS, 
affection,  attachment,  kindness,  love.  (Aversion.)  FOOLHARDY,  ven- 
turesome, incautious,  hasty,  adventurous,  rash.  (Cautious.)  FOOLISH, 


LANGUAGE:  ITS  USE  AND  MISUSE.  81 

simple,  silly,  irrational,  brainless,  imbecile,  crazy,  absurd,  preposterous, 
ridiculous,  nonsensical.  (Wise,  discreet.)  FOP,  dandy,  dude,  beau,  cox- 
comb, puppy,  jackanapes.  (Gentleman.)  FORBEAR,  abstain,  refrain, 
withhold.  FORCE,  #.,  strength,  vigor,  dint,  might,  energy,  power,  vio- 
lence, army,  host.  FORCE,  z/.,  compel.  (Persuade.)  FORECAST,  fore- 
thought, foresight,  premeditation,  prognostication.  FOREGO,  quit,  re- 
linquish, let  go,  waive.  FOREGOING,  antecedent,  anterior,  preceding, 
previous,  prior,  former.  FORERUNNER,  herald,  harbinger,  precursor, 
omen.  FORESIGHT,  forethought,  forecast,  premeditation.  FORGE,  coin, 
invent,  frame,  feign,  fabricate,  counterfeit.  FORGIVE,  pardon,  remit, 
absolve,  acquit,  excuse,  except.  FORLORN,  forsaken,  abandoned,  de- 
serted, desolate,  lone,  lonesome.  FORM,  «.,  ceremony,  solemnity, 
observance,  rite,  figure,  shape,  conformation,  fashion,  appearance,  repre- 
sentation, semblance.  FORM,  z/.,  make,  create,  produce,  constitute,  ar- 
range, fashion,  mould,  shape.  FORMAL,  ceremonious,  precise,  exact, 
stiff,  methodical,  affected.  (Informal,  natural.)  FORMER,  antecedent, 
anterior,  previous,  prior,  preceding,  foregoing.  FORSAKEN,  abandoned, 
forlorn,  deserted,  desolate,  lone,  lonesome.  FORTHWITH,  immediately, 
directly,  instantly,  instantaneously.  (Anon.)  FORTITUDE,  endurance, 
resolution,  fearlessness,  dauntlessness.  (Weakness.)  FORTUNATE,  lucky, 
happy,  auspicious,  prosperous,  successful.  (Unfortunate.)  FORTUNE, 
chance,  fate,  luck,  doom,  destiny,  property,  possession,  riches.  FOSTER, 
cherish,  nurse,  tend,  harbor,  nurture.  (Neglect.)  FOUL,  impure,  nasty, 
filthy,  dirty,  unclean,  defiled.  (Pure,  clean.)  FRACTIOUS,  cross,  cap- 
tious, petulant,  touchy,  testy,  peevish,  fretful,  splenetic.  (Tractable.) 
FRAGILE,  brittle,  frail,  delicate,  feeble.  (Strong.)  FRAGMENTS,  pieces, 
scraps,  chips,  leavings,  remains,  remnants.  FRAII/TY,  weakness,  failing, 
foible,  imperfection,  fault,  blemish.  (Strength.)  FRAME,  v. ,.  construct, 
invent,  coin,  fabricate,  forge,  mold,  feign,  make,  compose.  FRANCHISE, 
right,  exemption,  immunity,  privilege,  freedom,  suffrage.  FRANK,  artless, 
candid,  sincere,  free,  easy,  familiar,  open,  ingenuous,  plain.  (Tricky, 
insincere.)  FRANTIC,  distracted,  mad,  furious,  raving,  frenzied.  (Quiet, 
subdued. )  FRAUD,  deceit,  deception,  duplicity,  guile,  cheat,  imposition. 
(Honesty.)  FREAK,  fancy,  humor,  vagary,  whim,  caprice,  crotchet. 
(Purpose,  resolution.)  FREE,  #.,  liberal,  generous,  bountiful,  bounteous, 
munificent,  frank,  artless,  candid,  familiar,  open,  independent,  uncon- 
fined,  unreserved,  unrestricted,  exempt,  clear,  loose,  easy,  careless. 
(Slavish,  stingy,  artful,  costly.)  FREE,  v.,  release,  set  free,  deliver,  res- 
cue, liberate,  enfranchise,  affranchise,  emancipate,  exempt.  (Enslave, 
bind. )  FREEDOM,  liberty,  independence,  unrestraint,  familiarity,  licence, 
franchise,  exemption,  privilege.  (Slavery.)  FREQUENT,  often,  common, 
usual,  general.  (Rare.)  FRET,  gall,  chafe,  agitate,  irritate,  vex. 
FRIENDLY,  amicable,  social,  sociable.  (Distant,  reserved,  cool.)  FRIGHT- 
FUL, fearful,  dreadful,  dire,  direful,  terrific,  awful,  horrible,  horrid. 
FRIVOLOUS,  trifling,  trivial,  petty.  (Serious,  earnest.)  FRUGAL,  provi- 
dent, economical,  saving.  (Wasteful,  extravagant.)  FRUITFUL,  fertile, 
prolific,  productive,  abundant,  plentiful,  plenteous.  (Barren,  sterile.) 
FRUITLESS,  vain,  useless,  idle,  abortive,  bootless,  unavailing,  without 
avail.  FRUSTRATE,  defeat,  foil,  balk,  disappoint.  FULFILL,  accomplish, 
effect,  complete.  FULLY,  completely,  abundantly,  perfectly.  FULSOME, 
coarse,  gross,  sickening,  offensive,  rank.  (Moderate.)  FURIOUS,  violent, 
boisterous,  vehement,  dashing,  sweeping,  rolling,  impetuous,  frantic, 
distracted,  stormy,  angry,  raging,  fierce.  (Calm.)  FUTILE,  trifling, 
trivial,  frivolous,  useless.  (Effective.) 
U.  I.-6 


82  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

GAIN,  #.,  profit,  emolument,  advantage,  benefit,  winnings,  earnings. 
(Loss.)  GAIN,  z/.,  get,  acquire,  obtain,  attain,  procure,  earn,  win,  achieve, 
reap,  realize,  reach.  (Lose.)  GALLANT,  brave,  bold,  courageous,  gay, 
fine,  showy,  intrepid,  fearless,  heroic.  GALLING,  chafing,  irritating,  vex- 
ing. (Soothing.)  GAME,  play,  pastime,  diversion,  sport,  amusement. 
GANG,  band,  horde,  company,  troop,  crew.  GAP,  breach,  chasm,  hollow, 
cavity,  cleft,  crevice,  rift,  chink.  GARNISH,  embellish,  adorn,  beautify, 
deck,  decorate.  GATHER,  pick,  cull,  assemble,  muster,  infer,  collect. 
(Scatter.)  GAUDY,  showy,  flashy,  tawdry,  gay,  glittering,  bespangled. 
(Sombre.)  GAUNT,  emaciated,  scraggy,  skinny,  meagre,  lank,  attenuated, 
spare,  lean,  thin.  (Well-fed.)  GAY,  cheerful,  merry,  lively,  jolly, 
sprightly,  blithe.  (Solemn.)  GENERATE,  form,  make,  beget,  produce.  GEN- 
ERATION, formation,  race,  breed,  stock,  kind,  age,  era.  GENEROUS,  benefi- 
cent, noble,  honorable,  bountiful,  liberal,  free.  (Niggardly.)  GENIAL, 
cordial,  hearty,  festive,  joyous.  (Distant,  cold.)  GENIUS,  intellect,  inven- 
tion, talent,  taste,  nature,  character,  adept.  GENTEEL,  refined,  polished, 
fashionable,  polite,  well-bred.  (Boorish.)  GENTLE,  placid,  mild,  bland, 
meek,  tame,  docile.  (Rough,  uncouth.)  GENUINE,  real,  true,  unaffected, 
sincere.  (False.)  GESTURE,  attitude,  action,  posture.  GET,  obtain,  earn, 
gain,  attain,  procure,  achieve.  GHASTLY,  palHd,  wan,  hideous,  grim, 
shocking.  GHOST,  spectre,  sprite,  apparition,  shade,  phantom.  GIBE, 
scoff,  sneer,  flout,  jeer,  mock,  taunt,  deride.  GIDDY,  unsteady,  flighty, 
thoughtless.  (Steady.)  GIFT,  donation,  benefaction,  grant,  alms,  gra- 
tuity, boon,  present,  faculty,  talent.  (Purchase.)  GIGANTIC,  colossal, 
huge,  enormous,  vast,  prodigious,  immense.  (Diminutive.)  GIVE,  grant, 
bestow,  confer,  yield,  impart.  GLAD,  pleased,  cheerful,  joyful,  gladsome, 
gratified,  cheering.  (Sad.)  GLEAM,  glimmer,  glance,  glitter,  shine,  flash. 
GLEE,  gayety,  merriment,  mirth,  joviality,  jovialness,  catch.  (Sorrow.) 
GLIDE,  slip,  slide,  run,  roll  on.  GLIMMER,  v.,  gleam,  flicker,  glitter. 
GLIMPSE,  glance,  look,  glint.  GLITTER,  gleam,  shine,  glisten,  glister, 
radiate.  GLOOM,  cloud,  darkness,  dimness,  blackness,  dulness,  sadness. 
(Light,  brightness,  joy.)  GLOOMY,  lowering,  lurid,  dim,  dusky,  sad, 
glum.  (Bright,  clear.)  GLORIFY,  magnify,  celebrate,  adore,  exalt.  GLO- 
RIOUS, famous,  renowned,  distinguished,  noble,  exalted.  (Infamous.) 
GLORY,  honor,  fame,  renown,  splendor,  grandeur.  (Infamy.)  GLUT, 
gorge,  stuff,  cram,  cloy,  satiate,  block  up.  Go,  depart,  proceed,  move, 
budge,  stir.  GOD,  Creator,  Lord,  Almighty,  Jehovah,  Omnipotence,  Provi- 
dence. GODLY,  righteous,  devout,  holy,  pious,  religious.  GOOD,  benefit, 
weal,  advantage,  profit,  boon.  (Evil.)  GOOD,  a.,  virtuous,  righteous,  up- 
right, just,  true.  (Wicked,  bad.)  GORGE,  glut,  fill,  cram,  stuff,  satiate. 
GORGEOUS,  superb,  grand,  magnificent,  splendid.  (Plain,  simple.)  GOV- 
ERN, rule,  direct,  manage,  command.  GOVERNMENT,  rule,  state,  control, 
sway.  GRACEFUL,  becoming,  comely,  elegant,  beautiful.  (Awkward.) 
GRACIOUS,  merciful,  kindly,  beneficent.  GRADUAL,  slow,  progressive, 
(Sudden.)  GRAND,  majestic,  stately,  dignified,  lofty,  elevated,  exalted, 
splendid,  gorgeous,  superb,  magnificent,  sublime,  pompous.  (Shabby.) 
GRANT,  bestow,  impart,  give,  yield,  cede,  allow,  confer,  invest. 
GRANT,  gift,  boon,  donation.  GRAPHIC,  iorcible,  telling,  picturesque, 
vivid,  pictorial.  GRASP,  catch,  seize,  gripe,  clasp,  grapple.  GRATEFUL, 
agreeable,  pleasing,  welcome,  thankful.  (Harsh.)  GRATIFICATION, 
enjoyment,  pleasure,  delight,  reward.  (Disappointment.)  GRAVE,  a., 
serious,  sedate,  solemn,  sober,  pressing,  heavy.  (Giddy.)  GSAVE,  f*., 
tomb,  sepulchre,  vault.  GREAT,  big,  huge,  large,  maje^t'o  vast.  grW33, 
noble,  august.  (Small.)  GREEDINESS,  avidity,  eagerness  voracity.  (Gene- 


LANGUAGE:  ITS  USE  AND  MISUSE.  83 

rosity.)  GRIEF,  affliction,  sorrow,  trial,  woe,  tribulation.  (Joy.)  GRIEVE, 
mourn,  lament,  sorrow,  pain,  hurt,  wound,  bewail.  (Rejoice.)  GRIEVOUS, 
painful,  afflicting,  heavy,  baleful,  unhappy.  GRIND,  crush,  oppress, 
grate,  harass,  afflict.  GRISLY,  terrible,  hideous,  grim,  ghastly,  dread- 
ful. (Pleasing.)  GROSS,  coarse,  outrageous,  unseemly,  shameful,  indel- 
icate. (Delicate.)  GROUP,  assembly,  cluster,  collection,  clump,  order, 
class.  GROVEL,  crawl,  cringe,  fawn,  sneak.  GROW,  increase,  vegetate, 
expand,  advance.  (Decay,  diminution.)  GROWL,,  grumble,  snarl,  mur- 
mur, complain.  GRUDGE,  malice,  rancor,  spite,  pique,  hatred,  aversion. 
GRUFF,  rough,  rugged,  blunt,  rude,  harsh,  surly,  bearish.  (Pleasant.) 
GuiLE,  deceit,  fraud.  (Candor.)  GUILTLESS,  harmless,  innocent.  GUII/TY, 
culpable,  sinful,  criminal. 

HABIT,  custom,  practice.  HAIL,  accost,  address,  greet,  salute,  wel- 
come. HAPPINESS,  beatitude,  blessedness,  bliss,  felicity.  (Unhappiness. ) 
HARBOR,  haven,  port.  HARD,  firm,  solid.  (Soft.)  HARD,  arduous, 
difficult.  (Easy.)  HARM,  injury,  hurt,  wrong,  infliction.  (Benefit.) 
HARMLESS,  safe,  innocuous,  innocent.  (Hurtful.)  HARSH,  rough, 
rigorous,  severe,  gruff,  morose.  (Gentle.)  HASTEN,  accelerate,  de- 
spatch, expedite,  speed.  (Delay.)  HASTY,  hurried,  ill-advised.  (De- 
liberate.) HATEFUL,  odious,  detestable.  (Lovable.)  HATRED,  enmity, 
ill-will,  rancor.  (Friendship.)  HAUGHTINESS,  arrogance,  pride.  (Mod- 
esty.) HAUGHTY,  arrogant,  disdainful,  supercilious,  proud.  HAZARD, 
risk,  venture.  HEALTHY,  salubrious,  salutary,  wholesome.  (Unhealthy. ) 
HEAP,  accumulate,  amass,  pile.  HEARTY,  a.,  cordial,  sincere,  warm. 
(Insincere.)  HEAVY,  burdensome,  ponderous,  weighty.  (Light.)  HEED, 
care,  attention.  HEIGHTEN,  enhance,  exalt,  elevate,  raise.  HEINOUS, 
atrocious,  flagitious,  flagrant.  (Venial.)  HELP,  aid,  assist,  relieve,  suc- 
cor. (Hinder.)  HERETIC,  sectary,  sectarian,  schismatic,  dissenter,  non- 
conformist. HESITATE,  falter,  stammer,  stutter.  HIDEOUS,  grim, 
ghastly,  grisly.  (Beautiful.)  HIGH,  lofty,  tall,  elevated.  (Deep.) 
HINDER,  impede,  obstruct,  prevent.  (Help.)  HINT,  allude,  refer,  sug- 
gest, intimate,  insinuate.  HOLD,  detain,  keep,  retain.  HOLINESS,  sanc- 
tity, piety,  sacredness.  HOLY,  devout,  pious,  religious.  HOMELY,  plain, 
ugly,  coarse.  (Beautiful.)  HONESTY,  integrity,  probity,  uprightness. 
(Dishonesty.)  HONOR,  v.,  respect,  reverence,  esteem.  (Dishonor.) 
HOPE,  confidence,  expectation,  trust.  HOPELESS,  desperate.  HOT,  ar- 
dent, burning,  fiery.  (Cold.)  HOWEVER,  nevertheless,  notwithstand- 
ing, yet.  HUMBLE,  modest,  submissive,  plain,  unostentatious,  simple. 
(Haughty.)  HUMBLE,  degrade,  humiliate,  mortify,  abase.  (Exalt.) 
HUMOR,  mood,  temper.  HUNT,  seek,  chase.  HURTFUL,  noxious,  per- 
nicious. (Beneficial.)  HUSBANDRY,  cultivation,  tillage.  HYPOCRITE, 
dissembler,  impostor,  canter.  HYPOTHESIS,  theory,  supposition. 

IDEA,  thought,  imagination.  IDEAL,  imaginary,  fancied.  (Actual.) 
IDLE,  indolent,  lazy.  (Industrious.)  IGNOMINIOUS,  shameful,  scandal- 
ous, infamous.  (Honorable. )  IGNOMINY,  shame,  disgrace,  obloquy,  in- 
famy, reproach.  IGNORANT,  unlearned,  illiterate,  uninformed,  unedu- 
cated. (Knowing.)  ILL,  «.,  evil,  wickedness,  misfortune,  mischief, 
harm.  (Good.)  ILL,  a.,  sick,  indisposed,  unwell,  diseased.  (Well.) 
ILL-TEMPERED,  crabbed,  sour,  surly,  acrimonious.  (Good-natured.) 
ILL-WILL,  enmity,  hatred,  antipathy.  (Good -will.)  ILLEGAL,  un- 
lawful, illicit,  contraband,  illegitimate.  (Legal.)  ILLIMITABLE,  bound- 
less, immeasurable,  unlimited,  infinite.  ILLITERATE,  unlettered, 
unlearned,  untaught,  uninstructed.  (Learned,  educated.)  ILLUSION, 
fallacy,  deception,  phantasm.  ILLUSORY,  imaginary,  chimerical,  vision- 


84  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

ary.  (Real.)  ILLUSTRATE,  explain,  elucidate,  clear.  ILLUSTRIOUS, 
celebrated,  noble,  eminent,  famous,  renowned.  (Obscure.)  IMAGE, 
likeness,  picture,  representation,  effigy.  IMAGINARY,  ideal,  fanciful,  ill- 
usory. (Real.)  IMAGINE,  conceive,  fancy,  apprehend,  think,  presume. 
IMBECILITY,  silliness,  senility,  dotage.  IMITATE,  copy,  ape,  mimic, 
mock,  counterfeit.  IMMACULATE,  unspotted,  spotless,  unsullied,  stain- 
less. (Soiled.)  IMMEDIATE,  pressing,  instant,  next,  proximate.  IM- 
MEDIATELY, instantly,  forthwith,  directly,  presently.  IMMENSE,  vast, 
enormous,  huge,  prodigious,  monstrous.  IMMUNITY,  privilege,  prerog- 
ative, exemption.  IMPAIR,  injure,  diminish,  decrease.  IMPART,  reveal, 
divulge,  disclose,  discover,  bestow,  afford.  IMPARTIAL,  just,  equitable, 
unbiased.  (Partial.)  IMPASSIONED,  glowing,  burning,  fiery,  vehement, 
intense.  IMPEACH,  accuse,  charge,  arraign,  censure.  IMPEDE,  hinder, 
retard,  obstruct,  prevent.  (Help.)  IMPEDIMENT,  obstruction,  hindrance, 
obstacle,  barrier.  (Aid.)  IMPEL,  animate,  induce,  incite,  instigate,  em- 
bolden. (Retard.)  IMPENDING,  imminent,  threatening.  IMPERATIVE, 
commanding,  authoritative,  despotic.  IMPERFECTION,  fault,  blemish, 
defect,  vice.  IMPERIL,  endanger,  hazard,  jeopardize.  IMPERIOUS,  com- 
manding, dictatorial,  authoritative,  imperative,  lordly,  overbearing, 
domineering.  IMPERTINENT,  intrusive,  meddling,  officious,  rude,  saucy, 
impudent,  insolent.  IMPETUOUS,  violent,  boisterous,  furious,  vehement. 
(Calm.)  IMPIOUS,  profane,  irreligious,  godless.  (Reverent.)  IMPLICATE, 
involve,  entangle,  embarrass,  compromise.  IMPLY,  involve,  comprise,  in- 
fold, import,  denote,  signify.  IMPORTANCE,  signification,  significance, 
avail,  consequence,  weight,  gravity,  moment.  IMPOSING,  impressive, 
striking,  majestic,  august,  noble,  grand.  (Insignificant.)  IMPOTENCE, 
weakness,  incapacity,  infirmity,  frailty,  feebleness.  (Power.)  IMPOTENT, 
weak,  feeble,  helpless,  enfeebled,  nerveless,  infirm.  (Strong.)  IMPRESSIVE, 
stirring,  forcible,  exciting,  affecting,  moving.  IMPRISON,  incarcerate, 
shut  up,  immure,  confine.  (Liberate.)  IMPRISONMENT,  captivity, 
durance.  IMPROVE,  amend,  better,  mend,  reform,  rectify,  ameliorate, 
apply,  use,  employ.  (Deteriorate.)  IMPROVIDENT,  careless,  incautious, 
imprudent,  prodigal,  wasteful,  reckless,  rash.  (Thrifty.)  IMPUDENCE, 
assurance,  impertinence,  confidence,  insolence,  rudeness.  IMPUDENT, 
saucy,  brazen,  bold,  impertinent,  forward,  rude,  insolent,  immodest, 
shameless.  IMPULSE,  incentive,  incitement,  motive,  instigation.  IM- 
PULSIVE, rash,  hasty,  forcible,  violent.  (Deliberate.)  IMPUTATION, 
blame,  censure,  reproach,  charge,  accusation.  INADVERTENCE,  error, 
oversight,  blunder,  inattention,  carelessness,  negligence.  INCEN- 
TIVE, motive,  inducement,  impulse.  INCITE,  instigate,  excite,  provoke, 
stimulate,  encourage,  urge,  impel.  INCLINATION,  leaning,  slope,  dis- 
position, tendency,  bent,  bias,  affection,  attachment,  wish,  liking,  desire. 
(Aversion.)  INCLINE,  v.,  slope,  lean,  slant,  tend,  bend,  turn,  bias,  dis- 
pose. INCLOSE,  surround,  shut  in,  fence  in,  cover,  wrap.  INCLUDE, 
comprehend,  comprise,  contain,  embrace,  take  in.  INCOMMODE,  annoy, 
plague,  molest,  disturb,  inconvenience,  trouble.  (Accommodate.)  IN- 
COMPETENT, incapable,  unable,  inadequate,  insufficient.  (Competent.) 
INCREASE,  v.,  extend,  enlarge,  augment,  dilate,  expand,  amplify,  raise, 
enhance,  aggravate,  magnify,  grow.  (Diminish.)  INCREASE,  n.,  aug- 
mentation, accession,  addition,  enlargement,  extension.  (Decrease.) 
INCUMBENT,  obligatory.  INDEFINITE,  vague,  uncertain,  unsettled, 
loose,  lax.  (Definite.)  INDICATE,  point  out,  show,  mark.  INDIFFER- 
ENCE, apathy,  carelessness,  listlessness,  insensibility.  (Application, 
assiduity.)  INDIGENCE,  want,  neediness,  penury,  poverty,  destitution, 


LANGUAGE:  ITS  USE  AND  MISUSE.  85 

privation.  (Affluence.)  INDIGNATION,  anger,  wrath,  ire,  resentment. 
INDIGNITY,  insult,  affront,  outrage,  obloquy,  opprobrium,  reproach, 
ignominy.  (Honor.)  INDISCRIMINATE,  promiscuous,  chance,  indistinct, 
confused.  (Select,  chosen.)  INDISPENSABLE,  essential,  necessary,  requi- 
site, expedient.  (Unnecessary,  supernumerary.)  INDISPUTABLE,  un- 
deniable, undoubted,  incontestable,  indubitable,  unquestionable,  sure, 
infallible.  INDORSE,  ratify,  confirm,  superscribe.  INDULGE,  foster, 
cherish,  fondle.  (Deny  )  INEFFECTUAL,  vain,  useless,  unavailing, 
fruitless,  abortive,  inoperative.  (Effective.)  INEQUALITY,  disparity, 
disproportion,  dissimilarity,  unevenness.  (Equality.)  INEVITABLE,  un- 
avoidable, not  to  be  avoided,  certain.  INFAMOUS,  scandalous,  shameful, 
ignominious,  opprobrious,  disgraceful.  (Honorable.)  INFERENCE,  de- 
duction, corollary,  conclusion,  consequence.  INFERNAL,  diabolical, 
fiendish,  devilish,  hellish.  INFEST,  annoy,  plague,  harass,  disturb. 
INFIRM,  weak,  feeble,  enfeebled.  (Robust.)  INFLAME,  anger,  irritate, 
enrage,  chafe,  incense,  nettle,  aggravate,  imbitter,  exasperate.  (Allay, 
soothe.)  INFLUENCE,  v.,  bias,  sway,  prejudice,  prepossess.  INFLUENCE, 
n.y  credit,  favor,  reputation,  character,  weight,  authority,  sway,  ascend- 
ency. INFRINGE,  invade,  intrude,  contravene,  break,  transgress,  violate. 
INGENUOUS,  artless,  candid,  generous,  open,  frank,  plain,  sincere. 
(Crafty.)  INHUMAN,  cruel,  brutal,  savage,  barbarous,  ruthless,  merciless, 
ferocious.  (Humane.)  INIQUITY,  injustice,  wrong,  grievance.  INJURE, 
damage,  hurt,  deteriorate,  wrong,  aggrieve,  harm,  spoil,  mar,  sully. 
(Benefit.)  INJURIOUS,  hurtful,  baneful,  pernicious,  deleterious,  noxious, 
prejudicial,  wrongful,  damaging.  (Beneficial.)  INJUSTICE,  wrong,  in- 
iquity, grievance.  (Right.)  INNOCENT,  guiltless,  sinless,  harmless, 
inoffensive,  innoxious.  (Guilty.)  INNOCUOUS,  harmless,  safe,  innocent. 
(Hurtful.)  INORDINATE,  intemperate,  irregular,  disorderly,  excessive, 
immoderate.  (Moderate.)  INQUIRY,  investigation,  examination,  re- 
search, scrutiny,  disquisition,  question,  query,  interrogation.  INQUISI- 
TIVE, prying,  peeping,  curious,  peering.  INSANE,  mad,  deranged,  de- 
lirious, demented.  (Sane.)  INSANITY,  madness,  mental  aberration, 
lunacy,  delirium.  (Sanity.)  INSINUATE,  hint,  intimate,  suggest,  infuse, 
introduce,  ingratiate.  INSIPID,  dull,  flat,  mawkish,  tasteless,  vapid,  in- 
animate, lifeless.  (Bright,  sparkling.)  INSOLENT,  rude,  saucy,  pert, 
impertinent,  abusive,  scurrilous,  opprobrious,  insulting,  offensive.  IN- 
SPIRE, animate,  exhilarate,  enliven,  cheer,  breathe,  inhale.  INSTABILITY, 
mutability,  fickleness,  mutableness,  wavering.  (Stability,  firmness.) 
INSTIGATE,  stir  up,  persuade,  animate,  incite,  urge,  stimulate,  encourage. 
INSTIL,  implant,  inculcate,  infuse,  insinuate.  INSTRUCT,  inform,  teach, 
educate,  enlighten,  initiate.  INTRUMENTAL,  conducive,  assistant, helping, 
ministerial.  INSUFFICIENCY,  inadequacy,  in  competency,  incapability, 
deficiency, lack.  INSULT, affront, outrage,  indignity,  blasphemy.  (Honor.) 
INSULTING,  insolent,  rude,  saucy,  impertinent,  impudent,  abusive. 
INTEGRITY,  uprightness,  honesty,  probity,  entirety,  entireness,  com- 
pleteness, rectitude,  purity.  (Dishonesty.)  INTELLECT,  understanding, 
sense,  brains,  mind,  intelligence,  ability,  talent,  genius.  (Body.)  IN- 
TELLECTUAL, mental,  ideal,  metaphysical.  (Brutal.)  INTELLIGIBLE, 
clear,  obvious,  plain,  distinct.  (Abstruse.)  INTEMPERATE,  immoderate, 
excessive,  drunken,  nimious,  inordinate.  (Temperate.)  INTENSE,  ar- 
dent, earnest,  glowing,  fervid,  burning,  vehement.  INTENT,  design, 
purpose,  intention,  drift,  view,  aim,  purport,  meaning.  INTERCOURSE, 
commerce,  connection,  intimacy,  acquaintance.  INTERDICT,  forbid, 
prohibit,  inhibit,  proscribe,  debar,  restrain  from.  (Allow.)  INTERFERE, 


86  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

meddle,  intermeddle,  interpose.  INTERMINABLE,  endless,  interminate, 
infinite,  unlimited,  illimitable,  boundless,  limitless.  (Brief,  concise.) 
INTERPOSE,  intercede,  arbitrate,  meditate,  interfere,  meddle.  INTER- 
PRET, explain,  expound,  elucidate,  unfold,  decipher.  INTIMATE,  hint, 
suggest,  insinuate,  express,  signify,  impart,  tell.  INTIMIDATE,  dis- 
hearten, alarm,  frighten,  scare,  appal,  daunt,  cow,  browbeat.  (Encour- 
age.) INTOLERABLE,  insufferable,  unbearable,  insupportable,  unendur- 
able. INTREPID,  bold,  brave,  daring,  fearless,  dauntless,  undaunted, 
courageous,  valorous,  valiant,  heroic,  gallant,  chivalrous,  doughty. 
(Cowardly,  faint-hearted.)  INTRIGUE,  plot,  cabal,  conspiracy,  combina- 
tion, artifice,  ruse,  amour.  INTRINSIC,  real,  true,  genuine,  sterling, 
native,  natural.  (Extrinsic.)  INVALIDATE,  quash,  cancel,  overthrow, 
vacate,  nulify,  annul.  INVASION,  incursion,  irruption,  inroad,  aggres- 
sion, raid,  fray.  INVECTIVE,  abuse,  reproach,  railing,  censure,  sarcasm, 
satire. .  INVENT,  devise,  contrive,  frame,  find  out,  discover,  design.  IN- 
VESTIGATION, examination,  search,  inquiry,  research,  scrutiny.  IN- 
VETERATE, confirmed,  chronic,  malignant.  (Inchoate.)  INVIDIOUS,  en- 
vious, hateful,  odious,  malignant.  INVIGORATE,  brace,  harden,  nerve, 
strengthen,  fortify.  (Enervate).  INVINCIBLE,  unconquerable,  impreg- 
nable, insurmountable.  INVISIBLE,  unseen,  imperceptible,  impalpable, 
unperceivable.  INVITE,  ask,  call,  bid,  request,  allure,  attract,  solicit. 
INVOKE,  inyocate,  call  upon,  appeal,  refer,  implore,  beseech.  INVOLVE, 
implicate,  entangle,  compromise,  envelope.  IRKSOME,  wearisome,  tire- 
some, tedious,  annoying.  (Pleasant.)  IRONY,  sarcasm,  satire,  ridicule, 
raillery.  IRRATIONAL,  foolish,  silly,  imbecile,  brutish,  absurd,  ridicu- 
lous. (Rational.)  IRREGULAR,  eccentric,  anomalous,  inordinate,  in- 
temperate. (Regular.)  IRRELIGIOUS,  profane,  godless,  impious,  sacri- 
legious, desecrating.  IRREPROACHABLE,  blameless,  spotless,  irreprov- 
able.  IRRESISTIBLE,  resistless,  irrepressible.  IRRESOLUTE,  wavering, 
undetermined,  undecided,  vacillating.  (Determined.)  IRRITABLE,  ex- 
citable, irascible,  susceptible,  sensitive.  (Calm.)  IRRITATE,  aggravate, 
worry,  embitter,  madden,  exasperate.  ISSUE,  v.,  emerge,  rise,  proceed, 
flow,  spring,  emanate.  ISSUE,  «.,  end,  upshot,  effect,  result,  offspring, 
progeny. 

JADE,  harass,  weary,  tire,  worry.  JANGLE,  wrangle,  conflict,  dis- 
agree. JARRING,  conflicting,  discordant,  inconsonant,  inconsistent. 
JAUNT,  ramble,  excursion,  trip.  JEALOUSY,  suspicion,  envy.  JEOPARD, 
hazard,  peril,  endanger.  JEST,  joke,  sport,  divert,  make  game  of. 
JOURNEY,  travel,  tour,  passage.  JOY,  gladness,  mirth,  delight.  (Grief.) 
JUDGE,  justice,  referee,  arbitrator.  JOYFUL,  glad,  rejoicing,  exultant. 
(Mournful.)  JUDGMENT,  discernment,  discrimination,  understanding. 
JUSTICE,  equity,  right.  Justice  is  right  as  established  by  law;  equity 
according  to  the  circumstances  of  each  particular  case.  (Injustice.) 
JUSTNESS,  accuracy,  correctness,  precision. 

KEEP,  preserve,  save.  (Abandon.)  KILL,  assassinate,  murder, 
slay.  KINDRED,  affinity,  consanguinity,  relationship.  KNOWLEDGE, 
erudition,  learning,  science.  (Ignorance.) 

L/ABOR,  toil,  work,  effort,  drudgery.  (Idleness.)  LACK,  need,  de- 
ficiency, scarcity,  insufficiency.  (Plenty.)  LAMENT,  mourn,  grieve, 
weep.  (Rejoice.)  LANGUAGE,  dialect,  idiom,  speech,  tongue.  LASCIVI- 
OUS, loose,  unchaste,  lustful,  lewd,  lecherous.  (Chaste.)  LAST,  final, 
latest,  ultimate.  (First.)  LAUDABLE,  commendable,  praiseworthy. 
(Blamable.)  LAUGHABLE,  comical,  droll,  ludicrous.  (Serious.)  LAW- 
FUL, legal,  legitimate,  licit.  (Illegal.)  LEAD,  conduct,  guide.  (Follow.) 


LANGUAGE:  ITS  USE  AND  MISUSE.  87 

meager.  (Fat.)  LEARNED,  erudite,  scholarly.  (Ignorant.) 
LEAVE,  z>.,  quit,  relinquish.  LEAVE,  «.,  liberty,  permission,  license. 
(Prohibition.)  LIFE,  existence,  animation,  spirit,  vivacity.  (Death.) 
LIFELESS,  dead,  inanimate.  LIFT,  erect,  elevate, exalt,  raise.  (Lower.) 
LIGHT,  clear,  bright.  (Dark.)  LIGHTNESS,  flightiness,  giddiness,  lev- 
ity, volatility.  (Seriousness.)  LIKENESS,  resemblance,  similarity. 
(Unlikeness.)  LINGER,  lag,  loiter,  tarry,  saunter.  (Hasten.)  LITTLE, 
diminutive,  small.  (Great.)  LIVELIHOOD,  living,  maintenance,  sub- 
sistence, support.  LIVELY,  jocund,  merry,  sportive,  sprightly,  vivaci- 
ous. (Slow,  languid,  sluggish.)  LONG,  extended,  extensive.  (Short.) 
LOOK,  appear,  seem.  LOSE,  miss,  forfeit.  (Gain  )  Loss,  detriment, 
damage,  deprivation.  (Gain.)  LOUD,  clamorous,  high-sounding, 
noisy.  (Low,  quiet.)  LOVE,  affection.  (Hatred.)  Low,  abject,  mean. 
(Noble.)  LUNACY,  derangement,  insanity,  mania,  madness.  (Sanity.) 
LUSTER,  brightness,  brilliancy,  splendor.  LUXURIANT,  exuberant. 
(Sparse.) 

MACHINATION,  plot,  intrigue,  cabal,  conspiracy.  (Artlessness.) 
MAD,  crazy,  delirious,  insane,  rabid,  violent,  frantic.  (Sane,  rational, 
quiet.)  MADNESS,  insanity,  fury,  rage,  frenzy.  MAGISTERIAL,  august, 
dignified,  majestic,  pompous,  stately.  MAKE,  form,  create,  produce. 
(Destroy.)  MALEDICTION,  anathema,  curse,  imprecation,  execration. 
MALEVOLENT,  malicious,  virulent,  malignant.  (Benevolent.)  MALICE, 
spite,  rancor,  ill-feeling,  grudge,  animosity,  ill-will.  (Benignity.)  MA- 
LICIOUS, see  malevolent.  MANACLE,  v.,  shackle,  fetter,  chain.  (Free.) 
MANAGE,  contrive,  concert,  direct.  MANAGEMENT,  direction,  super- 
intendence, care,  economy.  MANGLE,  tear,  lacerate,  mutilate,  cripple, 
maim.  MANIA,  madness,  insanity,  lunacy.  MANIFEST,  Z'.,  reveal, 
prove,  evince,  exhibit,  display,  show.  MANIFEST,  a.,  clear,  plain,  evi- 
dent, open,  apparent,  visible.  (Hidden,  occult.)  MANIFOLD,  several, 
sundry,  various,  divers,  numerous.  MANLY,  masculine,  vigorous,  cour- 
ageous, brave,  heroic.  (Effeminate.)  MANNER,  habit,  custom,  way, 
air,  look,  appearance.  MANNERS,  morals,  habits,  behavior,  carriage. 
MAR,  spoil,  ruin,  disfigure.  (Improve.)  MARCH,  tramp,  tread,  walk, 
step,  space.  MARGIN,  edge,  _rim,  border,  brink,  verge.  MARK,  «., 
sign,  note,  symptom,  token,  indication,  trace,  vestige,  track,  badge, 
brand.  MARK,  z>.,  impress,  print,  stamp,  engrave,  note,  designate. 
MARRIAGE,  wedding,  nuptials,  matrimony,  wedlock.  MARTIAL,  mili- 
tary, warlike,  soldier-like.  MARVEL,  wonder,  miracle,  prodigy.  MAR- 
VELOUS, wondrous,  wonderful,  amazing,  miraculous.  MASSIVE,  bulky, 
heavy,  weighty,  ponderous,  solid,  substantial.  (Flimsy.)  MASTERY, 
dominion,  rule,  sway,  ascendancy,  supremacy.  MATCHLESS,  unrivaled, 
unequaled,  unparalleled,  peerless,  incomparable,  inimitable,  surpassing. 
(Common,  ordinary.)  MATERIAL,  a.,  corporeal,  bodily,  physical,  tem- 
poral, momentous,  important.  (Spiritual,  immaterial. )  MAXIM,  adage, 
apophthegm,  proverb,  saying,  by-word,  saw.  MEAGER,  poor,  lank, 
emaciated,  barren,  dry,  uninteresting.  (Rich.)  MEAN,  a.,  stingy,  nig- 
gardly, low,  abject,  vile,  ignoble,  degraded,  contemptible,  vulgar,  despic- 
able. (Generous.)  MEAN,  z>.,  design,  purpose,  intent,  contemplate, 
signify,  denote,  indicate.  MEANING,  signification,  import,  acceptation, 
sense,  purport.  MEDIUM,  organ,  channel,  instrument,  means.  MEDLEY, 
mixture,  variety,  diversity,  miscellany.  MEEK,  unassuming,  mild, 
gentle.  (Proud.)  MELANCHOLY,  low-spirited,  dispirited,  dreamy,  sad. 
(Jolly,  buoyant.)  MELLOW,  ripe,  mature,  soft.  (Immature.)  MELODI- 
OUS, tuneful,  musical,  silver,  dulcet,  sweet.  (Discordant. )  MEMORABLE, 


88  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

signal,  distinguished,  marked.  MEMORIAL,  monument,  memento,  com- 
memoration. MEMORY,  remembrance,  recollection.  MENACE,  #., 
threat.  MEND,  repair,  amend,  correct,  better,  ameliorate,  improve,  rec- 
tify. MENTION,  tell,  name,  communicate,  impart,  divulge,  reveal,  dis- 
close, inform,  acquaint.  MERCIFUL,  compassionate,  lenient,  clement, 
tender,  gracious,  kind.  (Cruel.)  MERCILESS,  hard-hearted,  cruel,  un- 
merciful, pitiless,  remorseless,  unrelenting.  (Kind.)  MERRIMENT, 
mirth,  joviality,  jollity,  hilarity.  (Sorrow.)  MERRY,  cheerful,  mirth- 
ful, joyous,  gay,  lively,  sprightly,  hilarious,  blithe,  blithesome,  jovial, 
sportive,  jolly.  (Sad.)  METAPHORICAL,  figurative,  allegorical,  sym- 
bolical. METHOD,  way,  manner,  mode,  process,  order,  rule,  regularity, 
system.  MIEN,  air,  look,  manner,  aspect,  appearance.  MIGRATORY, 
roving,  strolling,  wandering,  vagrant.  (Settled,  sedate,  permanent.) 
MIMIC,  imitate,  ape,  mock.  MINDFUL,  observant,  attentive,  heedful, 
thoughtful.  (Heedless.)  MISCELLANEOUS,  promiscuous,  indiscriminate, 
mixed.  MISCHIEF,  injury,  harm,  damage,  hurt,  evil,  ill.  (Benefit.) 
MISCREANT,  caitiff,  villain,  ruffian.  MISERABLE,  unhappy,  wretched, 
distressed,  afflicted.  (Happy.)  MISERLY,  stingy,  niggardly,  avaricious, 
grasping.  MISERY,  wretchedness,  woe,  destitution,  penury,  privation, 
beggary.  (Happiness.)  MISFORTUNE,  calamity,  disaster,  mishap,  catas- 
trophe. (Good  luck.)  Miss,  omit,  lose,  fail,  miscarry.  MITIGATE, 
alleviate,  relieve,  abate,  diminish.  (Aggravate. )  MODERATE,  temperate, 
abstemious,  sober,  abstinent.  (Immoderate.)  MODEST,  chaste,  virtuous, 
bashful,  reserved.  (Immodest.)  MoiST,  wet,  damp,  dank,  humid. 
(Dry.)  MONOTONOUS,  unvaried,  dull,  tiresome,  undi versified.  (Varied.) 
MONSTROUS,  shocking,  dreadful,  horrible,  huge,  immense.  MONU- 
MENT, memorial,  record,  remembrancer,  cenotaph.  MOOD,  humor,  dis- 
position, vein,  temper.  MORBID,  sick,  ailing,  sickly,  diseased,  cor- 
rupted. (Normal,  sound.  \  MOROSE,  gloomy,  sullen,  surly,  fretful, 
crabbed,  crusty.  (Joyous.)  MORTAL,  deadly,  fatal,  human.  MOTION, 
proposition,  proposal,  movement.  MOTIONLESS,  still,  stationary,  torpid, 
stagnant.  (Active,  moving.)  MOUNT,  arise,  rise,  ascend,  soar,  tower, 
climb,  scale.  MOURNFUL,  sad,  sorrowful,  lugubrious,  grievous,  dolefult 
heavy.  (Happy.)  MOVE,  actuate,  impel,  induce,  prompt,  instigate, 
persuade,  stir,  agitate,  propel,  push.  MULTITUDE,  crowd,  throng,  host, 
mob,  swarm.  MURDER,  v. ,  kill,  assassinate,  slay,  massacre,  despatch. 
MUSE,  v.,  meditate,  contemplate,  think,  reflect,  cogitate,  ponder. 
Music,  harmony,  melody,  symphony.  MUSICAL,  tuneful,  melodious, 
harmonious,  dulcet,  sweet.  MUSTY,  stale,  sour,  fetid.  (Fresh,  sweet.) 
MuTE,  dumb,  silent,  speechless.  MUTILATE,  maim,  cripple,  disable, 
disfigure.  MUTINOUS,  insurgent,  seditious,  tumultuous,  turbulent,  riot- 
ous. (Obedient,  orderly.)  MUTUAL,  reciprocal,  interchanged,  correl- 
ative. (Sole,  solitary.)  MYSTERIOUS,  dark,  obscure,  hidden,  secret, 
dim,  mystic,  enigmatical,  unaccountable.  (Open,  clear.)  MYSTIFY, 
confuse,  perplex,  puzzle.  (Clear,  explain.) 

NAKED,  nude,  bare,  uncovered,  unclothed,  rough,  rude,  simple.  (Cov- 
ered, clad.)  NAME,  v.,  denominate,  entitle,  style,  designate,  term,  call, 
christen.  NAME,  n.,  appellation,  designation,  denomination,  title,  cog- 
nomen, reputation,  character,  fame,  credit,  repute.  NARRATE,  tell,  re- 
late, detail,  recount,  describe,  enumerate,  rehearse,  recite.  NASTY, 
filthy,  foul,  dirty,  unclean,  impure,  indecent,  gross,  vile.  NATION, 
people,  community,  realm,  state.  NATIVE,  indigenous,  inborn,  vernac- 
ular. NATURAL,  original,  regular,  normal,  bastard.  (Unnatural,  forced.) 
NEAR,  nigh,  neighboring,  close,  adjacent,  contiguous,  intimate.  (Dis- 


LANGUAGE:  ITS  USE  AND  MISUSE.  89 

tant.)  NECESSARY,  needful,  expedient,  essential,  requisite,  indispens- 
able. (Useless.)  NECESSITATE,  z>.,  compel,  force,  oblige.  NECESSITY, 
need,  occasion,  exigency,  emergency,  urgency,  requisite.  NEED,  «., 
necessity,  distress,  poverty,  indigence,  want,  penury.  NEED,  v.,  require, 
want,  lack.  NEGLECT,  z/.,  disregard,  slight,  omit,  overlook.  NEGLECT, 
«.,  omission,  failure,  default,  negligence,  rernissness,  carelessness,  slight. 
NEIGHBORHOOD,  environs,  vicinity,  nearness,  adjacency,  proximity. 
NERVOUS,  timfQ,  timorous,  shaky.  NEW,  fresh,  recent,  novel.  (Old.) 
NEWS,  tidings,  intelligence,  information.  NICE,  exact,  accurate,  good, 
particular,  precise,  fine,  delicate.  (Careless,  coarse,  unpleasant.) 
NIMBLE,  active,  brisk,  lively,  alert,  quick,  agile,  prompt.  (Awkward.) 
NOBILITY,  aristocracy,  greatness,  grandeur,  peerage.  NOBLE,  exalted, 
elevated,  illustrious,  great,  grand,  lofty.  (Low.)  NOISE,  cry,  outcry, 
clamor,  row,  din,  uproar,  tumult.  (Silence.)  NONSENSICAL,  irrational, 
absurd,  silly,  foolish.  (Sensible.)  NOTABLE,  plain,  evident,  remark- 
able, signal,  striking,  rare.  (Obscure.)  NOTE,  s.,  token,  symbol,  mark, 
sign,  indication,  remark,  comment.  NOTED,  distinguished,  remarkable, 
eminent,  renowned.  (Obscure.)  NOTICE,  «.,  advice,  notification,  intel- 
ligence, information.  NOTICE,  v.,  mark,  note,  observe,  attend  to,  regard, 
heed.  NOTIFY,  ZA,  publish,  acquaint,  apprise,  inform,  declare.  NOTION, 
conception,  idea,  belief,  opinion,  sentiment.  NOTORIOUS,  conspicuous, 
open,  obvious,  ill-famed.  (Unknown.)  NOURISH,  nurture,  cherish, 
foster,  supply.  (Starve,  famish.)  NOURISHMENT,  food,  diet,  sustenance, 
nutrition.  NovELj  modern,  new,  fresh,  recent,  unused,  strange,  rare. 
(Old.)  Noxious,  hurtful,  deadly,  poisonous,  deleterious,  baneful. 
(Beneficial.)  NULLIFY,  annul,  vacate,  invalidate,  quash,  cancel,  repeal. 
(Affirm.)  NUTRITION,  food,  diet,  nutriment,  nourishment. 

OBDURATE,  hard,  callous,  hardened,  unfeeling,  insensible.  (Yield- 
ing, tractable.)  OBEDIENT,  compliant,  submissive,  dutiful,  respectful. 
(Obstinate.)  OBESE,  corpulent,  fat,  adipose,  fleshy.  (Attenuated.) 
OBEY,  v., conform,  comply,  submit.  (Rebel,  disobey.)  OBJECT,  s.,  aim, 
end,  purpose,  design,  mark,  butt.  OBJECT,  z/.,  oppose,  except  to,  con- 
travene, impeach,  deprecate.  (Assent.)  OBNOXIOUS,  offensive.  (Agree- 
able.) OBSCURE,  undistinguished,  unknown,  (Distinguished.)  OBSTI- 
NATE, contumacious,  headstrong,  stubborn,  obdurate.  (Yielding.)  OCCA- 
SION, opportunity.  OFFENSE,  affront,  misdeed,  misdemeanor,  transgres- 
sion, trespass.  OFFENSIVE,  insolent,  abusive,  obnoxious.  (Inoffensive.) 
OFFICE,  charge,  function,  place.  OFFSPRING,  issue,  progeny.  OLD, 
aged,  superannuated,  ancient,  antique,  antiquated,  obsolete,  old-fash- 
ioned. (Young,  new.)  OMEN,  presage,  prognostic.  OPAQUE,  dark. 
(Bright,  transparent.)  OPEN,  candid,  unreserved,  clear,  fair.  (Hidden, 
dark.)  OPINION,  notion,  view,  judgment,  belief,  sentiment.  OPINION- 
ATED, conceited,  egoistical.  (Modest.)  OPPOSE,  resist,  withstand, 
thwart.  (Give  way. )  OPTION,  choice.  ORDER,  method,  rule,  system, 
regularity.  (Disorder.)  ORIGIN,  cause,  occasion,  beginning,  source. 
(End.)  OUTLIVE,  survive.  OUTWARD,  external,  outside,  exterior. 
(Inner.)  OVER,  above.  (Under.)  OVERBALANCE,  outweigh,  prepond- 
erate. OVERBEAR,  bear  down,  overwhelm,  overpower,  subdue.  OVER- 
BEARING, haughty,  arrogant,  proud.  (Gentle.)  OVERFLOW,  inunda- 
tion, deluge.  OVERRULE,  supersede,  suppress.  OVERSPREAD,  overrun, 
ravage.  OVERTURN,  invert,  overthrow,  reverse,  subvert.  (Establish, 
fortify.)  OVERWHELM,  crush,  defeat,  vanquish. 

PAIN,  suffering,  qualm,  pang,  agony,  anguish.  (Pleasure.)  PALLID, 
pale,  wan.  (Florid.)  PART,  division,  portion,  share,  fraction.  (Whole.) 


90  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

PARTICULAR,  exact,  distinct,  odd,  singular,  strange.  (General.)  PA- 
TIENT, passive,  submissive,  meek.  (Obdurate.)  PEACE,  calm,  quiet, 
tranquility.  (War,  riot,  trouble,  turbulence.)  PEACEABLE,  pacific, 
peaceful,  quiet.  (Troublesome,  riotous.)  PENETRATE,  bore,  pierce, 
perforate.  PENETRATION,  acuteness,  sagacity.  (Dullness.)  PEOPLE, 
nation,  persons,  folks.  PERCEIVE,  note,  observe,  discern,  distinguish. 
PERCEPTION,  conception,  notion,  idea.  PERIL,  danger^  pitfall,  snare. 
(Safety.)  PERMIT,  allow,  tolerate.  (Forbid.)  PERSUADE,  allure,  entice, 
prevail  upon.  PHYSICAL,  corporeal,  bodily,  material.  (Mental.)  PICT- 
URE, engraving,  print,  representation,  illustration,  image.  PITEOUS, 
doleful,  woeful,  rueful.  (Joyful.)  PITILESS,  see  merciless.  PITY,  com- 
passion, sympathy.  (Cruelty.)  PLACE,  #.,  spot,  site,  position,  post, 
situation,  station.  PLACE,  z>.,  order,  dispose.  PLAIN,  open,  manifest, 
evident.  (Secret.)  PLAY,  game,  sport,  amusement.  (Work.)  PLEASE, 
gratify,  pacify.  (Displease.)  PLEASURE,  charm,  delight,  joy.  (Pain.) 
PLENTIFUL,  abundant,  ample,  copious,  plenteous.  (Scarce.)  POISE, 
balance.  POSITIVE,  absolute,  peremptory,  decided,  certain.  (Negative.) 
POSSESSOR,  owner,  master,  proprietor.  POSSIBLE,  practical,  practicable. 
(Impossible.)  POVERTY,  penury,  indigence,  need,  want.  (Wealth.) 
POWER,  authority,  force,  strength,  dominion.  POWERFUL,  mighty, 
potent.  (Weak.)  PRAISE,  commend,  extol,  laud.  (Blame.)  PRAYER, 
entreaty,  petition,  request,  suit.  PRETENSE  n.,  pretext,  subterfuge. 
PREVAILING,  predominant,  prevalent,  general.  (Isolated,  sporadic.) 
PREVENT,  v.t  obviate,  preclude.  PREVIOUS,  antecedent,  introductory, 
preparatory,  preliminary.  (Subsequent.)  PRIDE,  vanity,  conceit.  (Hu- 
mility.) PRINCIPALLY,  chiefly,  essentially,  mainly.  PRINCIPLE,  ground, 
reason,  motive,  impulse,  maxim,  rule,  rectitude,  integrity.  PRIVILEGE, 
immunity,  advantage,  favor,  prerogative,  exemption,  right,  claim. 
PROBITY,  rectitude,  uprightness,  honesty,  integrity,  sincerity,  soundness. 
(Dishonesty.)  PROBLEMATICAL,  uncertain,  doubtful,  dubious,  question- 
able, disputable,  suspicious.  (Certain.)  PRODIGIOUS,  huge,  enormous, 
vast,  amazing,  astonishing,  astounding,  surprising,  remarkable,  wonder- 
ful. (Insignificant.)  PROFESSION,  business,  trade,  occupation,  voca- 
tion, office,  employment,  engagement,  avowal.  PROFFER,  volunteer, 
offer,  propose,  tender.  PROFLIGATE,  abandoned,  dissolute,  depraved, 
vicious,  degenerate,  corrupt,  demoralized.  (Virtuous.)  PROFOUND, 
deep,  fathomless,  penetrating,  solemn,  abstruse,  recondite.  (Shallow.) 
PROFUSE,  extravagant,  prodigal,  lavish,  improvident,  excessive,  copious, 

Rlentiful.  (Succinct.)  PROLIFIC,  productive,  generative,  fertile,  fruit- 
il,  teeming.  (Barren.)  PROLIX,  diffuse,  long,  prolonged,  tedious, 
tiresome,  wordy,  verbose,  prosaic.  (Concise,  brief.)  PROMINENT,  emi- 
nent, conspicuous,  marked,  important,  leading.  (Obscure.)  PROMIS- 
CUOUS, mixed,  unarranged,  mingled,  indiscriminate.  (Select.)  PROMPT, 
see  punctual.  PROP,  v.y  maintain,  sustain,  support,  stay.  PROPAGATE, 
spread,  circulate,  diffuse,  disseminate,  extend,  breed,  increase.  (Sup- 
press.) PROPER,  legitimate,  right,  just,  fair,  equitable,  honest,  suitable, 
fit,  adapted,  meet,  becoming,  befitting,  decent,  pertinent,  appropriate. 
(Wrong.)  PROSPER,  flourish,  succeed,  grow  rich,  thrive,  advance.  (Fail.) 
PROSPERITY,  well-being,  weal,  welfare,  happiness,  good  luck.  (Poverty.) 
PROXY,  agent,  representative,  substitute,  delegate,  deputy.  PRUDENCE, 
carefulness,  judgment,  discretion,  wisdom.  (Indiscretion.)  PRURIENT, 
itching,  craving,  hankering,  longing.  PUERILE,  youthful,  juvenile, 
boyish,  childish,  infantile,  trifling,  weak,  silly.  (Mature.)  PUNCTILIOUS, 
nice,  particular,  formal,  precise.  (Negligent.)  PUNCTUAL,  exact,  pre- 


LANGUAGE:  ITS  USE  AND  MISUSE.  91 

cise,  nice,  particular,  prompt,  timely.  (Dilatory.)  PUTREFY,  rot, 
decompose,  corrupt,  decay.  PUZZLE,  v.,  perplex,  confound,  embarrass, 
bewilder,  confuse,  pose,  mystify.  (Enlighten.) 

QUACK,  impostor,  pretender,  charlatan,  empiric,  mountebank.  (Sa- 
vant.) QUAINT,  artful,  curious,  far-fetched,  fanciful,  odd,  singular. 
QUALIFIED,  competent,  fitted,  adapted.  (Incompetent.)  QUALITY, 
attribute,  ranlj,  distinction.  QUERULOUS,  doubting,  complaining,  fret- 
ting, repining.  (Patient.)  QUESTION,  query,  inquiry,  interrogatory. 
QUIBBLE,  cavil,  evade,  equivocate,  shuffle,  prevaricate.  QUICK,  lively, 
ready,  prompt,  alert,  nimble,  agile,  active,  brisk,  expeditious,  adroit, 
fleet,  rapid,  swift,  impetuous,  sweeping,  dashing,  clever,  sharp.  (Slow-.) 
QUOTE,  note,  repeat,  cite,  adduce. 

RABID,  mad,  furious,  raging,  frantic.  (Rational.)  RACE,  course, 
match,  pursuit,  career,  family,  clan,  house,  ancestry,  lineage,  pedigree. 
RACK,  agonize,  wring,  torture,  excruciate,  distress,  harass.  (Soothe.) 
RACY,  spicy,  pungent,  smart,  spirited,  lively,  vivacious.  (Dull,  insipid.) 
RADIANCE,  splendor,  brightness,  brilliance,  brilliancy,  luster,  glare. 
(Dullness.)  RADICAL,  organic,  innate,  fundamental,  original,  constitu- 
tional, inherent,  complete,  entire.  (Superficial.  In  a  political  sense, 
uncompromising;  antonym,  moderate.)  RANCID,  fetid,  rank,  stinking, 
sour,  tainted,  reasty.  (Fresh,  sweet.)  RANCOR,  malignity,  hatred,  hos- 
tility, antipathy,  animosity,  enmity,  ill-will,  spite.  (Forgiveness.) 
RANK,  order,  degree,  dignity,  nobility,  consideration.  RANSACK,  rum- 
mage, pillage,  overhaul,  explore,  plunder.  RANSOM,  emancipate,  free, 
unfetter.  RANT,,  bombast,  fustian,  cant.  RAPACIOUS,  ravenous,  vora- 
cious, greedy,  grasping.  (Generous.)  RAPT,  ecstatic,  transported,  rav- 
ished, entranced,  charmed.  (Distracted.)  RAPTURE,  ecstasy,  transport, 
delight,  bliss.  (Dejection.)  RARE,  scarce,  singular,  uncommon,  unique. 
RASCAL,  scoundrel,  rogue,  knave,  scamp,  vagabond.  RASH,  hasty,  pre- 
cipitate, foolhardy,  adventurous,  heedless,  reckless,  careless.  (Delib- 
erate.) RATE,  value,  compute,  appraise,  estimate,  chide,  abuse.  RATIFY, 
confirm,  establish,  substantiate,  sanction.  (Protest,  oppose.)  RATIONAL, 
reasonable,  sagacious,  judicious,  wise,  sensible,  sound.  (Unreasonable.) 
RAVAGE,  overrun,  overspread,  desolate,  despoil,  destroy.  RAVISH, 
enrapture,  .enchant,  charm,  delight,  abuse.  RAZE,  demolish,  destroy, 
overthrow,  ruin,  dismantle.  (Build  up.)  REACH,  touch,  stretch,  attain, 
gain,  arrive  at.  READY,  prepared,  ripe,  apt,  prompt,  adroit,  handy, 
(Slow,  dilatory.)  REAL,  actual,  literal,  practical,  positive,  certain,  genu- 
ine, true.  (Unreal.)  REALIZE,  accomplish,  achieve,  effect,  gain,  get, 
acquire,  comprehend.  REAP,  gain,  get,  acquire,  obtain.  REASON, 
motive,  design,  end,  proof,  cause,  ground,  purpose.  REASON,  deduce, 
draw  from,  trace,  infer,  conclude.  REASONABLE,  rational,  wise,  honest, 
fair,  right,  just.  (Unreasonable.)  REBELLION,  insurrection,  revolt. 
RECANT,  recall,  abjure,  retract,  revoke.  RECEDE,  retire,  retreat,  with- 
draw, ebb.  RECEIVE,  accept,  take,  admit,  entertain.  RECEPTION. 
receiving,  levee,  receipt,  admission.  RECESS,  retreat,  depth,  niche, 
vacation,  intermission.  RECREATION,  sport,  pastime,  play,  amusement, 
game,  fun.  REDEEM,  ransom,  recover,  rescue,  deliver,  save,  free.  RE- 
DRESS, remedy,  repair,  remission,  abatement,  relief.  REDUCE,  abate, 
lessen,  decrease,  lower,  shorten,  conquer.  REFINED,  polite,  courtly, 
polished,  cultured,  genteel,  purified.  (Boorish.)  REFLECT,  consider, 
cogitate,  think,  ponder,  muse,  censure.  REFORM,  amend,  correct,  bet- 
ter, restore,  improve.  (Corrupt.)  REFORMATION,  improvement,  reform, 
amendment.  (Corruption.)  REFUGE,  asylum,  protection,  harbor,  shel- 


92  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

ter,  retreat.  REFUSE,  v.,  deny,  reject,  repudiate,  decline,  withhold. 
(Accept.)  REFUSE,  «.,  dregs,  dross,  scum,  rubbish,  leavings,  remains. 
REFUTE,  disprove,  falsify,  negative.  (Affirm.)  REGARD,  r.,  mind,  heed, 
notice,  behold,  view,  consider,  respect.  REGRET,  «.,  grief,  sorrow,  lam- 
entation, repentance,  remorse.  REGULAR,  orderly,  uniform,  custom- 
ary, ordinary,  stated.  (Irregular.)  REGULATE,  methodize,  arrange, 
adjust,  organize,  govern,  rule.  (Disorder.)  REIMBURSE,  refund,  repay, 
satisfy,  indemnify.  RELEVANT,  fit,  proper,  suitable,  appropriate,  perti- 
nent, apt.  (Irrelevant.)  RELIANCE,  trust,  hope,  dependence,  confi- 
dence. (Suspicion.)  RELIEF,  succor,  aid,  help,  redress,  alleviation. 
RELINQUISH,  give  up,  forsake,  resign,  surrender,  quit,  leave,  forego. 
(Retain.)  REMEDY,  help,  relief,  redress,  cure,  specific,  reparation.  RE- 
MORSELESS, pitiless,  relentless,  cruel,  ruthless,  merciless,  barbarous. 
(Merciful,  humane.)  REMOTE,  distant,  far,  secluded,  indirect.  (Near.) 
REPRODUCE,  propagate,  imitate,  represent,  copy.  REPUDIATE,  disown, 
discard,  disavow,  renounce,  disclaim.  (Acknowledge.)  REPUGNANT, 
antagonistic,  distasteful.  (Agreeable.)  REPULSIVE,  forbidding,  odious, 
ugly,  disagreeable,  revolting.  (Attractive.)  RESPITE,  reprieve,  inter- 
val, stop,  pause.  REVENGE,  vengeance,  retaliation,  requital,  retribution. 
(Forgiveness.)  REVENUE,  produce,  income,  fruits,  proceeds,  wealth, 
REVERENCE,  #.,  honor,  respect,  awe,  veneration,  deference,  worship, 
homage.  (Execration.)  REVISE,  review,  reconsider.  REVIVE,  refresh, 
renew,  renovate,  animate,  resuscitate,  vivify,  cheer,  comfort.  RICH, 
wealthy,  affluent,  opulent,  copious,  ample,  abundant,  exuberant, 
plentiful,  fertile,  fruitful,  superb,  gorgeous.  (Poor.)  RIVAL,  n., 
antagonist,  opponent,  competitor.  ROAD,  way,  highway,  route,  course, 
path,  pathway,  anchorage.  ROAM,  ramble,  rove,  wander,  stray,  stroll. 
ROBUST,  strong,  lusty,  vigorous,  sinewy,  stout,  sturdy,  stalwart,  able- 
bodied.  (Puny.)  ROUT,  ZA,  discomfit,  beat,  defeat,  overthrow,  scatter. 
ROUTE,  road,  course,  march,  way,  journey,  path,  direction.  RUDE, 
rugged,  rough,  uncouth,  unpolished,  harsh,  gruff,  impertinent,  saucy, 
flippant,  impudent,  insolent,  churlish.  (Polished,  polite.)  RULE,  sway, 
method,  system,  law,  maxim,  precept,  guide,  formula,  regulation,  gov- 
ernment, standard,  test.  RUMOR,  hearsay,  talk,  fame,  report,  bruit. 
RUTHLESS,  cruel,  savage,  barbarous,  inhuman,  merciless,  remorseless, 
relentless,  unrelenting.  (Considerate.) 

SACRED,  holy,  hallowed,  divine,  consecrated,  dedicated,  devoted.  (Pro- 
fane.) SAFE,  secure,  harmless,  trustworthy,  reliable.  (Perilous,  dangerous.) 
SANCTION,  confirm,  countenance,  encourage,  support,  ratify,  authorize. 
(Disapprove.)  SANE,  sober,  lucid,  sound,  rational.  (Crazy.)  SAUCY, 
impertinent,  rude,  impudent,  insolent,  flippant,  forward.  (Modest.) 
SCANDALIZE,  shock,  disgust,  offend,  calumniate,  vilify,  revile,  malign, 
traduce,  defame,  slander.  SCANTY,  bare,  pinched,  insufficient,  slender, 
meager.  (Ample.)  SCATTER,  strew,  spread,  disseminate,  disperse,  dissipate, 
dispel.  (Collect.)  SECRET,  clandestine,  concealed,  hidden,  sly,  under- 
hand, latent,  private.  (Open.)  SEDUCE,  allure,  attract,  decoy,  entice, 
abduct,  inveigle,  deprave.  SENSE,  discernment,  appreciation,  view,  opin- 
ion, feeling,  perception,  sensibility,  susceptibility,  thought,  judgment, 
signification,  import,  significance,  meaning,  purport,  wisdom.  SENS- 
IBLE, wise,  intelligent,  reasonable,  sober,  sound,  conscious,  aware. 
(Foolish.)  SETTLE,  arrange,  adjust,  regulate,  conclude,  determine. 
SEVERAL,  sundry,  divers,  various,  many.  SEVERE,  harsh,  stern,  strin- 
gent, unmitigated,  rough,  unyielding.  (Lenient.)  SHAKE,  tremble, 
shudder,  shiver,  quake,  quiver.  SHALLOW,  superficial,  flimsy,  slight. 


LANGUAGE:  ITS  USE  AND  MISUSE.  93 

(Deep,  thorough.)  SHAME,  disgrace,  dishonor.  (Honor.)  SHAMEFUL, 
degrading,  scandalous,  disgraceful,  outrageous.  (Honorable.)  SHAME- 
LESS, immodest,  impudent,  indecent,  indelicate,  brazen.  SHAPE,  form, 
fashion,  mold,  model.  SHARE,  portion,  lot,  division,  quantity,  quota, 
contingent.  SHARP,  acute,  keen.  (Dull.)  SHINE,  glare,  glitter,  radi- 
ate, sparkle.  SHORT,  brief,  concise,  succinct,  summary.  (Long.)  SHOW, 
v.,  indicate,  mark,  point  out,  exhibit,  display.  SHOW,  ».,  exhibition, 
representation,  sight,  spectacle.  SICK,  diseased,  sickly,  unhealthy,  mor- 
bid. (Healthy.)  SICKNESS,  n.,  illness,  indisposition,  disease,  disorder. 
(Health.)  SIGNIFICANT,  a.,  expressive,  material,  important.  (Insignifi- 
cant.) SIGNIFICATION,  import,  meaning,  sense.  SILENCE,  speechless- 
ness,  dumbness.  (Noise.)  SILENT,  dumb,  mute,  speechless.  (Talka- 
tive.) SIMILE,  comparison,  similitude.  SIMPLE,  single,  uncompounded, 
artless,  plain.  (Complex,  compound.)  SIMULATE,  dissimulate,  dis- 
semble, pretend.  SINCERE,  candid,  hearty,  honest,  pure,  genuine,  real. 
(Insincere.)  SITUATION,  condition,  plight,  predicament,  state,  position. 
SIZE,  bulk,  greatness,  magnitude,  dimension.  SLAVERY,  servitude,  en- 
thrallment,  thralldom.  (Freedom.)  SLEEP,  doze,  drowse,  nap,  slum- 
ber. SLEEPY,  somnolent,  (Wakeful.)  SLO»V,  dilatory,  tardy.  (Fast.) 
SMELL,  fragrance,  odor,  perfume,  scent.  SMOOTH,  even,  level,  mild. 
(Rough.)  SOAK,  drench,  imbrue,  steep.  SOCIAL,  sociable,  friendly, 
communicative.  (Unsocial.)  SOFT,  gentle,  meek,  mild.  (Hard.)  SOLICIT, 
importune,  urge.  SOLITARY,  sole,  only,  single.  SORRY,  grieved, 
poor,  paltry,  insignificant.  (Glad,  respectable.)  SOUL,  mind,  spirit. 
(Soul  is  opposed  to  body,  mind  to  matter.)  SOUND,  z/.,  healthy,  sane. 
(Unsound.)  SOUND,  «.,  tone,  noise.  (Silence.)  SPACE,  room.  SPARSE, 
scanty,  thin.  (Luxuriant.)  SPEAK,  converse,  talk,  confer,  say,  tell. 
SPECIAL,  particular,  specific.  (General.)  SPEND,  expend,  exhaust,  con- 
sume, waste,  squander,  dissipate.  (Save.)  SPORADIC,  isolated,  rare. 
(General,  prevalent.)  SPREAD,  disperse,  diffuse,  expand,  disseminate, 
scatter.  SPRING,  fountain,  source.  STAFF,  prop,  support,  stay.  STAGGER, 
reel,  totter.  STAIN,  soil,  discolor,  spot,  sully,  tarnish.  STATE,  common- 
wealth, realm.  STERILE,  barren,  unfruitful.  (Fertile.)  STIFLE,  choke, 
suffocate,  smother.  STORMY,  rough,  boisterous,  tempestuous.  (Calm.) 
STRAIGHT,  direct,  right.  (Crooked.)  STRAIT,  a.,  narrow,  confined. 
STRANGER,  alien,  foreigner.  (Friend.)  STRENGTHEN,  fortify,  invigorate. 
(Weaken.)  STRONG,  robust,  sturdy,  powerful.  (Weak.)  STUPID,  dull, 
foolish,  obtuse,  witless.  (Clever.)  SUBJECT,  exposed  to,  liable,  ob- 
noxious. (Exempt.)  SUBJECT,  inferior,  subordinate.  (Superior  to, 
above.)  SUBSEQUENT,  succeeding,  following.  (Previous.)  SUBSTAN- 
TIAL, solid,  durable.  (Unsubstantial.)  SUIT,  accord,  agree.  (Disagree.) 
SUPERFICIAL,  flimsy,'  shallow,  untrustworthy.  (Thorough.)  SUPER- 
FLUOUS, unnecessary,  excessive.  (Necessary.)  SURROUND,  encircle,  en- 
compass, environ.  SUSTAIN,  maintain,  support.  SYMMETRY,  propor- 
tion. SYMPATHY,  commiseration,  compassion,  condolence.  SYSTEM, 
method,  plan,  order.  SYSTEMATIC,  orderly,  regular,  methodical.  (Cha- 
otic.) 

TAKE,  accept,  receive.  (Give.)  TALKATIVE,  garrulous,  loquacious, 
communicative.  (Silent.)  TASTE,  flavor,  relish,  savor.  (Tastelessness.) 
TAX,  custom,  duty,  impost,  excise,  toll.  TAX,  assessment,  rate.  TEASE, 
taunt,  tantalize,  torment,  vex.  TEMPORARY,  a.,  fleeting,  transient, 
transitory.  (Permanent.)  TENACIOUS,  pertinacious,  retentive.  TEND- 
ENCY, aim,  drift,  scope.  TENET,  position,  view,  conviction,  belief. 
TERM,  boundary,  limit,  period,  time.  TERRITORY,  dominion.  THANK- 


94  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

FUL,  grateful,  obliged.  (Thankless.)  THANKLESS,  ungracious,  profit- 
less, ungrateful,  unthankful.  THAW,  melt,  dissolve,  liquefy.  (Freeze.) 
THEATRICAL,  dramatic,  showy,  ceremonious,  meretricious.  THEFT, 
robbery,  depredation,  spoliation.  THEME,  subject,  topic,  text,  essay. 
THEORY,  speculation,  scheme,  plea,  hypothesis,  conjecture.  THERE- 
FORE, accordingly,  consequently,  hence.  THICK,  dense,  close,  com- 
pact, solid,  coagulated,  muddy,  turbid,  misty,  foggy,  vaporous.  (Thin.) 
THIN,  slim,  slender,  slight,  flimsy,  lean,  attenuated,  scraggy.  THINK, 
cogitate,  consider,  reflect,  ponder,  contemplate,  meditate,  muse,  con- 
ceive, fancy,  imagine,  apprehend,  hold,  esteem,  reckon,  consider,  re- 
gard, deem,  believe,  opine.  THOROUGH,  accurate,  correct,  trustworthy, 
reliable,  complete.  (Superficial.)  THOUGHT,  idea,  conception,  imagi- 
nation, fancy,  conceit,  notion,  supposition,  care,  provision,  considera- 
tion, opinion,  view,  sentiment,  reflection,  deliberation.  THOUGHTFUL, 
considerate,  careful,  cautious,  heedful,  contemplative,  reflective,  provi- 
dent, pensive,  dreamy.  (Thoughtless.)  THOUGHTLESS,  inconsiderate, 
rash,  precipitate,  improvident,  heedless.  TIE,  v.,  blind,  restrain,  re- 
strict, oblige,  secure,  unite,  join.  (L/oose.)  TIE,  «.,  band,  ligament, 
ligature.  TIME,  duration,  season,  period,  era,  age,  date,  span,  spell. 
TOLERATE,  allow,  admit,  receive,  suffer,  permit,  let,  endure,  abide. 
(Oppose.)  TOP,  summit,  apex,  head,  crown,  surface.  (Bottom,  base.) 
TORRID,  burning,  hot,  parching,  scorching,  sultry.  TORTUOUS,  twisted,, 
winding,  crooked,  indirect.  TORTURE,  torment,  anguish,  agony.  TOUCH- 
ING, tender,  affecting,  moving,  pathetic.  TRACTABLE,  docile,  manage- 
able, amenable.  TRADE,  traffic,  commerce,  dealing,  occupation,  em- 
ployment, office.  TRADITIONAL,  oral,  uncertain,  transmitted.  TRAFFIC, 
trade,  exchange,  commerce,  intercourse.  TRAMMEL,  n.,  fetter,  shackle, 
clog,  bond,  chain,  impediment,  hindrance.  TRANQUIL,  still,  unruffled, 
peaceful,  quiet,  hushed.  (Noisy,  boisterous.)  TRANSACTION,  negotiation, 
occurrence,  proceeding,  affair.  TRASH,  nonsense,  twaddle,  trifles,  dross. 
TRAVEL,  trip,  ramble,  peregrination,  excursion,  journey,  tour,  voyage. 
TREACHEROUS,  traitorous,  disloyal,  treasonable,  faithless,  false-hearted, 
perfidious,  sly,  false.  (Trustworthy,  faithful.)  TRITE,  stale,  old,  ordi- 
nary, commonplace,  hackneyed.  (Novel.)  TRIUMPH,  achievement, 
ovation,  victory,  conquest,  jubilation.  (Failure,  defeat.)  TRIVIAL, 
trifling,  petty,  small,  frivolous,  unimportant,  insignificant.  (Important.) 
TRUE,  genuine,  actual,  sincere,  unaffected,  true-hearted,  honest,  up- 
right, veritable,  real,  veracious,  authentic,  exact,  accurate,  correct. 
TUMULTUOUS,  turbulent,  riotous,  disorderly,  disturbed,  confused,  unruly. 
(ORDERLY.)  TRUE,  tone,  air,  melody,  strain.  TURBID,  foul,  thick, 
muddy,  impure,  unsettled.  (Placid.)  TYPE,  emblem,  symbol,  figure, 
sign,  kind,  sort,  better.  TYRO,  novice,  beginner,  learner. 

UGLY,  unsightly,  plain,  homely,  ill-favored,  hideous.  (Beautiful.) 
UMBRAGE,  offence,  dissatisfaction,  displeasure,  resentment.  UMPIRE, 
referee,  arbitrator,  judge,  arbiter.  UNANIMITY,  accord,  agreement, 
unity,  concord.  (Discord.)  UNANIMOUS,  agreeing,  like-minded.  UN- 
BRIDLED, wanton,  licentious,  dissolute,  loose,  lax.  UNCERTAIN,  doubt- 
ful, dubious,  questionable,  fitful,  equivocal,  ambiguous,  indistinct,  varia- 
ble, flunctuating.  UNCIVIL,  rude,  discourteous,  disrespectful,  disobliging. 
(Civil.)  UNCLEAN,  dirty,  foul,  filthy,  sullied.  (Clean.')  UNCOMMON,  rare, 
strange,  scarce,  singular,  choice.  (Common,  ordinary.)  UNCONCERNED, 
careless,  indifferent,  apathetic.  (Anxious.)  UNCOUTH,  strange,  odd, 
clumsy,  ungainly.  (Graceful.)  UNCOVER,  reveal,  strip,  expose,  lay  bare, 
divest.  (Hide.)  UNDER,  below,  underneath,  beneath,  subordinate,  lower, 


LANGUAGE:  ITS  USE  AND  MISUSE.  95 

inferior.  (Above.)  UNDERSTANDING,  knowledge,  intellect,  intelligence, 
faculty,  comprehension,  mind,  reason,  brains.  UNDERTAKE,  engage  in, 
embark  in,  agree,  promise.  UNDO,  annul,  frustrate,  untie,  unfasten, 
destroy.  UNEASY,  restless,  disturbed,  unquiet,  stiff,  awkward.  (QuiET. ) 
UNEQUAL,  uneven,  not  alike,  irregular,  insufficient.  (Even.)  UNEQUALED, 
matchless,  unique,  novel,  new,  unheard  of.  UNFAIR,  wrongful,  dishonest, 
unjust.  (Fair.)  UNFIT,  #.,  improper,  unsuitable,  inconsistent,  untimely, 
incompetent.  (Fit.)  UNFIT,  v.,  disable,  incapacitate,  disqualify.  (Fit.) 
UNFORTUNATE,  calamitous,  ill-fated,  unlucky,  wretched,  unhappy,  miser- 
bier.  (Fortunate.)  UNGAINLY,  clumsy,  awkward,  lumbering,  uncouth. 
(Pretty.)  UNHAPPY,  miserable,  wretched,  distressed,  afflicted,  painful, 
disastrous,  drear,  dismal.  (Happy.)  UNIFORM,  regular,  symmetrical, 
equal,  even,  alike,  unvaried.  (Irregular.)  UNINTERRUPTED,  continuous, 
perpetual,  unceasing,  incessant,  endless.  (Intermittent.)  UNION,  junction, 
combination,  alliance,  confederacy,  league,  coalition,  agreement,  concert. 
(Disunion,  separation.)  UNIQUE,  unequal,  uncommon,  rare,  choice, 
matchless.  (Common,  ordinary.)  UNITE,  join,  .conjoin,  combine,  con- 
cert, add,  attach,  incorporate,  embody,  clench,  merge.  (Separate,  disrupt, 
sunder.)  UNIVERSAL,  general,  all,  entire,  total,  catholic.  (Sectional.) 
UNLIMITED,  absolute,  undefined,  boundless,  infinite.  (Limited.)  UN- 
REASONABLE, foolish,  silly,  absurd,  preposterous,  ridiculous.  UNRIVALED, 
unequaled,  unique,  unexampled,  incomparable,  matchless.  (Mediocre.) 
UNROLL,  unfold,  open,  discover.  UNRULY,  ungovernable,  unmanageable, 
refractory.  (Tractable,  docile.)  UNUSUAL,  rare,  unwonted,  singular,  un- 
common, remarkable,  strange,  extraordinary.  (Common.)  UPHOLD, 
maintain,  defend,  sustain,  support,  vindicate.  (Desert,  abandon.)  UP- 
RIGHT, vertical,  perpendicular,  erect,  just,  equitable,  fair,  pure,  honor- 
able. (Prone,  horizontal.)  UPRIGHTNESS,  honesty,  integrity,  fairness, 
goodness,  probity,  virtue,  honor.  (Dishonesty.)  URGE,  incite,  impel, 
push,  drive,  instigate,  stimulate,  press,  induce,  solicit.  URGENT,  press- 
ing, important,  imperative,  immediate,  serious,  wanted.  (Unimportant.) 
USAGE,  custom,  fashion,  practice,  prescription.  USE,  «.,  usage,  practice, 
habit,  custom,  avail,  advantage,  utility,  benefit,  application.  (Disuse, 
desuetude.)  USE,  v.,  employ,  exercise,  occupy,  practise,  accustom,  inure. 
(Abuse.)  USEFUL,  advantageous,  serviceable,  available,  helpful,  benefi- 
cial, good.  (Useless.)  USELESS,  unserviceable,  fruitless,  idle,  profitless. 
(Useful.)  USUAL,  ordinary,  common,  accustomed,  habitual,  wonted, 
customary,  general.  (Unusual.)  USURP,  arrogate,  seize,  appropriate,  as- 
sume. UTMOST,  farthest,  remotest,  uttermost,  greatest.  UTTER,  «.,  ex- 
treme, excessive,  sheer,  mere,  pure.  UTTER,  v.,  speak,  articulate,  pro- 
nounce, express,  issue.  UTTERLY,  totally,  completely,  wholly,  quite, 
altogether,  entirely. 

VACANT,  empty,  unfilled,  unoccupied,  thoughtless,  unthinking. 
(Occupied.)  VAGRANT,  «.,  wanderer,  beggar,  tramp,  vagabond,  rogue. 
VAGUE,  unsettled,  undetermined,  uncertain,  pointless,  indefinite.  (Defi- 
nite.) VAIN,  useless,  fruitless,  empty,  worthless,  inflated,  proud,  con- 
ceited, unreal,  unavailing.  (Effectual,  humble,  real.)  Valiant,  brave, 
bold,  valorous,  courageous,  gallant.  (Cowardly.)  VALID,  weighty, 
strong,  powerful,  sound,  binding,  efficient.  (Invalid.)  VALOR,  courage, 
gallantry,  boldness,  bravery,  heroism.  (Cowardice.)  VALUE,  v.,  ap- 
praise, assess,  reckon,  appreciate,  estimate,  prize,  esteem,  treasure. 
(Despise,  condemn.)  VANISH,  disappear,  fade,  melt,  dissolve.  VANITY, 
emptiness,  conceit,  self-conceit,  affectedness.  VAPID,  dull,  flat,  insipid, 
stale,  tame.  (Sparkling.)  VAPOR,  fume,  smoke,  mist,  fog,  steam. 


96  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

VARIABLE,  changeable,  unsteady,  inconstant,  shifting,  wavering,  fickle, 
restless,  fitful.  (Constant.)  VARIETY,  difference,  diversity,  change, 
diversification,  mixture,  medley,  miscellany.  (Sameness,  monotony.) 
VAST,  spacious,  boundless,  mighty,  enormous,  immense,  colossal, 
gigantic,  huge,  prodigious.  (Confined.)  VAUNT,  boast,  brag,  puff, 
hawk,  advertise,  flouris.  parade.  VENERABLE,  grave,  sage,  wise,  old, 
reverend.  VENIAL,  pardonable,  excusable,  justifiable.  (Grave,  serious.) 
VENOM,  poison,  virus,  spite,  n.alice,  malignity.  VENTURE,  n.,  specu- 
lation, chance,  peril,  stake.  VENTURE,  v.,  dare,  adventure,  risk,  hazard, 
jeopardize.  VERACITY,  truth,  truthfulness,  credibility,  accuracy. 
(Falsehood.)  VERBAL,  oral,  spoken,  literal,  parole.  (Unwritten.)  VER- 
DICT, judgment,  finding,  decision,  answer.  VEXATION,  chagrin,  morti- 
fication. (Pleasure.)  VIBRATE,  oscillate,  swing,  sway,  wave,  undulate, 
thrill.  VICE,  vileness,  corruption,  depravity,  pollution,  immorality, 
wickedness,  guilt,  iniquity,  crime.  (Virtue.)  Vicious,  corrupt,  de- 
praved, debased,  bad,  contrary,  unruly,  demoralized,  profligate,  faulty. 
(Virtuous,  gentle.)  VICTIM,  sacrifice,  food,  prey,  sufferer,  dupe,  gull. 
VICTUALS,  viands,  bread,  meat,  provisions,  fare,  food,  repast.  VIEW, 
prospect,  survey.  VIOLENT,  boisterous,  furious,  impetuous,  vehement. 
(Gentle.)  VIRTUOUS,  upright,  honest,  moral.  (Profligate.)  VISION, 
apparition,  ghost,  phantom,  st>ecter.  VOLUPTUARY,  epicure,  sensualist. 
VOTE,  suffrage,  voice.  VOUCH,  affirm,  asseverate,  assure,  aver. 

WAIT,  await,  expect,  look  for,  wait  for.  WAKEFUL,  vigilant,  watch- 
ful. (Sleepy.)  WANDER,  range,  ramble,  roam,  rove,  stroll.  WANT, 
lack,  need.  (Abundance.)  WARY,  circumspect,  cautious.  (Foolhardy.) 
WASH,  clean,  rinse,  wet,  moisten,  stain,  tint.  WASTE,  v.,  squander, 
dissipate,  lavish,  destroy,  decay,  dwindle,  wither.  WASTEFUL,  extrava- 
gant, profligate.  (Economical.)  WAY,  method,  plan,  system,  means, 
manner,  mode,  form,  fashion,  course,  process,  road,  route,  track,  path, 
habit,  practice.  WAVE,  breaker,  billow,  surge.  WEAK,  feeble,  in- 
firm. (Strong.)  WEAKEN,  debilitate,  enfeeble,  enervate,  invalidate. 
(Strengthen.)  WEARISOME,  tedious,  tiresome.  (Interesting,  entertain- 
ing.) WEARY,  harass,  jade,  tire,  fatigue.  (Refresh.)  WEIGHT,  gravity, 
heaviness.  (Lightness.)  WEIGHT,  burden,  load.  WELL-BEING,  happi- 
ness, prosperity,  welfare.  WHOLE,  entire,  complete,  total,  integral. 
(Part.)  WICKED,  iniquitous,  nefarious.  (Virtuous.)  WILL,  wish,  desire. 
WILLINGLY,  spontaneously,  voluntarily.  (Unwillingly . )  WIN,  get, 
obtain,  gain,  procure,  effect,  realize,  accomplish,  achieve.  (Lose.) 
WINNING,  attractive,  charming,  fascinating,  bewitching,  enchanting, 
dazzling,  brilliant.  (Repulsive.)  WISDOM,  prudence,  foresight,  far- 
sightedness, sagacity.  (Foolishness.)  WIT,  humor,  satire,  fun,  raillery. 
WONDER,  v.,  admire,  amaze,  astonish,  surprise.  WONDER,  n.,  marvel, 
miracle,  prodigy.  WORD,  n.,  expression,  term.  WORK,  labor,  task, 
toil.  (Play.)  WORTHLESS,  valueless.  (Valuable.)  WRITER,  author, 
penman.  WRONG,  injustice,  injury.  (Right.) 

YAWN,  gape,  open  wide.  YEARN,  hanker  after,  long  for,  desire, 
crave.  YELL,  bellow,  cry  out,  scream.  YELLOW,  golden,  saffron-like. 
YELP,  bark,  sharp  cry,  howl.  YET,  besides,  nevertheless,  notwithstand- 
ing, however,  still,  ultimately,  at  last,  so  far,  thus  far.  YIELD,  bear, 
give,  afford,  impart,  communicate,  confer,  bestow,  abdicate,  resign, 
cede,  surrender,  relinquish,  relax,  quit,  forego,  give  up,  let  go,  waive, 
comply,  accede,  assent,  acquiesce,  succumb,  submit.  YIELDING,  supple, 
pliant,  bending,  compliant,  submissive,  unresisting.  (Obstinate.)  YOKE, 
z>.,  couple,  link,  connect.  YORE,  long  ago,  long  since.  YOUNG,  juve- 


LANGUAGE:  ITS  USE  AND  MISUSE. 


97 


nile,  inexperienced,  ignorant,  youthful.  YOUTH,  boy,  lad,  minority, 
adolescence,  juvenility.  YOUTHFUL,  young,  juvenile,  boyish,  girlish, 
puerile.  (Old.) 

ZEAL,  energy,  fervor,  ardor,  earnestness,  enthusiasm,  eagerness. 
(Indifference.)  ZEALOUS,  warm,  ardent,  fervent,  enthusiastic,  anxious, 
(Indifferent,  careless.)  ZEST,  relish,  gusto,  flavor.  (Disgust.) 


FOREIGN  PHRASES  INTERPRETED. 

INCLUDING  QUOTATIONS   FROM   LIVING  AND  DEAD  LANGUAGES. 

While  it  is  not  considered  good  form  to  interlard  one's  discourse 
with  phrases  culled  from  foreign  languages,  there  are  many  cases  wherein 
a  thought  is  more  aptly  and  strikingly  put  in  Latin  or  French  than  in 
English.  When  this  is  the  case,  it  is  certainly  permissible  to  use  that 
which  gives  the  best  expression  to  the  thought.  It  is  also  well  to  have 
at  hand  a  comprehensive  dictionary  that  will  show  at  a  glance  just  what 
a  word,  phrase  or  sentence  in  a  foreign  tongue  means.  The  pages  which 
follow  contain  the  most  complete  lexicon  of  the  kind  ever  published. 


A  has,  P.,  down  with. 

Ab  extra,  L-,  from  without. 

Ab  initio,  L.,  from  the  beginning. 

Ab  intra,  L-,  from  within. 

Ab  normis  sapiens,  L-,  wise,  without  teach- 
ing. 

Aborigine^  L.,  from  the  origin. 

Ab  ovo,  L.,  from  the  egg. 

Absente  reo,  L-,  the  accused  being  absent. 

Ab  uno  disce  omnes,  L-,  from  one  judge  all. 

Ab  urbo  condita,  L-,  from  the  founding  of 
the  city. 

A  compte,  F.,  on  account. 

A  corps  perdu,  F.,  headlong. 

Ad  aperturam,  L.,  at  the  opening. 

Ad  astra  per  aspera,  L-,  to  the  stars 
through  difficulties.  (The  motto  of  Kan- 
sas.) 

Ad  Calendas  Graecas,  L-,  at  the  Greek 
calends;  meaning  never,  as  the  Greeks 
had  no  calends. 

Ad  captandum  vulgus,  L-,  to  catch  the 
vulgar. 

Ad  eundem,  L-,  to  the  same  (degree.) 

Ad  extremum,  L-,  to  the  extreme. 

Adfinem,  L-,  to  the  end. 

Adinfinitum,  L-,  to  infinity. 

Ad  interim,  L.,  in  the  meantime. 

A  discretion,  F.,  at  discretion. 

Ad  libitum,  L-,  at  pleasure. 

Ad  literam,  L-,  (even)  to  the  letter. 

Ad  modum,  L.,  after  the  manner  of. 

Adnauseum,  L.,  to  disgust. 

Ad  referendum,  L-,  for  reconsideration. 

Ad  rem,  L-,  to  the  point. 

Ad  unum  omnes,  L-,  every  one. 

Ad  valorem,  L.,  according  to  value. 

Ad  vitam  out  culpam.  L.,  for  life  or  for 
fault. 

sEquo  animo,  L-,  with  mind  content. 

sEtatis  suce,  L.,  of  his  (or  her)  age. 

Affaire  d'amour,  F.,  a  love  affair. 

Affaire  d'honneur,  F.,  a  duel. 

Affaire  de  cceur,  F.,  an  affair  of  the  heart. 

A  fortiori,  L-,  for  stronger  reason. 

A  la  campagne,  F.,  as  in  the  country. 

A  la  Francaise,  F.,  after  the  French  (man- 
ner.) 

U.  I.-7 


A  VAnglaise,  F.,  after  the  English  (man- 
ner.) 

A  la  mode,  F.,  after  the  fashion. 

Alereflamman,  L-,  to  feed  the  flame. 

Al  fresco,  It.,  in  the  open  air. 

A  Us  volat  propriis,  L-,  she  flies  with  he/ 
own  wings.  (The  motto  of  Oregon.) 

Allez  vous  en,  F.,  begone. 

Allans,  F.,  come. 

Alma  mater,  L.,  benign  mother. 

Alter  ego,  L-,  another  self. 

Alter  idem,  L-,  another  similar. 

Amende  honorable,  F..  an  apology. 

A  mense  et  thoro,  L.,  from  bed  and  board. 

Amor patrice,  L-,  patriotism. 

Amour propre,  F.,  self-love. 

A  ncien  regime,  F. ,  the  old  rule. 

Anglice,  L-,  in  English. 

Animis  opibusque parati,  L-,  prepared  with 
our  lives  and  our  money.  (Motto  of 
South  Carolina.) 

Anno  cetatis  suce,  L-,  in  the  year  of  his  (or 
her)  age. 

Anno  Christi,  L.,  in  the  year  of  Christ. 

Anno  Domini,  L.,  in  the  year  of  our 
Lord. 

Anno  mundi,  L.,  in  the  year  of  the  world. 

Annus  mtrabilis,  L-,  the  wonderful  year. 

Ante  bellum,  L-,  before  the  war. 

Ante  lucem,  L-,  before  the  light. 

Ante  meridiem,  L-,  before  noon. 

A  I'outrance,  F.,  to  the  death. 

Apercu,  F.,  sketch. 

Aplomb,  F.,  firmly;  perpendicularly. 

A  posteriori,  L.,  reasoning  from  effect  to 
cause. 

A  priori,  L-,  reasoning  from  cause  to  effect. 

A  propos,  F.,  to  the  point;  by-the-by. 

Aqua  vit&,  L.,  water  of  life;  alcohol. 

Argumentum  ad  hominem,  L-,  an  argu- 
ment to  the  man. 

Argumentum  ad  ignorantiam,  L->  an  argu- 
ment for  the  ignorant. 

Argumentum  ad  baculum,  L-,  an  argument 
with  a  cudgel. 

Arriere pensee,  F.,  an  after-thought. 

Ars  est  celare  artem,  L.,  art  is  to  conceal 
art. 


MANUAL  OP  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 


Ars  longa,  vita  brevis  est,  I,.,  art  is  long, 

life  is  short. 
A  sinus  ad  ly rant,  I,.,  an  ass  with  a  harp; 

an  absurdity. 

A  teneris  annis,  I/.,  from  tender  years. 
Audaces  furtuna  juvat,  I/.,  fortune  favors 

the  bold. 

Aude  sapere,  I/.,  dare  to  be  wise. 
Audi  alteram  partem,  L,.,  hear  the  other 

side. 

Aufait,  F.,  expert. 
Au  fond,  F.,  at  the  bottom. 
Au  pis  aller,  F.,  at  the  worst. 
Aura  popularis,  L,.,  the  wind  of  public  favor. 
Aurea  mediocrilas,  I/.,  the  golden  mean. 
A  u  reste,  F. ,  for  the  rest. 
Au  reyoir,  F.,  till  the  next  meeting. 
Aussitot  dit,  aussitotfait,  F.,  no  sooner  said 

than  done. 
Aut  amat  out  odit  mutter,  I,.,  a  woman 

either  loves  or  hates. 
Aut  C&sar  aut  nullus,  I*.,  either  Csesar  or 

nobody. 
Auto  da  fe,  Portuguese,  an  act  of  faith; 

burning  a  heretic. 
Auto  de  se,  I,.,  suicide. 
Au  troisieme,  F.,  on  the  third  floor. 
Aut  vincere  aut  mori,  I/.,  either  to  conquer 

or  die. 

Aux  armes,  F.,  to  arms. 
Avant-coureur,  F.,  a  forerunner. 
Avant-propos,  F,,  a  preface. 
A vec permission,  F.,  with  permission. 
A    verbis   ad  verbera,   i,.,   from  words  to 

blows. 
A  vinculo  matrimonii,  L,.,  from  the  bond 

of  marriage. 

A  volonte,  F.,  at  pleasure. 
A  votre  sante,  F.,  to  your  health. 

Bas  bleu,  F.,  a  blue-stocking. 

Beau  ideal,  F.,  an  ideal  beauty. 

Beau  monde,  F.,  the  fashionable  world. 

Beaux  esprits,  F.,  men  of  wit. 

Beaux  yeux,  F.,  beautiful  eyes. 

Bel  esprit,  F.,  a  brilliant  mind. 

Bete  noire,  F. ,  a  bugbear. 

Bien  seance,  F.,  politeness. 

Billet  doux,  F.,  a  love-letter. 

Bis  dat  qui  cito  dat,  i,.,  he  gives  twice  who 

gives  quickly. 
Blase,  F.,  surfeited. 
Bon  ami,  F.,  good  friend. 
Bonbon,  F.,  candy. 

Bon  gre  malgre,  F.,  willing  or  unwilling. 
Bonhomie,  F.,  good  nature. 
Bonis  avibus,  I,.,  with  lucky  omens. 
Bon  jour,  good  day. 
Bonne,  F.,  nurse. 
Bonne  foi,  F.,  good  faith. 
Bon  soir,  F.,  good  evening. 
Brevimanu,  I,.,  immediately. 
Brutum  fulmen,  I,.,  harmless  thunder. 

Cacoethes  loquendi,  I,.,  an  itch  for  speak- 
ing. 

Cacoethes  scribendi,  I/.,  an  itch  for  writing. 

C&tera  desunt,  I,.,  the  remainder  wanting. 

C&teris  panbus,  I,.,  other  things  being 
equal. 

Candida  pax,  I,.,  white-robed  peace. 

Caput,  1,.,  head. 


Caput  moituum,  L,.,  the  dead  body. 

Carpe  diem,  L,.,  be  merry  to-day. 

Cassis  tutisstma  virtus,  I*.,  virtue  is  the 
safest  shield. 

Casus  belli,  I,.,  a  cause  for  war. 

Catalogue  raisonne,  F.,  a  topical  catalogue. 

Causa  sine  qua  non,  I,.,  an  indispensable 
condition. 

Cedant  arnta  togte,  I,.,  let  arms  yield  to  the 
gown. 

Ce  n'est  que  le  premier  pas  qui  coute,  F.,  the 
first  step  alone  is  difficult. 

C'est  a  dire,  F.,  that  is  to  say. 

Chacun  a  son  gout,  F.,  every  man  to  his 
taste. 

Chef,  F.,  the  head;  the  leading  person  or 
part. 

Chefde  bataillnn,  F.,  a  major. 

Chef  de  cuisine,  F.,  head  cook. 

Chef-d'oeuvre,  F.,  a  masterpiece. 

Chere  amie,  F.,  a  dear  friend;  a  mistress. 

Chevalier  d'industrie,  F.,  knight  of  in- 
dustry; one  who  lives  by  his  wits. 

Chiaroscuro,  It.,  distribution  of  light  and 
shade  in  painting. 

Cicerone,  It.,  a  guide  who  explains  curiosi- 
ties. 

Cicisbeo,  It.,  a  male  attendant  on  a  mar- 
ried lady. 

Ci-devant,  F.,  formerly;  heretofore. 

Cogito,  ergo  sum,  I,.,  I  think,  therefore,  I 
exist. 

Colubrem  in  sinu  favere,  I,.,  to  cherish  a 
serpent  in  one's  bosom. 

Comnie  ilfaut,  F.,  as  it  should  be. 

Compagnon  de  voyage,  F. ,  a  traveling  com- 
panion. 

Compos  mentis,  Iy.,  sound  of  mind. 

Compte  rendu,  F.,  account  rendered;  report. 

Comte,  F.,  count. 

Comtesse,  F.,  countess. 

Con  amore,  L.,  with  love  or  great  pleasure, 
earnestly. 

Con  commodo,  It.,  at  a  convenient  rate. 

Conditio  sine  qua  non,  I,.,  a  necessary  con- 
dition. 

Confrere,  F. ,  a  brother  of  the  same  monas- 
tery; an  associate. 

Conge  d'elire,  F.,  leave  to  elect. 

Conquiescat  in  pace,  I,.,  may  he  rest  in 
peace. 

Conseil  de  famille,  F.,  a  family  consulta- 
tion. 

Conseil  d'etat,  F.,  a  counsel  of  state;  a  privy 
council. 

Contantia  et  virtute,  I,.,  by  constancy  and 
virtue. 

Consuetudo  pro  lege  servatur,  I,.,  custom  is 
observed  as  law. 

Contra  bonos  mores,  I*.,  against  good  mor- 
als or  manners. 

Coram  nobis,  L,.,  before  us. 

Coram  non  judice,  I/.,  before  one  not  the 
proper  judge. 

Corps  de  garde,  F.,  a  body  of  men  who 
watch  in  a  guard  room;  the  guard-room 
itself. 

Corps  diplomatique,  F.,  a  diplomatic  body. 

Corpus  Christi,  L,.,  Christ's  body. 

Corpus  delicti,  I,.,  the  body,  substance  or 
foundation  of  the  offence. 

Corrigenda,  I,.,  corrections  to  be  made. 


LANGUAGE:  ITS  USE  AND  MISUSE. 


99 


Couleur  de  rose,  F.,  rose-color;  an  aspect 

of  beauty  and  attractiveness. 
Coup  d'essai,  F.,  a  first  attempt. 
Coup  d'etat,  F.,  a  stroke  of  policy  in  state 

affairs. 

Coup  de  grace,  F.,  the  finishing  stroke. 
Coup  de  main,  F.,  a  sudden  attack;  a  bold 

effort. 

Coup  d'ceil,  F.,  a  slight  view;  a  glance. 
Coup  de  theatre,  F.,  a  theatrical  effect;  clap- 
trap. 
Coute  qu't'l  coute,   F.,  let  it   cost  what    it 

may. 
Credula  res  amor  est,  I,.,  love  is  a  credulous 

affair. 

Crescite  et  multiplicamini,  I,.,  grow,  or  in- 
crease, and  multiply.  (The  motto  of 

Maryland. ) 
Crimen  1czs&  majestatis,  I,.,  the  crime  of 

high  treason. 
Cut  bonoTL,.,  for  whose  benefit  is  it?  what 

good  will  it  do? 
Cul  de  sac,  F.,  the  bottom  of  a  bag;  a  place 

closed  at  one  end. 
Cum  grano  salt's,  I,.,  with  a  grain  of  salt; 

with  some  allowance. 
Cum  privilegio,  I,.,  with  privilege. 
Currente   calamo,   L,.,   with   a   running  or 

rapid  pen. 
Custos  rotulorum,   I,.,   the  keeper   of  the 

rolls. 

Da  capo,  It.,  from  the  beginning. 

D' accord,  F.,  agreed;  in  tune. 

Damnant  quod  non  intelligunt,  L.,  they 
condemn  what  they  do  not  understand. 

De  bonne  grace,  F.,  with  good  grace;  will- 
ingly. 

De  die  in  diem,  I,.,  from  day  to  day. 

De  facto,  L.,  from  the  fact;  really. 

Degage,  F.,  easy  and  unconstrained. 

Dei  gratia,  L.,  by  the  grace  of  God. 

Dejeuner  a  lafourchette,  F.,  a  meat  break- 

De  jure,  I,.,  from  the  law;  by  right. 

Delenda  est  Carthago,  ~L,.,  Carthage  must 
be  blotted  out  or  destroyed. 

De  mortuis  nil  nisi  bonum,  I/.,  let  nothing 
but  good  be  said  of  the  dead. 

De  nihilo  nihilfit,  L,.,  of  nothing,  nothing 
is  made. 

De  novp,  L,.,  anew;  over  again  from  the  be- 
ginning. 

Deo  gr alias,  L,.,  thanks  to  God. 

Deojuvante,  L.,  with  God's  help. 

Deo,  non  fortuna,  I,.,  from  God,  not  from 
fortune. 

Deo  volente,  I/.,  God  willing;  by  God's  will; 
usually  contracted  into  D.  V. 

De  prnfundis,  ~L,.,  out  of  the  depths. 

Dernier  ressort,  F.,  a  last  resource. 

De  bom's  non,  I,.,  of  the  goods  not  adminis- 
tered on. 

Degustibus  non  est  disputandum,  I,.,  there 
is  no  disputing  about  tastes. 

Desagrement,  F.,  something  disagreeable. 

Desideratum,  I,.,  a  thing  desired. 

Desunl  c&tera,  I,.,  the  other  things  are 
wanting;  the  remainder  is  wanting. 

De  trap,  F.,  too  much,  or  too  many;  not 
wanted. 

Dies  irce,  I,.,  the  day  of  wrath. 


Dies  non,  L.,  in  law,  a  day  on  which  judges 

do  not  sit. 
Dieu  defend  le  droit,  F.,  God  defends  the 

right. 

Dieu  et  man  droit,  F.,  God  and  my  right. 
Dignus  vindice  nodus,  L.,  a  knot  worthy  to 

be  untied  by  such  an  avenger,  or  by  such 

hands. 

Dii penates,  I,.,  household  gods. 
Dii  majores,  I,.,  the  greater  gods. 
Dii  minores,  I,.,  the  lesser  gods. 
Dirigo,  L,.,  I  direct  or  guide.     (The  motto 

of  Maine.) 

Disjecta  membra,  I,.,  scattered  limbs  or  re- 
mains. 

Distingue,  F.,  distinguished;  eminent. 
Distrait,  F.,  absent  in  thought. 
Divertissement,  F.,  amusement,  sport. 
Divide  et  impera,  I,.,  divide  and  rule. 
Dolce  far  niente,  It.,  sweet  doing-nothing; 

sweet  idleness. 
Double  entente,  F.,  double  meaning;  a  play 

on  words;  a  word  or  phrase  susceptible 

of  more  than  one  meaning.    (Incorrectly 

written,  double  entendre.} 
Dramatis   persons,   L,.,   the  characters  or 

persons  represented  in  a  drama. 
Droit  des  gens,  F.,  the  law  of  nations. 
Dulce  domun,  L.,  sweet  home;  homewards. 
Dulce  est  desipere  in  loco,  L.,  it  is  pleasant 

to  jest  or  be  merry  at  the  proper  time. 
Dulce  et  decorum  est  pro patria  mori,  I,.,  it 

is  sweet  and  becoming  to  die  for  one's 

country. 
Dum  spiro,  spero,  I,.,  while  I  breathe,  I 

hope. 
Dum  vivimus,  vivamus,  I,.,  while  we  live, 

let  us  live. 

Eau  de  Cologne,  F.,  a  perfumed  liquid; 
Cologne  water. 

Eau  de  vie,  F.,  water  of  life;  brandy. 

Ecce  homo,  L,.,  behold  the  man.  (Applied 
to  a  picture  representing  our  Lord  given 

i  up  to  the  Jews  by  Pilate,  and  wearing  a 
crown  of  thorns.) 

Editio  princeps,  L.,  the  first  edition. 

Egalite,  F.,  equality. 

Ego  et  rex  meus,  L.,  I  and  my  king. 

Eldorado,  Sp.,  the  golden  land. 

Emigre,  F.,  an  emigrant. 

Empressement,  F.,  ardor;  zeal. 

En  arriere,  F.,  in  the  rear;  behind. 

En  attendant,  F.,  in  the  meanwhile. 

En  avant,  F.,  forward. 

En  deshabille,  F.,  in  undress. 

En  echelon,  F.,  in  steps;  like  stairs. 

En  famille,  F.,  in  a  domestic  state. 

Enfans  perdus,  F.,  lost  children;  in  mil., 
the  forlorn  hope. 

En  grande  tenue,  F.,  in  full  dress. 

En  masse,  F.,  in  a  body. 

En  passant,  F.,  in  passing;  by  the  way. 

En  rapport,  F.,  in  relation;  in  connection. 

En  regie,  F.,  in  order;  according  to  rules. 

En  route,  F.,  on  the  way. 

Ense  petit  placidem  sub  libertate  quietem, 
L.,  with  the  sword  she  seeks  quiet  peace 
under  liberty.  (The  motto  of  Massachu- 
setts.) 

En  suite,  F.,  in  company. 

Entente  cordiale,  F.,  evidence  of  good- will 


100 


MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 


towards  each  other,  exchanged  by  the 
chief  persons  of  two  states. 

Entourage,  F.,  surroundings;  adjuncts. 

En  tout,  F.,  in  all;  wholly. 

Entree,  F.,  entrance;  first  course  at  meals; 
freedom  of  access. 

Entremets,  F.,  dainties;  small  dishes. 

Entrepot,  F.,  a  warehouse,  a  place  for  de- 
positing goods. 

Entrenous,  F.,  between  ourselves. 

Entresol,  F.,  a  suite  of  apartments  between 
the  basement  or  ground  floor  and  the 
second  floor. 

En  verite,  F.,  in  truth;  verily. 

E  pluribus  unum,  Iy.,  one  composed  of 
many.  (The  motto  of  the  United  States, 
as  one  government  formed  of  many  inde- 
pendent States. 

Err  are  est  humanum,  I,.,  to  err  is  hu- 
man. 

Esprit  borne,  F.,  a  narrow,  contracted 
mind. 

Esprit  du  corps,  F.,  spirit  of  the  body;  fel- 
lowship; brotherhood. 

Esse  quam  videri,  Iy.,  to  be,  rather  than  to 
seem. 

Esto  perpftua,  L.,  let  it  be  perpetual;  let  it 
endure  forever. 

Et  ccetera,  Iy.,  and  the  rest;  etc. 

Et  hoc  genus  omne,  Iy.,  and  everything  of 
the  kind. 

Et  sequentes,  L,.,  Et  sequentia,  I,.,  and  those 
that  follow. 

Et  sic  de  cceteris,  I,.,  and  so  of  the  rest. 

Et  tu,  Brute!  Iy..  and  thou  also,  Brutus! 

Eureka,  Gr.,  I  have  found  it.  (The  motto 
of  California.) 

Ex  adverso,  L,.,  from  the  opposite  side. 

Ex  animo,  L,.,  with  the  soul;  heartily. 

Ex  capite,  L,.,  from  the  head;  from  mem- 
ory. 

Ex  cathedra,  Iy.,  from  the  bench,  chair  or 
pulpit;  with  high  authority. 

Excelsior,  Iy.,  higher;  more  elevated.  (The 
motto  of  New  York.) 

Exceptioprobateregulam,  Iy.,  the  exception 
proves  the  rule. 

Excerpta,  I,.,  extracts. 

Ex  concessio,  Iy.,  from  what  is  conceded. 

Ex  curia,  I,.,  out  of  court. 

Ex  dono,  I,.,  by  the  gift. 

Exempli  gratia,  Iy.,  for  example;  for  in- 
stance. 

Exeunt,  Iy.,  they  go  out. 

Exeunt  omnes,  I,.,  all  go  out. 

Exit,  Iy.,  departure;  a  passage  out;  death. 

Exitus  acta  probat,  Iy.,  the  event  justifies 
the  deed.  (Washington's  motto. ) 

Ex  necessitate  rei,  Iy.,  from  the  necessity  of 
the  case. 

Ex  nihilo  nihilfit,  I,.,  out  of  nothing,  noth- 
ing comes. 

Ex  officio,  I,.,  by  virtue  of  office. 

Ex parte,  L.,  on  one  part  or  side  only. 

Ex pede  Herculum,  L.,  we  see  a  Hercules 
from  the  foot;  we  judge  the  whole  from 
the  specimen. 

Experimentum  cruets,  I/.,  the  experiment 
of  the  cross;  a  decisive  experiment;  a 
most  searching  test. 

Experto  crede,  L.,  trust  one  who  has  had 
experience. 


Ex  post  facto,  I/.,  after  the  deed  is  done. 

Ex  tempore,  Iy.,  off-hand;  without  premedi- 
tation. 

Extra  muros,  Iy.,  beyond  the  walls. 

Ex  uno  disce  omnes,  L.,  from  one  learn  all; 
from  one  you  can  judge  the  whole. 

Ex  usu,  Iy.,  from  or  by  use. 

Facetice,  I,.,  witticisms;  humorous  pleas- 
antry. 

Facile  princeps,  Iy.,  evidently  pre-eminent; 
the  admitted  chief. 

FacilisestdescensusAverni,  L.,  the  descent 
to  hell  is  easy;  the  road  to  evil  is  easy. 

Fac-simile,  Iy.,  an  exact  copy;  a  likeness. 

Fait  accompli,  F.,  a  thing  already  accom- 
plished. 

Fas  est  et  ab  hoste  doceri,  Iy.,  'it  is  well  to 
learn  even  from  an  enemy. 

Fata  Morgana,  It.,  a  meteoric  phenome- 
non nearly  allied  to  the  mirage. 

Fata  obstant,  Iy.,  the  Fates  oppose  it. 

Fauteuil,  F.,  an  easy  chair. 

Faux  pas,  F.,  a  false  step;  a  mistake. 

Fecit,  Iy.,  he  made  it;  put  after  an  artist's 
name. 

Felicitas  rnultos  habet  amicos,  Iy.,  prosper- 
ity has  many  friends. 

Feliciter,  Iy.,  happily;  successfully. 

Felo  de  se,  L.,  a-self-murderer;  one  who 
commits  felony  by  suicide. 

Femme  couverte,  F.,  a  woman  covered  or 
sheltered;  a  married  woman. 

Femme  de  chambre,  F.,  a  woman  of  the 
chamber;  a  chamber  maid. 

Femme  sole,  F.,  a  single  woman;  an  un- 
married woman. 

Ferez  natures,  Iy.,  of  a  wild  nature — said  of 
wild  beasts. 

Festina  lente,  I,.,  hasten  slowly. 

Fbte  Champtere  F.,  a  rural  festival. 

Fete  Dieu,  F.,  the  Corpus  Christi  festival 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 

Feu  de  joie,  F.,  a  bonfire;  a  discharge  of 
fire-arms  on  joyful  occasions. 

Fiatjustitia  ruat  ccelum,  Iy.,  let  justice  be 
done,  though  the  heavens  should  fall. 

Fidei  defensor,  Iy.,  defender  of  the  faith. 

Fides  Punica,  I,.,  Punic  faith;  treachery. 

Fidus  Achates,  Iy.,  faithful  Achates,  a  true 
friend. 

Fille  de  chambre,  F.,  a  girl  of  the  chamber- 
a  chamber-maid. 

Finem  respice,  I,.,  look  to  the  end. 

Fit  fabricando  faber,  L.,  a  workman  is 
made  by  working;  practice  makes  per- 
fect. 

Flagrante  delicto,  I,.,  in  the  commission  of 
crime. 

Fortiter  in  re,  I/.,  with  firmness  in  acting. 

Fortuna  favet  fortibus,  F.,  fortune  favors 
the  brave. 

Frontt  nulla  fides,  I,.,  no  faith  in  appear- 
ance; there  is  no  trusting  to  appearances 

Fuit  Ilium,  t,.,  Troy  has  been. 

Fulmen  brulum,  I,.,  a  harmless  thunder- 
bolt. 

Functus  officio,  I,.,  having  discharged  his 
office. 

Furor  loquendi,  Iy.,  a  rage  for  speaking. 

Furor  poeticus,  poetic  fire. 

Furor  scribendi,  Iy.,  a  rage  for  writing. 


LANGUAGE:  ITS.  U$£  AND  MISUSE. 


101 


Garde  du  corps,  F.,  a  body-guard. 

Garde  mobile,  F.,  a  guard  liable  for  general 
service. 

Gardez  bien,  F.,  guard  well;  take  care. 

Genius  loci,  L-,  genius  of  the  place. 

Gens  d'armes,  F.,  armed  police. 

Gens  de  lettres,  F.,  literary  people. 

Gens  de  memefamille,  F.,  birds  of  a  feather 

Gentilhomme,  F.,  a  gentleman. 

Germanice,  L.,  in  German. 

Gloria  in  excelsis,  L.,  glory  to  God  in  the 
highest. 

Gloria  Patri,  L-,  glory  to  the  Father. 

Gradus  ad  Parnassum,  L.,  a  step  to  Par- 
nassus, a  mountain  sacred  to  Apollo  and 
the  Muses;  a  book  containing  aids  in 
writing  Greek  or  Latin  poetry. 

Grande  Parure,  F.,  full  dress. 

Gratis  dictum,  L-,  mere  assertion. 

Guerre  a  Voutrance,  I,.,  war  to  the  utter- 
most. 

Haud  passibus  cequis,  L-,  not  with  equal 
steps. 

Haul  gout,  F.,  fine  or  elegant  taste;  high 
flavor  or  relish. 

Hie  et  ubique,  L-,  here  and  everywhere. 

Hicjacet,  L-,  here  lies. 

Hie  labor,  hoc  opus  est,  L-,  this  is  labor, 
this  is  work. 

Htc  sepultus,  L.,  here  buried. 

Hinc  ill<z  lacrimce,  L-,  hence  proceed  these 
tears. 

Historiette,  F.,  a  little  or  short  history;  a 
tale. 

Hoi polloi,  Gr.,  the  many;  the  rabble. 

Hombre  de  un  libra,  Sp.,  a  man  of  one 
book. 

Homme  d' esprit,  L-,  a  man  of  talent;  a  witty 
man. 

Honi  soil  qui  mal  y  pense,  F.,  evil  be  to  him 
who  evil  thinks. 

Honorarium,  L.,  a  fee  *>aid  to  a  profes- 
sional man. 

Horribile  dictu,  I/.,  terrible  to  be  said. 

Hors  de  combat,  F.,  out  of  condition  to 
fight. 

Hortus  siccus,  L.,  collection  of  dried  plants. 

Hotel  de  mile,  F.,  a  town  hall. 

Hotel  des  Invalides,  L. ,  the  military  hospi- 
tal in  Paris. 

Humanum  est  errare,  L.,  to  err  is  human. 

Ich  dien,  Ger.  I  serve. 

Id  est,  L.,  that  is,  abbreviated  to  i.e. 

Imitatores  servum  pecus,  L-,  imitators;  a 
servile  herd. 

Imperium  in  imperio,  L.,  a  government 
within  a  government. 

In  (sternum,  L-,  forever. 

In  armis,  L-,  under  arms. 

In  articulo  mortis,  L.,  at  the  point  of  death. 

Index  expurgatorius,  I/.,  a  list  of  prohib- 
ited books. 

In  esse,  L-,  in  being. 

In  extenso,  L-,  at  full  length. 

In  extremis,  L.,  at  the  point  of  death. 

Inflagrante  delictu,  L-,  taken  in  the  act. 

In  forma  pauper  is,  L-,  in  the  form  of  a  poor 
person. 

In  fora  conscientiee,  L.,  before  the  tribunal 
pf  conscience. 


Infra  dignitatem,  L-,  below  one's  dignity. 
In  hoc  signo  vinces,  L-,  under  this  sign,  or 

standard,  thou  shalt  conquer. 
In  hoc  statu,  L..  in  this  state  or  condition. 
In  limine,  L,.,  at  the  threshold. 
In  loco,  L.,  in  the  place. 
In  loco  parentis,  L,,,  in  the  place  of  a  parent 
In  medias  res,  in  the  midst  of  things. 
In  menwriam,   L-   ,to  the  memory  of;  in 

memory. 

In  nomine,  L-,  in  the  name  of. 
In  nubibus,  L.  ,  in  the  clouds. 
In  pace,  L.,  in  peace. 
In  perpetuum,  L.,  forever. 
In  petto,  L-,  within  the  breast;  in  reserve. 
In  plena,  L,.,  in  full. 
In  posse,  L.,  in  possible  existence;  that  may 

be  possible. 

Inprczsenti,  L,.,  at  the  present  time. 
In  propria  persona,  I,.,  in  one's  own  person 
In  pur  is  naturalibus,  "L,.,  in  naked  nature; 

quite  naked. 

In  re,  I,.,  in  the  matter  of. 
In  rem,  t,.,  against  the  thing  or  property. 
In  rerum    natura,    ~L,.,  in    the  nature  of 

things. 

In  situ,  L,.,  in  its  original  situation. 
Insouciance,  F.,  indifference;  carelessness. 
In  statu  quo,  I/.,  in  the  former  state. 
Inter  alia,  L,.,  among  other  things. 
Inter  nos,  I,.,  between  ourselves. 
Inter  pocula,  I,.,  between  drinks. 
In  terrorem,  I,.,  as  a  warning. 
Inter  se,  I,.,  among  themselves. 
In  totidem  verbis,  I/.,  in  so  many  words. 
In  toto,  L,.,  in  the  whole;  entirely. 
Intra  muros,  I,.,  within  the  walls. 
In  transitu,  I,.,  on  the  passage;  during  the 

conveyance. 
In  vacua,    Iy.,    in    empty  space;    free,    or 

nearly  free,  from  air. 

In  vino  veritas,  ~L.  ,  there  is  truth  in  wine. 
Invita  Minervcz,  I,.,  against  the  will  of  Mi- 

nerva. 
Ipse  dixit,  I,.,  he  himself  said  it;  dogma- 

tism. 


Ipsissima  verba,  I,.,  the  very  words. 

Ipsissimis 

Ipso  facto 

Ira  furor  brevis  est,   L,.,  anger  is  a  short 


,    ,.,  . 

Ipsissimis  verbis,  I,.,  in  the  very  words. 
Ips 


so  facto,  L.,  in  the  fact  itself. 

a  furor  b 

madness. 


Jacta  estalea,  L,.,  the  die  is  cast. 

Je  ne  sais  quoi,  F.,  I  know  not  what. 

Jet  d'eau,  F..  a  jet  of  water. 

Jeu  de  mots,  F.,  a  play  on  words;  a  pun. 

Jeu  d'  esprit,   F.,  a  play  of  spirit;  a  witti- 

cism. 

Jubilate  Deo,  L.,  be  joyful  in  the  Lord. 
Judicium  Dei,  L.,  the  judgment  of  God. 
Jupiter  tonans,  L.,  Jupiter  the  thunderer. 
Jure  divino,  L,-  by  divine  law. 
Jure  humano,  L-,  by  human  law. 
Jus  canonicum,  L-,  canon  law. 
Jus  civile,  L-,  civil  law. 
Jus  divinum,  L-,  divine  law. 
Jus  gentium,  L-,  the  law  of  nations. 
Juste  milieu,  F.,  the  golden  mean. 

Labor  e  et  honore,  L-,  by  labor  and  honor. 
Labor  ipse  voluptas,   L,.,  labor  itself   is  a 
pleasure. 


102 


USEFUL  INFORMATION. 


Labor  omnia  vincit,    I,.,    labor  conquers 

everything. 
Lafamenon  vuol  leggi.  It.,  hunger  obeys 

no  laws. 
Laissez  faire,  F.,  let  alone;  suffer  to  have 

its  own  way. 

Lapsus  calami,  L.,  a  slip  of  the  pen. 
Lapsus  linguce,  I,.,  a  slip  of  the  tongue. 
Lapsus  memories,  I/.,  a  slip  of  the  memory. 
Lares  et  penates,  I,.,  domestic  and  house- 
hold-gods. 
Latet  anguis  in  herba,  I/.,  a  snake  lies  hid 

in  the  grass. 
Laudaria  viro  laudato,  I,.,  to  be  praised  by 

a  man  who  is  himself  praised. 
L'aventr,  F.,  the  future. 
Laus  Deo,  I,.,  praise  to  God. 
Le  beau  monde,  F.,  the  fashionable  world. 
Le  bon  temps  viendra,^.,  the  good  time  will 

come. 
Le  grand  monarquejt*.,  the  great  monarch 

—applied  to  L,ouis  XIV.  ofFrance. 
Le  pas,  F.,  precedence  in  place  or  rank. 
Le  roi  le  veut,  F.,  the  king  wills  it. 
Lbse-majeste,  I,.,  high  treason. 
Letoile  du  nord,  F.,  the  star  of  the  north — 

the  motto  of  Minnesota. 
Le  tout  ensemble,  F.,  all  together. 
Lettre  de  cachet,  F.,  a  sealed  letter;  a  royal 

warrant. 
Lettre  de  marque,  F.,  a  letter  of  marque  or 

reprisal. 

Lex  non  scripta,  I,.,  the  unwritten  law. 
Lex  scripta,  L,.,  the  written  law;  the  statute 

law. 

Lex  talionis,  I,.,  the  law  of  retaliation. 
Liber um  arbitrium,  I,.,  free  will. 
Lima:  labor,  L.,  the  labor  of  the  file;  the 

slow  polishing  of  a  literary  composition. 
Lis  subjudice,  L.,  a  case  not  yet  decided. 
Lite  pendente,  L,.,  the  law-suit    hanging; 

during  the  trial. 
Liter  a  scripta  manet,  I,.,  the  written  letter 

remains. 

Loci  communes,  I,.,  common  places. 
Locos y  ninos  dicen  la  verdad,  Sp.,  children 

and  fools  speak  the  truth. 
Locum  tenens,  L,.,  one  holding  the  place;  a 

deputy  or  substitute. 
Locus  standi,  L,.,  a  place  for  standing;  a 

right  to  interfere. 

Locus  pen iten tice,  I/.,  place  for  repentance. 
Lusus  naturte,  I,.,  a  sport  or  freak  of  nat- 
ure. 

Ma  chere,  F.,  my  deaf — fern. 

Mafoi,  F.,  upon  my  faith. 

Magna  est  veritas  et  prevalebit,  I,.,  truth  is 

great  and  it  will  prevail. 
Magnum  bonum,  i,.,  a  great  good. 
Magnum  opus,  L,.,  a  great  work. 
Maintien,  F.,  deportment;  carriage. 
Maison  de  sante,  F.,  a  private  hospital. 
Maitre  d' hotel,  F.,  a  house-steward. 
Maladie  du  Pays,  F.,  home  sickness. 
Mala  fide,  I,.,  with  bad  faith;  treacherously 
Mai  a  propos,  F.,  ill-timed. 
Male  parta  male  dilabuntur,  I,.,  things  ill 

gotten,  are  ill  spent. 
Afalgre  nous.  F.,  in  spite  of  us. 
Manibus  pedibusque,   I,.,  with  hands  and 

feet. 


Malum  in  se,  "L,.,  bad  in  itself. 

Manu  propria,  I,.,  with  one's  own  hand. 

Mardi  Gras,  F.,  Shrove  Tuesday. 

Mater  familias,  L,.,  the  mother  of  a  family. 

Mauvaise  honte,  F.,  false  shame. 

Mauvais  sujet,  F.,  a  bad  subject;  a  worth- 
less fellow. 

Maximus  in  minimis,  I,.,  very  great  in 
trifling  things. 

Medio  tutissimus  ibis,  I,.,  you  will  go  most 
safely  in  a  middle  course. 

Mega  biblion,  mega  kakon,  Gr.,  a  great 
book  is  a  great  evil. 

Mejudice,  L.,  I  being  judge;  in  my  opinion 

Memento  mori,  L.,  remember  death. 

Mens  sana  in  corpore  sano,  L,.,  a  sound 
mind  in  a  sound  body. 

Mens  sibiconscia  recti,  I,.,  a  mind  conscious 
of  rectitude. 

Mens  agitat  molem,  L,.,  mind  moves  matter 

Menu,  F.,  a  bill  of  fare. 

Mesalliance,  F.,  improper  association,  mar- 
riage with  one  of  lower  station. 

Meum  et  tuum,  I,.,  mine  and  thine. 

Mirabile  dictu,  I,.,  wonderful  to  be  told. 

Mirabile  visu,  L,.,  wonderful  to  be  seen. 

Miseen  scene,  F.,  the  getting  up  for  the 
stage,  or  the  putting  in  preparation  for  it 

Modus  operandi,  I,.,  the  manner  of  opera- 
tion. 

Mollia  tempora  fandi,  I,.,  times  favorable 
for  speaking. 

Mon  ami,  F.,  my  friend. 

Mon  cher,  F.,  my  dear — masc. 

Montani semper  liberi,^.,  mountaineers  are 
always  freemen — the  motto  of  West  Vir- 
ginia. 

More  majorum,  I,.,  after  the  manner  of  our 
ancestors. 

More  suo,  I,.,  in  his  own  way. 

Motu  proprio,  L,.,  of  his  own  accord. 

Multum  in  parvo,  L,.,  much  in  little. 

Mundus  vult  decipi,  t,.,  the  world  wishes  to 
be  deceived. 

Mutatis  mutandis,I*.,\.\\e  necessary  changes 
being  made. 

Natale  solum,  L.,  natal  soil. 

Necessitas  non  habet  legem,  1,.,  necessity 
has  no  law. 

Nee,  F.,  born,  family  or  maiden  name. 

Ne  exeat,  "L,.,  let  him  not  depart. 

Ne  fronti  crede,  I,.,  trust  not  to  appear- 
ance. 

Nemine  contradicente,  I,.,  without  opposi- 
tion. 

Nemine  dissentiente,  I/.,  no  one  dissenting; 
without  opposition. 

Nemo  me  impune  lacessit,  I,.,  no  one  pro- 
vokes me  with  impunity — the  motto  ot 
Scotland. 

Nemo  mortalium  omnibus  horis  sapit,  I,., 
no  one  is  wise  at  all  times. 

Nemo  repentefuit  turpissimus,  1,.,  no  man 
becomes  a  scoundrel  at  once. 

Ne  plus  ultra,  L.,  nothing  further. 

Nequid  detriments  respublica  capiat,  L.,  lest 
the  republic  should  receive  harm. 

Ne  sutor  ultra  crepidam,  L.,  let  the  shoe- 
maker stick  to  his  last. 

Nil  admirari,  I,.,  to  wonder  at  nothing. 

Nil  desperandum,  L.,  never  despair. 


LANGUAGE:  ITS  USE  AND  MISUSE. 


103 


N'importe,  F.,  never  mind. 

Nisidominusfrustra,  unless  the  L,ord  helps 
nothing  is  gained. 

Nisi prius,  L,.,  unless  previously. 

Nitor  in  adversum,  L,.,  I  strive  against  op- 
position. 

Noblesse  oblige,  F.,  nobility  obliges;  nobles 
must  act  nobly. 

Nolens  volens,  i,.,  willy-nilly. 

Neli  me  tangere,  I,.,  don't  touch  me;  hands 
off. 

Nolle prosequt,  I,.,  to  abandon  prosecution. 

Nolo  episcopari,  I,.,  I  am  unwilling  to  be  a 
Bishop. 

Nom  de  guerre,  F.,  a  war  name;  an  as- 
sumed name. 

Nom  de  plume,  F.,  a  pen  name;  name  as- 
sumed by  an  author. 

Non  compos  mentis,  L.,  not  in  one's  right 
mind. 

Non  constat,  I,.,  it  does  not  appear. 

Non  est  inventus,  L.,  he  has  not  been  found 

Non  multa,  sed  multum,  L.,  not  many 
things,  but  much. 

Non  nobis  solum,  I,.,  not  for  ourselves 
alone. 

Non  mi  ricordo,  It.,  I  do  not  remember. 

Noscitur  a  sociis.,  I,.,  he  is  known  by  his 
companions. 

Nota  dene,  L.,  mark  well. 

Nous  avons  change  tout  cela,  F.,  we  have 
changed  all  that. 

Nous  verrons,  F.,  we  shall  see. 

Nonquam  non  paratus,  L.,  never  unpre- 
pared. 

Oderint  dum  meturant,  L,.,  let  them  hate, 
provided  they  fear. 

Odi profanum,  I,.,  I  hate  the  vulgar. 

Odium  theplogicum,  L.,  theological  hatred. 

Olla  podrida,  Sp.,  a  mixture. 

Omne  ignotumpro  magnifico,  L., everything 
unknown  is  thought  magnificent. 

Omnia  vincit  amor,  L,.,  love  conquers  all 
things. 

On  dit,  F.,  they  say;  people  say. 

Onus  probandi,  L,.,  the  burden  of  proof. 

Ora  pro  nobis,  I,.,  pray  for  us. 

O  temporal  O  mores!  i,.,  oh,  the  times!  oh, 
the  manners! 

Otium  cum  dignitate,  I,.,  ease  with  dig- 
nity. 

Outre,  F.,  extravagant;  extreme. 

Palmam  qui  meruit  ferat,  L.,  who  merits 

bears  the  prize. 
Par  excellence,  F.,  by  way  of  eminence;  in 

the  highest  degree. 
Par  hasard,  F.,  by  chance. 
Part  passu,  I*.,  with  equal  step. 
Parvenu,  F.,  an  upstart;  a  rich  "snob." 
Paterfamilias,  L.,  the  father  of  a  family. 
Pater  patriae,  I,.,  the  father  of  his  country. 
Pax  vobiscum,  L,.,  peace  be  with  you. 
Peccavi,  L.,  I  have  sinned. 
Pendente  lite,  I,.,  while  the  suit  is  pending. 
Per  annum,  L.,  by  the  year. 
Per  capita,  t,.,  by  the  head;  on  each  person. 
Per  contra,  I,.,  on  the  other  hand. 
Per  diem,  i,.,  by  the  day;  everyday. 
Periculum  in  mora,  I,.,  danger  in  delay. 
Perse,  I*.,  by  itself. 


Personnel,  F.,  the  staff ;  persons  in  any  serv- 
ice. 

Petitio  principri,  L.,  begging  the  question. 

Petite,  F.,  small;  little— fern. 

Piece  de  resistance,  F.,  a  joint  of  meat. 

Pinxit,  I,.,  he  (or  she)  painted  it. 

Pis  aller,  F.,  a  last  expedient. 

Plebs,  L,.,  common  people. 

Poeta  nascitur,  non  fit,  L.,  a  poet  is  born 
not  made. 

Point  dappui,  F.,  point  of  support. 

Populus  vult  decipi,  L.,  the  populace  wish 
to  be  deceived. 

Posse  commitatus,  I,.,  the  power  of  the 
country;  the  force  that  may  be  sum- 
moned by  the  sheriff. 

Poste  restante,  F.,  to  be  left  till  called  for. 

Post  meridiem,  I,.,  afternoon. 

Postmortem,  I,.,  after  death. 

Post  obitum,  L.,  after  death. 

Pourparler,  F.,  a  consultation. 

Pour  prendre  conge,  F..  to  take  leave. 

Precieuse,  F.,  a  blue  stocking;  a  conceited 
woman. 

Preux  chevalier,  F.,  a  gallant  gentleman. 

Prima  donna,  It.,  the  first  lady;  the  princi- 
pal female  singer  in  Italian  opera. 

Prima  facie,  I,.,  on  the  first  face;  at  first 
sight. 

Primus  inter  pares,  I,.,  first  among  his 
peers. 

Pro  bono publico,  !>.,  for  the  public  good. 

Proces  -verbal,  F.,  verbal  process;  the  tak- 
•ing  of  testimony  in  writing. 

Proet  con,  L.,  for  and  against. 

Pro  forma,  1,.,  for  the  sake  of  form. 

Pro  patria,  L.,  for  one's  country. 

Pro  tempore,  L. ,  for  the  time. 

Punica  fides,  I*.,  Punic  faith,  i.e.,  treachery 

Quantum  sufficit,  I,.,  as  much  as  is  suffi- 
cient. 

Quelque  chose,  F.,  something. 

Quidnunc,  L,.,  what  now;  a  gossip. 

Quid  pro  quo,  L.,  an  equivalent. 

Qui  vive,  F.,  who  goes  there? 

Quod  er at  demonstrandum,  L,.,  which  was 
to  be  demonstrated. 

Quonaam,  I*.,  at  one  time;  once. 

Rara  avis,  L..  a  rare  bird. 

Rechauffe,  F.,  warmed  over;  stale. 

Recherche,  F.,  choice;  elegant. 

Redacteur,  F.,  an  editor. 

Redtvivus,  L.,  restored  to  life. 

Reductio  ad  absurdum,  L.,  reduction  to  an 

absurdity. 

Rentes,  F.,  public  funds;  national  securities 
Requiescat  in  pace,  I/.,  may  he  (or  she)  rest 

in  peace. 
Res  angusta  domi,  L.,  the  narrow  things 

at  home;  poverty. 
Res  gestce,  L.,  things  done. 
Resurgam,  L.,  I  shall  rise  again. 
Revenons  a  nos  moutons,  F.,  let  us  return 

to  our  sheep;  come  back  to  the  subject. 
Robe  de  chambre,  F.,  a  dressing  gown. 
Roue,  F.,  a  rake. 
Rouge  et  noir,  F.,  red  and  black;  a  game. 

Sanctum  sanctorum,  T,.,  the  holy  of  holies. 
Sang  froid,  F.,  cold  blood;  self  possession. 


104 


MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 


Sans  culottes,  F.,  without  breeches;  red  re- 

publicans. 

Sartor  resartus,  L.,  the  tailor  patched. 
Sauve  qui  peut,  F.,  save  himself  who  can. 
Savoir-faire,  F.,  knowing  how  to  do  things 
Savoir  vivre,  F.,  knowledge  of  the  world. 
Semper  idem,  1..,  always  the  same. 
Semper  paratus,  L.,  always  prepared. 
Sequitur,  L.,  it  follows. 
Seriatim,  L.,  in  order. 
Sic  itur  ad  astro.,  L.,  thus  the  road  to  im- 

mortality. 
Sic  semper  tyrannis,  L,.,  thus  always  with 

tyrants. 
Sic  transit  gloria  mundi,  L.,  so  passes  the 


glory  of  the  world. 
Sic  volo,  sic  ju 


beo,  I,.,  thus  I  will;  thus  I 

command. 
Similia  similibus  curantur,  L.,  like  things 

are  cured  by  like. 
Similis  simili  gaudet,    L.,    like  is  pleased 

with  like. 
Si  monumentum  quceris,  circumspice,  L.,  if 

you  seek  his  monument,  look  around. 
Sine  die,  L.,  without  a  day  appointed. 
Sine  qua  non,  1,.,  an  indispensable  condi- 

tion. 

Siste  viator,  L.,  stop,  traveler. 
Sivispacem,  para  bellum,  i,.,  if  you  wish 

peace,  prepare  for  war. 
Soi-disant,  F.,  self-styled. 
Spero  meliora,  L.,  I  hope  for  better  things. 
Spirituel,  L.,  intellectual;  witty. 
Spolia  opima,  TV.,  in  ancient  Rome,  the  spoils 

of  a  vanquished  general  taken  by  the  vic- 

torious general;  a  rich  booty. 
Sponte  sua,  L.,  of  one's  own  accord. 
Statu  quo  ante  helium,  I,.,  in  the  state  which 

was  before  the  war. 
Status  quo,  L.,  the  state  in  which. 
S(et,-L.,  let  it  stand. 
Suaviter  in  nwdo,  fortiter  in  re,  L.,  gentle 

in  manners,  brave  in  deed. 
Sub  judice,  L.,  under  consideration. 
Sub  pcena,  I^.,  under  a  penalty. 
Sub  rosa,  L,.,  privately. 
Sub  silentio,  L.,  in  silence  or  stillness. 
Sui  generis,  I,.,  of  its  own  kind. 
Summum  bonum,  L.,  the  chief  good. 
Summumjus,  sum  ma  injuria,  L,.,  the  rigor 

of  the  law  is  the  height  of  oppression. 
Surgit  amari  aliquid,  1,.,  something  bitter 


Suum  cuique,  I,.,  let  each  have  his  own. 

Tableau  vivant,  F.,  the  representation  of 
some  scene  by  groups  of  persons. 

Tabula  rasa,  I,,.,  a  smooth  or  blank  tablet. 

Tfsdium  vittz,  L.,  weariness  of  life. 

Tant  pis,  F.,  so  much  the  worse. 

Te  Deum,  L.,  a  hymn  of  thanksgiving. 

Tempora  mutantur,  et  nos  mutanur  in 
illis,  I,.,  the  times  are  changed  and  we 
are  changed  with  them. 

Tempusfugit,  L.,  time  flies. 

Terminus  ad  quern,  I,.,  the  time  to  which. 

Terminus  a  quo,  L.,  the  time  from  which. 

Terra  firma,  I,.,  solid  earth. 

Terra  incognita,  L,.,  an  unknown  country. 

Tertium  quid,  I,.,  a  third  something. 

Tete-a-tete,  F.,  head  to  head;  a  private  con- 
versation. 


Toga  virilis,  L.,  the  gown  of  manhood. 

Tokalon,  Gr.,  the  beautiful;  the  chief  good 

Totidem  verbis,  I,.,  in  just  so  many  words. 

Toties  quoties,  L,.,  as  many  as. 

Toto  ccelo,  L.,  by  the  whole  heavens;  di- 
ametrically opposite. 

Toujours pret,  F.,  always  ready. 

Tour  deforce,  F.,  a  feat  of  strength  or 
skill. 

Tout-a-fait,  F.,  entirely;  wholly. 

Tout  ensemble,  F.,  the  whole  taken  together 

Trojafuit,  I,.,  Troy  was. 

Trottoir,  F.,  a  sidewalk. 

Tu  quoque,  Brute!  !<.,  and  thou,  too,  Bru- 
tus. 

Tutor  etultor,  L.,  protector  and  avenger. 

Tuum  est,  I,.,  it  is  your  own. 

Ubimel,  ibi apes,  I,.,  where  honey  is,  there 
are  bees. 

Ultima  ratio  regum,  I,.,  the  last  argument 
of  kings;  war. 

Ultima  Thule,  I,.,  the  utmost  boundary  or 
limit. 

Un  bien  fait  n'estjamais perdu,  F.,  a  kind- 
ness is  never  lost. 

Unfait  accompli,  L,.,  an  accomplished  fact. 

Unguibus  et  rostro,  i,.,  with  claws  and 
beak. 

Usque  ad  nauseam,  L..  to  disgust. 

Usus  loquendi,  L,.,  us"age  in  speaking. 

Utile  dulci,  I/.,  the  useful  with  the  pleasant. 

Ut  infra,  L.,  as  below. 

Uti  possidetis,  L.,  as  you  possess;  state  of 
present  possession. 

Ut  supra,  I,.,  as  above. 

Vade  mecum,  "L,.,  go  with  me. 

Vale,  L.,  farewell. 

Valet  de  chambre,  F.,  an  attendant;  a  foot- 
man. 

Varies  lectiones,  L.,  various  readings. 

Variorum  notes,  L.,  the  notes  of  various 
authors. 

Veni,  vidi,  vici,  L,.,  I  came,  I  saw,  I  con- 
quered. 

Vera  progratiis,  L.,  truth  before  favor. 

Verbatim  et  literatim,  I,.,  word  for  word 
and  letter  for  letter. 

Verbum  sat  sapienti,  L,.,  a  word  is  enough 
for  a  wise  man. 

Veritas prevalebit,  I,.,  the  truth  will  pre- 
vail. 

Veritas  vincit,  L.,  truth  conquers. 

Vestigia,  I,.,  tracks;  vestiges. 

Vestigia  nulla  retrorsum,  Iy.,  no  footsteps 
backward. 

Vexata  quczstio,  L.,  a  disputed  question. 

Vice,  L.,  in  the  place  of. 

Vice  versa,  t,.,  the  terms  being  exchanged. 

Videlicet,  I,.,  to  wit;  namely. 

Vide  ut  supra,  L,.,  see  what  is  stated  above. 

Vi  etarmis,  I,.,  by  force  and  by  arms;  by 
main  force. 

Vincit  qui  se  vincit,  I,.,  he  conquers  who 
overcomes  himself. 

Vinculum  matrimonii,  L,.,  the  bond  of  mar- 
riage. 

Virtus  laudatur,  et  alget,  I,.,  virtue  is 
praised,  and  is  not  cherished  (is  starved.) 

Virtus  semper  viridis,  virtue  is  ever  green 
and  blooming. 


LANGUAGE:  ITS  USE  AND  MISUSE. 


105 


Vis  inertice,  I,.,  the  power  of  inertia;  resist- 
ance. 

Vivat  regina!  I,.,  long  live  the  queen! 

Vivat  rex!  L,.,  long  live  the  king. 

Viva  voce,  I,.,  by  the  living  voice;  by  oral 
testimony. 

Vivat  respublica!  L.,  long  live  the  republic! 

Vive  la  republique!  F.,  long  live  the  repub- 
lic! 

Vive  V  empereur!  F.,  long  live  the  emperor! 

Vive  le  rot/  F.,  long  live  the  king! 

Voila,  F.,  behold;  there  is  or  there  are. 


Volens  etpotens,  I,.,  able  and  willing;  motto 
of  Nevada. 

Volente  Deo,  L.,  God  willing. 

Volenti  non  fit  injuria,  L,.,  no  injustice  is 
done  to  the  consenting  persons. 

Vox  et pr cetera  nihil,  L.,  a  voice  and  noth- 
ing more;  sound  without  sense. 

Vox  populi,  vox  Dei,  I,.,  the  voice  of  the 
people  is  the  voice  of  God. 

Vulgo,  Iy.,  commonly. 

Vultus  est  index  animi  I,., the  face  is  the 
index  of  the  mind. 


A    HANDFUL,    OF    USEFUL    ABBREVIATIONS. 
Abbreviations  are  devices  used  in  writing  and  printing  to  save  time 
and  space,  consisting  usually  of  curtailments  effected  in  words  and  syl- 
lables by  the  removal  of  some  letters,  often  of  the  whole  of  the  letters  ex- 
cept the  first.     The  following  is  a  list  of  the  more  important: 
A.B.,  artium  baccalaureus, bachelor  of  arts;  |  Co.,  company  or  county. 


able  seaman 

Abp.  archbishop. 

A.C.,  ante  Christum,  before  Christ. 

Ac.,  acre. 

Ace.,  Ac.,  or  Acct.,  account. 

A.D.,  anno  Domini,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord; 
used  also  as  equivalent  to  "after  Christ," 
or  "of  the  Christian  era." 

A.D.C.,  aide-de-camp. 

JEt.  or  ^3tat.,  cetatis  (anno^,  in  the  year  of 
his  age. 

A.H.,  anno  Hejirce,  in  the  year  of  the 
Hegira. 

A.M.,  ante  meridiem;  forenoon;  anno 
mundi,  in  the  year  of  the  world;  artium 
magister,  master  of  arts. 

Anon.,  anonymous. 

A.R.A.,  associate  of  Royal  Academy  (Lon- 
don). 

A.R.S.A.,  associate  of  the  Royal  Scottish 
Academy. 

A.U.C.,  ab  urbe  condita,  from  the  building 
of  Rome  (753  B-C.) 

A.V.,  authorized  version. 

B.  A.,  bachelor  of  arts. 

Bart.,  or  Bt.,  baronet. 

B.C.,  before  Christ. 

B.C.L.,  bachelor  of  civil  law. 

B.D.,  bachelor  of  divinity. 

B.L.,  bachelor  of  laws. 

B.M.,  bachelor  of  medicine. 

Bp.,  bishop. 

B.S.,  bachelor  of  surgery. 

B.Sc.,  bachelor  of  science. 

B.V.,  Blessed  Virgin. 

C.,  cap.,  or  chap.,  chapter. 

C.A.,  chartered  accountant. 

Cantab.,  Cantabrigiensis  of  Cambridge. 

Cantuar.,  Cantuariensis  of  Canterbury. 

C.B.,  companion  of  the  Bath. 

C.D.V.,  carte  de  visite. 

C.E.,  civil  engineer. 

Cf.,  confer,  compare. 

C.I.,  order  of  the  Crown  of  India. 

C.I.E.,  companion  of  the  Indian  Empire. 

C.J.,  chief-justice. 

C.M.,  chirurgicE  magister,  master  in  sur- 
gery; common  metre. 

C.M.G.,  companion  of  the  order  of  St. 
Michael  and  St.  George. 


C.O.D.,  cash  on  delivery. 

Cr.,  creditor. 

Crim.,  con.,  criminal  conversation. 

C.S.,  civil  service,  clerk  to  the  signet. 

C.S.I.,  companion  of  the  Star  of  India. 

Ct.,  Connecticut. 

Curt.,  current,  the  present  month. 

Cwt.,  hundredweight. 

d.,  denarius,  penny  or  pence. 

D.C.,  district  of  Columbia. 

D.C.L-,  doctor  of  civil  law. 

D.D.,  doctor  of  divinity. 

Del.,  delineavit,  drew  it. 

D.F.,  defender  of  the  faith. 

D.G.,  Dei  gratia,  by  the  grace  of  God. 

D.I,.,  deputy  lieutenants. 

D.Lit.,  doctor  of  literature. 

Do.,  ditto,  the  same. 

D.O.M.,  Deo  Optimo  Maximo,  to  God,  the 

best  and  greatest. 
Dr.,  doctor,  also  debtor. 
D.Sc.,  doctor  of  science. 
D.V.,  Deo  volente,  God  willing. 
Dwt.,  pennyweight. 
E.,  east. 

Ebor.,  Eboracensis,  of  York. 
E.G.,  established  church. 
E.E.,  errors  excepted. 
e.g.,  exempli  gratia,  for  example. 
E.I.,  East  Indies. 

Etc.,  or  &c.,  et  cetera,  and  the  rest. 
Exr.,  executor. 

F.,  or  Fahr.,  Fahrenheit's  thermometer. 
F.A.S.,  fellow  of 'the  Antiquarian  Society. 
F.C.,  Free  Church. 

T?.T>.,Jidei  defensor,  defender  of  the  faith. 
Pec.,  fecit,  he  made  or  did  it. 
F.G.S.,  fellow  of  the  Geological  Society. 
F.H.S.,  fellow  of  the  Horticultural  Society. 
Fl.,  nourished. 
Fla.,  Florida. 

F.L.S.,  fellow  of  the  Linnsean  Society. 
F.  M.,  field  marshal. 
F.O.B.,  free  on  board  (goods  delivered.) 
F.R.A.S.,  fellow  of  the  Royal  Astronomical 

(or  Asiatic)  Society. 
F.R.C.P.,   fellow  of  the  Royal  College  of 

Physicians. 
F.R.C.S.,   rellow  01  »ne  Jftoyal  College  of 

Surgeons. 


106 


MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 


F.R.G.S., fellow  of  the  Royal  Geographical 
Society. 

F.R.S.,  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 

F.R.S.E.,  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
Edinburgh. 

F.S.A.,  fellow  of  the  Society  of  Arts  or  Anti- 
quaries. 

F.S.S.,  fellow  of  the  Statistical  Society. 

Ft.,  foot  or  feet. 

F.Z.S.,  fellow  of  the  Zoological  Society . 

Ga.,  Georgia. 

Gal.,  gallon. 

G.C.B.,  grand  cross  of  the  Bath. 

G.C.M.G.,  grand  cross  of  St.  Michael  and 
St.  George. 

G. C.S.I.,  grand  commander  of  the  Star  of 
India. 

G.P.O.,  general  postoffice. 

H.B.M.,  his  or  her  Britannic  majesty. 

H.E.I.C.S.,  honorable  East  India  Com- 
pany's service. 

Hhd.,  hogshead. 

H.I.H.,  his  or  her  imperial  highness. 

H.M.S.,  his  or  her  majesty's  ship. 

Hon.,  honorable. 

H.R.,  house  of  representatives. 

H.R.,  his  (her)  royal  highness. 

H.S.H.,  his  (her)  serene  highness. 

la.,  Iowa. 

Ib.,  or  Ibid.,  ibidem,  in  the  same  place. 

Id.,  idem,  the  same. 

i.  e.,  id  est,,  that  is. 

-|-I.H.S.,  Jesus  homimim  salvator,  Jesus 
the  Saviour  of  men;  originally  it  was  IH2, 
the  first  three  letters  of  IH2O  Y2  (lesous) , 
Jesus. 

Incog.,  incognito,  unknown. 

Inf.,  infra,  below. 

I. N.R.I.,  lesusNazarenus  Rex  ludceorum, 
Jesus  of  Nazareth,  King  of  the  Jews. 

Inst.,  instant,  or  of  this  month;  institute. 

I.O.U.,  I  owe  you. 

i.q.,  idem  quod,  the  same  as. 

J. P.  ,justice  of  the  peace. 

Jr.,  junior. 

J.U.D.,  juris  utriusque  doctor,  doctor  both 
of  the  civil  and  the  canon  law. 

K.C.B.,  knight  commander  of  the  Bath. 

K.C.M.G.,  knight  commander  of  St.  Mich- 
ael and  St.  George. 

K.C.S.I.,  knight  commander  of  the  Star  of 
India. 

K.G.,  knight  of  the  Garter. 

K.G.C.B.,  knight  grand  cross  of  the  Bath. 

K.P.,  knight  of  St.  Patrick. 

K.T.,  knight  of  the  Thistle. 

Kt.,  or  Knt.,  knight. 

Ky.,  Kentucky. 

I/.,  1.,  or  £,  pound  sterling. 

L.A.,  literate  in  arts. 

Lai.,  latitude. 

L,b.,  or  ft.,  libra,  a  pound  (weight). 

L,.C.J.,  lord  chief-justice. 

L,dp.,  lordship. 

L.D.S.,  licentiate  in  dental  surgery. 

Lit.,  D.,  doctor  of  literature. 

L.L.,  Low  Latin. 

L.L.A.,  lady  literate  in  arts. 

LL.B.,  legum  baccalaureus,  bachelor  of 
laws. 

LL.D.,  legum  doctor,  doctor  of  laws  (that  is 
the  civil  and  the  canon  laws). 


LL.M.,  master  of  laws. 

Lon.,  or  Long.,  longitude. 

L.R.C.P.,  licentiate  Royal  College  of  Phy- 
sicians. 

L-R.C.S.,  licentiate  of  the  Royal  College  of 
Surgeons. 

L.S.A.,  licentiate  of  the  Society  of  Apothe- 
caries. 

L-S.D.,  libra,  solidi,  denarii,  pounds,  shil- 
lings, pence. 

M.A.,  master  of  arts. 

Mass.,  Massachusetts. 

M.B.,  medicines  baccalaureus .  bachelor  of 
medicine. 

M.C.,  member  of  congress;  master  in  sur- 
gery. 

M.D.,  medicines  doctor,  doctor  of  medicine. 

Md.,  Maryland. 

Me.,  Maine. 

M.E.,  mining  engineer;  Methodist  Episco- 
pal. 

Messrs.,  messieurs,  gentlemen. 

M  F.H.,  master  of  fox  hounds. 

M.I.C.E.,  member  of  the  Institute  of  Civil 
Engineers. 

Mile.,  mademoiselle. 

Mme.,  madame. 

Mo.,  Missouri. 

M.P.,  member  of  Parliament. 

M.R.C.S.,  member  of  the  Royal  College  of 
Surgeons. 

M.R.C.V.S., member  of  the  Royal  College  of 
Veterinary  Surgeons. 

M.R.I. A.,  member  of  the  Royal  Irish 
Academy. 

MS.,  manuscript;  MSS.,  manuscripts. 

Mus.   D.,  musiccs  doctor,  doctor  of  music. 

N.,  north. 

N.B.,  nota  bene,  take  notice;  also  North 
Britain,  New  Brunswick. 

N.C.,  Noith  Carolina. 

N.D.,  no  date. 

Nem.  con.,  nemine  contradicente,  no  one 
contradicting,  unanimously. 

N.H.,  New  Hampshire. 

N.J.,  New  Jersey. 

No.,  numero,  number. 

N.P.,  notary  public. 

N.S.,  new  style,  Nova  Scotia. 

N.S.W.,  New  South  Wales. 

N.T.,  New  Testament. 

N.Y.,  New  York. 

N.Z.,  New  Zealand. 

O.,  Ohio. 

Ob.,  obiit,  died. 

O.S.,  old  style. 

O.T.,  Old  Testament. 

Oxon.,  Oxoniensis,  of  Oxford. 

Oz.,  ounce  or  ounces. 

Pa.,  Pennsylvania. 

P  C.,  privy-councillor. 

P.E-,  Protestant  Episcopal. 

Per  cent,  per  centum  by  the  hundred. 

Ph.D.,  philosophies  doctor,  doctor  of  philos- 
ophy. 

Pinx.,  pinxit,  painted  it. 

P.M.,  post  meridiem,  afternoon. 

P.O.,  post-office. 

P.O.O.,  post-office  order. 

P.P.,  parish  priest. 

Pp.,  pages. 

P.P.C.,  pour prendre  conge,  to  take  leave. 


LANGUAGE:  ITS  USE  AND  MISUSE. 


107 


Prox.,  proximo  (mense),  next  month, 
P.S.,  postcript. 

e.,  question;  queen. 
.C.,  queen's  council. 
Q.E.D.,  quod  erat  demonstrandum,  which 

was  to  be  demonstrated. 
Q.E.F.,  quod  erat  faciendum,  which  was  to 
be  done. 

eu.,  query, 
uant.  sufF.,  quantum  sujftcit,  as  much  as 

is  needful. 

Q.  V.,  quod  vide,  which  see. 
R.,  rex  regina,  king,  queen. 
R.A.,  royal  academician;  royal  artillery. 
R.A.M.,  Royal  Academy  of  Music. 
R.C.,  Roman  Catholic. 
R.E.,  royal  engineers. 
Rev.,  reverend. 

R.H.A.,  Royal  Hibernian  Academician. 
R.I.,  Rhode  Island. 
R.I. P.,   requiescat  in  pace,    may  he  rest  in 

peace. 

R.M.,  royal  marine. 
R.N.,  royal  navy. 

R.S.A.,  royal  Scottish  academician. 
R.S.V.P.,  repondez,  s'il  vous  plait,  reply,  if 

you  please. 

Rt.,  Hon.,  right  honorable. 
Rt.,  Wpful.,  right  worshipful. 
R.V.,  revised  version. 
S.,  south. 
S  .  or  St.,  saint. 
S.C.,  South  Carolina. 


Sc.,  scilicet,  namely,  viz. 

S.J.,  Society  of  Jesus  (Jesuits). 

S.P.C.K.,  Society  for  promoting  Christian 

Knowledge. 
S.P.Q.R.,  senatus  populusque  Romanus,  the 

senate  and  people  of  Rome. 
S.S.C.,  solicitor  before  the  supreme  courts. 
St.,  saint,  street. 
S.T.D.,   sacrcz  theologies  doctor,   doctor  of 

divinity. 
S.T.P.,  sacra  theologies  professor,  professor 

of  divinity. 

T.C.D.,  Trinity  College,  Dublin. 
Ult.,  ultimo,  last. 
U.P.,  United  Presbyterian. 
U.S.,  United  States. 
U.S.A.,  United  States  of  America. 
U.S.N.,  United  States  navy. 
V.,  vide,  see;  also  versus,  against. 
Va.,  Virginia. 
V.C.,  Victoria  Cross. 
Viz.,  videlicet,  to  wit  or  namely. 
V.P.,  vice-president. 
V.S.,  veterinary  surgeon. 
Vt.,  Vermont. 
W.,  west. 
W.I.,  West  Indies. 
W.S.,  writer  to  the  signet. 
Xmas,  Christmas. 
In  LL.D.,  IvL.B.,  &c.,  the  letter  is  doubled, 

according  to  the  Roman  system,  to  show 

that  the  abbreviation  represents  a  plural 

noun^- 


STRAY   HINTS   FOR   WRITERS. 

That  writer  does  the  most  who  gives  his  reader  the  most  knowledge 
and  takes  from  him  the  least  time.  Sidney  Smith  once  remarked,  "After 
you  have  written  an  article,  take  your  pen  and  strike  out  half  of  the 
words,  and  you  will  be  surprised  to  see  how  much  stronger  it  is."  In 
literature,  our  taste  will  be  discovered  by  that  which  we  give  and  our 
judgment  by  that  which  we  withhold. 

There  is  nothing  so  fascinating  as  simplicity  and  earnestness.  A 
writer  who  has  an  object  and  goes  right  on  to  accomplish  it  will  compel 
the  attention  of  his  readers.  Montaigne,  the  celebrated  French  essayist, 
whose  clear  style,  as  well  as  vigor  of  thought,  has  been  the  praise  of 
good  critics  the  world  over,  made  his  boast  that  he  never  used  a  word 
that  could  not  be  readily  understood  by  anybody  in  the  Paris  markets. 
Plain  words  are  ever  the  best. 

A  man  cannot  put  his  thoughts,  if  he  have  any,  into  language  too 
plain.  Good  writing,  like  good  speaking,  consists  in  simplicity  and 
force  of  diction,  and  not  in  inflated,  curiously  balanced  or  elaborately 
constructed  sentences.  The  best  writing  is  but  a  degree  above  the  best 
conversation,  and  that  only  because  the  writer  has  a  little  more  time  to 
select  his  words  than  the  speaker  has. 

Do  not  assume  that,  because  you  have  something  important  to  com- 
municate, it  is  necessary  to  write  a  long  article.  A  tremendous  thought 
may  be  packed  into  a  small  compass— made  as  solid  as  a  cannon  ball, 
and,  like  the  projectile,  cut  down  all  before  it.  Short  articles  are  gener- 
ally more  effective,  find  more  readers  and  are  more  widely  copied  than 
long  ones.  Pack  your  thoughts  close  together,  and  though  your  article 
may  be  brief  it  will  be  more  likely  to  make  an  impression, 


108  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

Remember  all  the  time  that  facility  in  composition   as  in  all  other 
accomplishments,  can  only  be  obtained  by  practice  and  perseverance  — 
True  grace  in  writing  comes  by  art,  not  chance; 
As  they  move  easiest  who  have  learned  to  dance. 

It  should  never  be  forgotten  that  the  sole  use  of  words  and  sen- 
tences is  to  convey  thought  and  impression.  Hence  words  and  sentences 
should  not  be  seen.  The  highest  art  in  the  use  of  language  is  to  conceal 
itself.  The  old  maxim  is  in  place:  "Ars  est  celare  artem" — "Art  is  in 
concealing  art."  The  perfection  of  a  window  pane  is  in  concealing 
itself,  so  that  as  you  look  through  it  upon  the  objects  beyond  you  do  not 
see  it,  are  not  conscious  that  it  is  there. 

Many  a  man's  destiny  has  been  made  or  marred  for  time  and  for 
eternity  by  the  influence  which  a  single  sentiment  has  made  on  his  mind, 
by  its  forming  his  character  for  life,  making  it  terribly  true  that  mo- 
ments sometimes  fix  the  coloring  of  our  whole  subsequent  existence. 
Hence  those  who  write  for  the  public  should  do  so  under  a  deep  sense  of 
responsibility,  and  endeavor  to  do  it  in  that  healthful  and  equable  state 
of  mind  and  body  which  favors  a  clear,  unexaggerated  and  logical 
expression  of  ideas. 

Mr.  Webster  once  replied  to  a  gentleman  who  pressed  him  to  speak 
on  a  subject  of  great  importance:  "The  subject  interests  me  deeply,  but 
I  have  not  time.  There,  sir,"  pointing  to  a  huge  pile  of  letters  on  the 
table,  ' '  is  a  pile  of  unanswered  letters  to  which  I  must  reply  before  the 
close  of  this  session  (which  was  then  three  days  off),  I  have  no  time 
to  master  the  subject  so  as  to  do  it  justice."  "But,  Mr.  Webster,  a  few 
words  from  you  would  do  much  to  awaken  public  attention  to  it."  "  If 
there  is  so  much  weight  in  my  words  as  you  represent,  it  is  because  I  do 
not  allow  myself  to  speak  on  any  subject  until  my  mind  is  imbued 
with  it." 

The  writer  who  uses  weak  arguments  and  strong  epithets  makes 
quite  as  great  a  mistake  as  the  landlady  who  furnished  her  guests  with 
weak  tea  and  strong  butter.  More  people  commit  suicide  with  the  pen 
than  with  the  pistol,  the  dagger  and  the  rope.  A  pin  has  as  much  head 
as  a  good  many  authors,  and  a  great  deal  more  point.  Good  aims  do  not 
always  make  good  books. 

Alexander  Hamilton  once  said  to  an  intimate  friend:  "  Men  give  me 
some  credit  for  genius.  All  the  genius  I  have  lies  just  in  this:  When  I 
have  a  subject  in  hand,  I  study  it  profoundly.  Day  and  night  it  is  before 
me.  I  explore  it  in  all  its  bearings.  My  mind  becomes  pervaded  with 
it.  Then  the  effort  which  I  make  the  people  are  pleased  to  call  the  fruit 
of  genius.  It  is  the  fruit  of  labor  and  thought." 

Obscurity  in  writing  is  commonly  an  argument  of  darkness  in  the 
mind.  The  greatest  learning  is  to  be  seen  in  the  greatest  plainness. 
Obscure  writers,  like  turbid  streams,  seem  deeper  than  they  are.  Unin- 
telligible language  is  a  lantern  without  a  light.  Some  authors  write  non- 
sense in  a  clear  style,  and  others  sense  in  an  obscure  one;  some  can  rea- 
son without  being  able  to  persuade,  others  can  persuade  without  being 
able  to  reason. 

As  'tis  a  greater  mystery  in  the  art 
Of  painting  to  foreshorten  any  part 
Than  draw  it  out;  so  'tis  in  books  the  chief 
Of  all  perfections  to  be  plain  and  brief. 


POETRY  AND  GENERAL  LITERATURE. 


The  past  but  lives  in  words:  a  thousand  ages 
Were  blank,  if  books  had  not  evoked  their  ghosts, 
And  kept  the  pale,  unbodied  shades  to  warn  us 
From  neshless  lips. 

—  BULWER 

BOOKS,  AUTHORS    AND    TITLES. 

The  term  Bible  means  The  Book. 

Homer  is  called  the  "Father  of  poetry." 

Thackeray's  first  success  was  "Vanity  Fair." 

Even  Milton  stumbled  into  "mixed  metaphor." 

Boswell  has  been  termed  the  "prince  of  biographers. " 

Poems  giving  instruction  on  certain  subjects  are  called  didactic. 

The  last  six  books  of  Spenser's  "Faerie  Queene"  were  lost  at  sea. 

Roman  authors  all  dedicated  their  works  to  some  friend  or  patron. 

The  Early  English  Text  Society  made  its  first  publication  in  1864. 

The  authors  of  the  seventeenth  century  wrote  slavish  "dedications." 

The  oldest  book  extant,  Egyptian  papyrus,  is  assigned  to  2000  B.  C. 

"Read  much,  but  not  many  works,"  is  the  advice  of  Sir  \V.  Ham- 
ilton. 

A  man  may  play  the  fool  in  everything  else  but  poetry,  says  Mon- 
taigne. 

Mr.  W.  E.  Ellsworth,  of  Chicago,  paid  $14,800  for  a  Gutenberg  Bible 
in  1890. 

Only  two  odes  and  a  few  fragments  survive  of  all  the  great  lyrics  of 
Sappho. 

When   burned    in   640,   A.D.,    the   Alexandrian   library  had  700,000 
volumes. 

A  few  scattered  verses  are  all  that  remain  of  Ennius,  the  "father  of 
Roman  poetry." 

Books  in  their  present  form  were  invented  by  Attains,  king  of  Per- 
gamus,  in  887  B.C. 

A  rare  edition  of  Bocaccio  was  bought  by  the  Duke  of  Marlborough, 
in  1812,  for  $11, 500. 

The  German  government  has  paid  $50,000  for  a  missal  that  belonged 
to  Henry  VIII.  of  England. 

Sandys'  "Ovid,"  published  1626,  was  the  first  contribution  of  this 
country  to  English  literature. 

109 


110  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORM  A  TION. 

Pastoral  is  the  term  applied  to  the  poetry  and  literature  that  pro- 
fesses to  depict  shepherd  life. 

Novelists  make  funny  blunders.  Amelia  B.  Edwards  speaks  of  a 
"Massachusetts  cotton  plantation." 

John  Ruskin,  who  never  published  a  volume  of  poetry,  so-called,  is 
the  latest  poet-laureate  of  England. 

The  art  of  poetry  is  to  touch  the  passions,  says  Volta,  and  its  duty 
is  to  lead  them  on  the  side  of  virtue. 

The  term  biblioklept  is  a  euphemism  which  softens  the  ugly  word 
book-thief,  by  shrouding  it  in  Greek. 

Shelley  said  that  "poetry  is  the  record  of  the  best  and  happiest 
moments  of  the  happiest  and  best  minds." 

With  the  foundation  of  Harvard,  1636,  may  be  hailed  the  dawn  of 
literature  in  what  is  now  the  United  States. 

A  Turkish  name  for  the  nightingale  is  bul-bul,  and  it  has  been  in- 
troduced into  English  poetry  by  Byron  and  Moore. 

The  most  successful  instance  of  a  long-continued  literary  partner- 
ship, was  that  of  the  French  novelists,  Erckmann  and  Chatrian. 

America  has  given  to  the  English  language  its  most  scientific  gram- 
marian, lyindley  Murray,  and  its  greatest  lexicographer,  Noah  Webster. 

Wordsworth  defined  poetry  as  "the  breath  and  finer  spirit  of  all 
knowledge,  the  impassioned  expression  which  is  the  countenance  of  all 
science." 

It  is  generally  conceded  that  our  greatest  literary  production,  up  to 
date,  is  that  entitled,  "Declaration  of  Independence,"  1776,  by  Thomas 
Jefferson  and  "others." 

The  term  Barmecides  Feast  is  applied  to  an  imaginary  feast  which 
takes  its  name  from  the  story  of  the  barber's  sixth  brother  in  the  "Arabian 
Night's  Entertainment." 

It  is  manifest,  says  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  that  all  government  of  action 
is  to  be  gotten  by  knowledge,  and  knowledge  best,  by  gathering  many 
knowledges,  which  is  reading. 

Alastor  is  the  name  ol  the  mythical  house -demon,  the  "skeleton  in 
the  closet, ' '  which  haunts  and  torments  a  family.  Shelley  has  a  poem 
entitled  Alastor,  or  the  Spirit  of  Solitude. 

Chap  books  were  small  stitched  tracts  written  in  popular  style  and 
sold  by  the  chapmen.  The  chap  books  of  the  seventeenth  century  are 
valuable  illustrations  of  the  manners  of  that  time. 

The  first  English  newspaper  was  the  English  Mercury,  begun  in  the 
reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  was  issued  in  the  shape  of  a  pamphlet.  The 
Gazette  of  Venice  was  the  original  model  of  the  modern  newspaper. 

Columbine  is  the  female  mask  of  theltalian  improvised  plays,  variously 
figuring  as  the  attendant  of  Pantaloon's  daughter,  or,  occasionally,  as 
the  daughter  herself.  In  English  pantomime  plays  she  is  the  betrothed 
of  Harlequin. 

Cinque  Cento  is  an  Italian  contraction  for  "one  thousand  five  hun- 
dred" and  a  current  term  for  the  style  in  art  and  literature,  which  arose 
in  Italy  about  or  after  the  year  1500.  It  thus  represents  the  revival  of 
classical  taste. 


POE  TR  Y  AND  GENERAL  LITER  A  TURE.  Ill 

The  so-called  Aldine  Editions  were  works  from  the  press  of  Aldus 
Manutius,  at  Venice,  celebrated  for  their  binding  and  beautiful  types. 
Many  first  editions  of  the  Greek  and  Latin,  as  well  as  Italian  classics, 
were  printed  by  Aldus. 

Denouement,  a  French  term  naturalized  in  this  country,  is  applied 
generally  to  the  termination  or  catastrophe  of  a  play  or  romance;  but, 
more  strictly  speaking,  to  the  train  of  circumstances  solving  the  plot  and 
hastening  the  catastrophe. 

The  newspapers  of  India  are  published  in  many  languages,  and  it 
is  said  that  those  in  the  native  tongues  are  more  widely  circulated  and 
read,  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  copies  printed,  than  is  the  case 
anywhere  else  in  the  world. 

The  oldest  newspaper  in  the  world  is  said  to  be  the  British  Press, 
which  was  first  issued  in  1662  and  has  just  celebrated  its  231st  birthday. 
Three  years  later  the  London  Gazette  appeared,  being  published  at  Ox- 
ford on  account  of  the  plague  in  London. 

The  troubadours  were  the  minstrels  of  Southern  France  in  the 
eleventh,  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries.  They  were  the  first  to  discard 
Latin  and  use  the  native  tongue  in  their  compositions.  Their  poetry  was 
either  about  love  and  gallantry  or  war  and  chivalry. 

The  Capulets  and  Montagues  were  two  noble  families  of  Verona, 
whose  feuds  have  been  rendered  familiar  by  Shakspeare's  tragedy  of 
"Romeo  and  Juliet."  Dante  in  his  "Purgatorio"  (VI.)  alludes  to  the  same. 
The  story  of  Romeo  and  Juliet  forms  one  of  Bandello's  famous  tales. 

Saga  (Icel.  "a  tale")  is  the  term  applied  to  a  heroic  tale  among 
the  Scandinavian  nations,  especially  the  Icelanders.  The  old  literature 
of  Iceland  is  rich  in  Sagas,  supposed  to  have  been  committed  to  writ- 
ing about  the  twelfth  century.  Some  of  the  Sagas  have  been  trans- 
lated into  English. 

The  Trouveres  were  the  minstrels  of  the  north  of  France  in  the 
twelfth,  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries.  The  language  they  em- 
ployed was  the  "Walloon"  or  "Langue  d'oil."  The  themes  they  sang 
were  satires  and  romances,  tales  of  knavery  and  adventure,  legends  and 
historical  traditions. 

There  are  753  periodicals  and  newspapers  in  Russia,  which  contains 
a  population  of  one  hundred  millions.  According  to  the  statistics  of 
1892  there  were  19,573  in  this  country,  and  a  population  of  say  sixty-five 
millions.  The  newspapers  in  Russia,  however,  are  misnamed.  They 
dare  not  print  the  news. 

The  artistic  representation  in  continuous  narrative  of  the  life  and 
character  of  a  particular  individual  is  called  a  Biography.  It  may  be 
either  a  mere  curriculum  vitce,  detailing  only  the  historical  sequence  of 
the  incidents  of  a  man's  life,  or  it  may  be  an  elaborate  attempt  at  an 
analysis  of  his  character  and  a  complete  reconstruction  of  the  whole 
motives  of  his  actions. 

Biblical  students  take  much  interest  in  "Bel  and  the  Dragon,"  an 
apocryphal  book  of  the  Old  Testament  in  which  the  writer  aims  to  warn 
some  of  his  brethren  against  the  sin  of  idolatry.  Appearing  first  in  the 
Septuagint,  there  is  no  evidence  that  it  was  ever  accepted  by  the  Jews  as 
inspired.  Jerome  considered  it  a  fable,  but  the  Council  of  Trent  declared 
the  book  canonical  in  1546. 


112  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

The  Ancient  Mariner  is  the  hero  of  a  poem  by  Coleridge.  For  the 
crime  of  having  shot  an  albatross  (a  bird  of  good  omen  to  seamen),  terri- 
ble sufferings  are  visited  upon  him,  which  are  finally  remitted  through 
his  repentance;  but  he  is  doomed  to  wander  over  the  earth,  and  to  repeat 
his  story  to  others  as  a  warning  lesson. 

Aladdin  is  the  name  of  the  hero  of  one  of  the  tales  of  the  "  Arabian 
Nights."  He  is  presented  with  a  "wonderful  lamp, "  the  genius  of 
which  appears  whenever  desired,  and  performs  miraculous  services.  By 
means  of  this  lamp  Aladdin  explores  a  vast  cave,  obtains  enormous 
wealth,  and  marries  the  daughter  of  the  Sultan. 

Tennyson's  beautiful  poem,  "Enoch  Arden,"  has  an  interesting  plot. 
The  hero  is  a  seaman  wrecked  on  a  desert  island,  who  returns  home  after 
the  absence  of  several  years,  and  finds  his  wife  married  to  another. 
Seeing  her  both  happy  and  prosperous,  Enoch  resolves  not  to  mar  her 
domestic  peace,  so  he  leaves  her  undisturbed,  and  dies  of  a  broken  heart. 

A  club  was  organized  at  Venice  in  1400,  by  some  ladies  and  gentle- 
men who  wore  blue  stockings,  and  thus  came  to  be  known  as  the  Blue 
Stocking  club.  It  appeared  in  France  in  1590  as  the  has  bleu,  and  in 
1780  was  transported  to  England.  The  name  "blue  stocking"  is  still 
given  to  women  who  are  vain  and  pedantic  at  the  expense  of  womanly 
duty  and  grace. 

Grub  Street  is  thus  described  in  Dr.  Johnson's  "Dictionary":  "Origi- 
nally the  name  of  a  street  near  Moorfields  in  London,  much  inhabited 
by  writers  of  small  histories,  dictionaries  and  temporary  poems,  whence 
any  mean  production  is  called  Grub-street. ' '  Andrew  Marvell  used  the 
name  in  its  opprobrious  sense,  which  later  was  freely  used  by  Pope, 
Swift  and  the  rest. 

Any  two  lines  which  rhyme  together  may  be  called  a  couplet;  but 
the  term  is  more  frequently  used  to  denote  two  lines  which  contain  the 
complete  expression  of  an  idea.  Pope,  as  has  been  said,  reasons  in  coup- 
lets. For  example: 

'Tis  with  pur  judgments  as  our  watches,  none 
Go  just  alike,  yet  each  believes  his  own. 

A  Madrigal  is  a  short  lyric  poem,  generally  on  the  subject  of  love, 
and  characterized  by  some  epigrammatic  terseness  or  quaintness.  It  was 
written,  as  a  rule,  in  iambic  meter,  contained  not  less  than  ^ix  or  more 
than  thirteen  lines,  and  ran  chiefly  upon  three  rhymes.  The  name  is  also 
applied  to  the  music  for  a  simple  song  sung  in  a  rich,  artistic  style,  but 
without  musical  accompaniment. 

The  term  Black  Letter  (JSlacfc  XcttCt)  came  into  use  about  1600,  and 
is  now  applied  to  the  types  that  are  most  generally  known  as  Gothic. 
The  first  printed  books  imitated  every  peculiarity  of  the  contemporary 
manuscripts;  and  as  printing  was  first  practised  in  Germany  and  the 
Netherlands,  the  first  types  were  copies  of  the  letters  in  use  in  those 
countries  in  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century. 

The  art  of  foretelling  the  future  by  opening  the  Bible  at  random,  and 
placing  the  finger  on  a  chance  passage,  which  is  supposed  to  apply  to  the 
person  pointing  to  it,  is  called  Bibliomancy.  In  the  fifth  century  its  use 
was  prohibited  by  the  Council  of  Vannes,  and  again  in  the  sixth  century 
by  the  Councils  of  Agde  and  Orleans.  It  is  said  to  have  been  introduced 
into  England  after  the  Norman  Conquest.  It  is  referred  to  by  Tennyson 
in  Enoch  Arden. 


POETRY  AND  GENERAL  LITERATURE.  113 

The  Minnesingers  were  love-poets,  contemporary  in  Germany  with 
the  House  of  Hohenstauffen.  Though  called  love-singers  some  of  their 
poems  were  national  ballads,  and  some  were  extended  romances.  Walter 
of  Vogelweide  was  by  far  the  best  of  the  lyrists;  Heinrich  of  Veldig  was 
the  most  naive  and  ingenuous;  Hartman  the  most  classical;  Wolfram  the 
most  sublime,  and  Gottfried  the  most  licentious. 

The  original  "Maid  of  Athens,"  rendered  famous  by  Byron's  song, 
"Maid  of  Athens,  fare  thee  well!"  was  Theresa  Macri.  Twenty-four  years 
after  this  song  was  written,  an  Englishman  sought  out  "the  Athenian 
maid,"  and  found  a  beggar  without  a  single  vestige  of  beauty.  She  was 
married  and  had  a  large  family;  but  the  struggle  of  her  life  was  to  find 
bread  to  keep  herself  and  family  from  positive  starvation. 

The  expressive  title  of  Lyric  has  been  given  to  a  certain  species  of 
poetry  because  originally  accompanied  by  the  music  of  the  lyre.  It  is 
rapid  in  movement,  as  befitting  the  expression  of  the  mind  in  its  emo- 
tional and  impassioned  moments,  and  naturally  its  principal  themes  are 
love,  devotion,  patriotism,  friendship,  and  the  Bacchanalian  spirit.  It 
was  a  favorite  form  among  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans. 

The  Iliad  is  the  tale  of  the  siege  of  Troy,  an  epic  poem  in  twenty- 
four  books,  by  Homer.  Menelaos,  king  of  Sparta,  received  as  a  guest 
Paris,  a  son  of  Priam,  king  of  Troy.  Paris  eloped  with  Helen,  his  host's 
wife,  and  Menelaos  induced  the  Greeks  to  lay  siege  to  Troy,  to  avenge 
the  perfidy.  The  siege  lasted  ten  years,  when  Troy  was  taken  and  burnt 
to  the  ground.  Homer's  poem  is  confined  to  the  last  year  of  the  siege. 

Verse  without  rhyme  is  called  "blank"  verse.  The  term  is  especi- 
ally applied  to  the  heroic  verse  used  in  English  dramatic  and  epic  poetry, 
unrhymed  iambic  pentameter.  Milton's  Paradise  Lost  is  a  most  notable 
example.  The  name  is  applied  more  widely  to  unrhymed  lines,  irre- 
spective of  their  length,  from  such  examples  as  the  "Hiawatha"  of  Long- 
fellow, which  contains  eight  syllables  in  its  lines,  to  his  "Evangeline," 
which  has  as  many  as  sixteen  or  even  more. 

Cinderella  is  the  heroine  of  a  fairy  tale.  She  was  the  drudge  of  the 
house,  "put  upon"  by  her  two  elder  sisters.  While  the  elder  sisters  were 
at  a  ball,  a  fairy  came,  and  having  arrayed  the  "little  cinder-girl"  in  ball 
costume,  sent  her  in  a  magnificent  coach  to  the  palace  where  the  ball 
was  given.  The  prince  fell  in  love  with  her,  but  knew  not  who  she  was. 
This,  however,  he  discovered  by  means  of  a  "glass  slipper"  which  she 
dropped,  and  which  fitted  no  foot  but  her  own. 

Famed  in  song  and  story  is  the  Lorelei,  or  Lurlei,  a  rock  which 
rises  perpendicularly  from  the  Rhine,  to  the  height  of  four  hundred  and 
twenty-seven  feet,  near  St.  Goar.  It  used  to  be  dangerous  to  boatmen, 
and  has  a  celebrated  echo.  But  the  name  is  best  known  from  Heine's 
song  of  the  siren  who  sits  on  the  rock  combing  her  long  tresses,  and 
singing  so  ravishingly  that  the  boatmen,  enchanted  by  the  music  of  her 
voice,  forget  their  duty,  and  are  drawn  upon  the  rock  and  perish. 

All  Baba  was  a  poor  Persian  wood-carrier,  who  accidentally  learned 
the  magic  words,  "Open  Sesame!"  "Shut  Sesame!"  by  which  he  gained 
entrance  into  a  vast  cavern,  the  repository  of  stolen  wealth  and  the  lair 
of  forty  thieves.  He  made  himself  rich  by  plundering  from  these  stores; 
and  by  the  shrewd  cunning  of  Morgiana,  his  female  slave,  the  captain  and 
his  whole  band  of  thieves  were  extirpated.  In  reward  of  these  services 
AH  Baba  gave  Morgiana  her  freedom,  and  married  her  to  his  own  son. 

U.  I.-8 


114  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

The  venerable  story  of  "Beauty  and  the  Beast,"  from  Les  Contes 
Marines  of  Mde.  Villeneuve  (1740),  is  perhaps  the  most  beautiful  of  all 
nursery  tales.  A  young  and  lovely  woman  saved  her  father  by  putting 
herself  in  the  power  of  a  frightful  but  kind-hearted  monster,  whose  re- 
spectful affection  and  melancholy  overcame  her  aversion  to  his  ugliness, 
and  she  consented  to  become  his  bride.  Being  thus  freed  from  enchant- 
ment, the  monster  assumed  his  proper  form  and  became  a  young  and 
handsome  prince. 

Gil  Bias  was  the  son  of  Bias  of  Santillane,  'squire  or  "  escudero  "  to 
a  lady,  and  brought  up  by  his  uncle,  Canon  Gil  Peres.  Gil  Bias  went  to 
Dr.  Godinez's  school,  of  Oviedo,  and  obtained  the  reputation  of  being  a 
great  scholar.  He  had  fair  abilities,  a  kind  heart  and  good  inclinations, 
but  was  easily  led  astray  by  his  vanity.  He  was  full  of  wit  and  humor, 
but  lax  in  his  morals.  Duped  by  others  at  first,  he  afterwards  played 
the  same  devices  on  those  less  experienced.  As  he  grew  in  years,  how- 
ever, his  conduct  improved,  and  when  his  fortune  was  made  he  became 
an  honest,  steady  man. 

A  daily  record  of  events  or  observations  made  by  an  individual  is 
known  as  a  diary.  In  it  the  man  of  letters  inscribes  the  daily  results  of 
his  reading  or  his  meditations.  Pepy's  diary  is  a  notable  example.  In  it 
we  find  a  mirror  of  the  life  of  the  seventeenth  century  in  England.  To 
the  mercantile  man  it  serves  the  purpose  of  an  order  or  memorandum 
book ;  while  the  physician  finds  it  i  ndispensable  as  a  register  of  engage- 
ments. Diaries  in  many  forms  and  sizes  are  issued  every  year,  contain- 
ing also  so  much  miscellaneous  information  that  in  one  book  we  have  at 
once  a  diary  and  an  almanac. 

The  "Sturm  und  Drang  Period"  of  German  literature  extended  from 
1750  to  1800,  and  was  the  volcanic  era,  when  French  and  Latin  were 
banished  from  the  language,  and  German  was  left  unadulterated.  The 
Sturm  und  Drang  period  of  life  is  between  twenty  and  twenty-five,  all 
enthusiasm  and  cram  full  of  radical  reform.  All  abuses  are  to  be  swept 
away,  and  a  Utopian  millennium  is  to  be  introduced.  So  in  this  literary 
period  the  language  was  to  be  purified,  and  German  literature  was  to  be 
made  the  model  literature  of  the  world.  Old  things  were  to  be  done 
away,  and  all  things  to  become  new. 

The  famous  letters  of  Junius  were  a  series  of  political  letters  signed 
"Junius,"  dissecting  the  conduct  and  characters  of  British  public  men — 
the  Duke  of  Grafton,  the  Duke  of  Bedford,  Lord  Mansfield,  and  others, 
not  excepting  the  King  himself.  These  letters  caused  the  utmost  con- 
sternation amongst  the  ministry,  and  were  immensely  popular  for  their 
caustic  satire,  just  censure,  clear  reasoning,  their  great  knowledge  of  the 
secret  government  movements,  and  the  brilliancy  of  their  style.  It  is 
not  known  who  was  the  author  of  these  letters,  but  perhaps  the  most 
weighty  evidence  points  to  Sir  Philip  Francis. 

Among  the  weird  creations  of  German  folk-lore  is  Frankenstein,  a 
student,  who  constructed,  out  of  the  fragments  of  bodies  picked  from 
churchyards  and  dissecting-rooms,  a  human  form  without  a  soul.  The 
monster  had  muscular  strength,  animal  passions  and  active  life,  but  "no 
breath  of  divinity."  It  longed  for  animal  love  and  animal  sympathy, 
but  was  shunned  by  all.  It  was  most  powerful  for  evil,  and  being  fully 
conscious  of  its  own  defects  and  deformities,  sought  with  persistency  to 
inflict  retribution  on  the  young  student  who  had  called  it  into  being. 
The  idea  is  powerfully  embodied  in  Mrs.  Shelley's  "  Frankenstein." 


POETRY  AND  GENERAL  LITERATURE.  115 

"Nowhere"  is  the  name  given  by  Sir  Thomas  More  to  the  imaginary 
island  which  he  makes  the  scene  of  his  famous  political  romance  "Uto- 
pia." More  represents  this  island  as  having  been  discovered  by  Raphael 
Hythloday,  a  companion  of  Amerigo  Vespucci,  but  it  of  course  is  England, 
its  capital,  Amaurote,  London.  Its  laws  and  institutions  are  represented 
as  described  in  one  afternoon's  talk  at  Antwerp,  occupying  the  whole  of 
the  second  book,  to  which,  indeed,  the  first  serves  but  as  a  framework. 
More's  romance  has  supplied  (though  incorrectly  enough)  the  epithet 
Utopian  to  all  impracticable  schemes  for  the  improvement  of  society. 

The  Fiery  Cross  was  a  blazing  torch  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  carried 
from  hill  to  hill  to  summon  the  clans  to  battle.  Sir  Walter  Scott  speaks 
of  it  in  "The  Lady  of  the  Lake."  He  says  the  chaplain  slew  a  goat,  and 
dipped  the  cross  in  its  blood.  It  was  then  delivered  to  a  swift  runner, 
who  ran  with  all  his  speed  to  the  next  hamlet,  where  he  presented  it  to 
the  principal  person,  who  was  bound  to  send  it  on.  Every  man,  from 
sixteen  to  sixty  years  of  age,  was  expected  instantly  to  repair  fully 
equipped  for  war  to  the  place  of  rendezvous  on  pain  of  "fire  and  sword." 
In  the  English  civil  war  of  1745-46  the  Fiery  Cross  was  sent  round  thus. 

A  passion  for  the  collection  of  rare  or  curious  books,  originating  in 
Holland,  but  attaining  its  highest  point  in  France  and  England,  has  been 
well  called  Bibliomania.  In  its  nobler  aspect  Andrew  Lang  has  defined 
bibliomania  as  the  "love  of  books  for  their  own  sake,  for  their  paper,  print, 
binding,  and  for  their  associations,  as  distinct  from  the  love  of  literature." 
Most  extravagant  prices  have  been  paid  by  collectors.  Bernard  Quaritch 
has  the  credit  of  having  paid  the  largest  sum  recorded  for  a  single  vol- 
ume, $24,750  for  Psalmorum  Codex:  (folio  1459).  The  first  dated  Decam- 
eron brought  $11,300,  and  the  Mazarin  Bible,  the  first  printed  Bible, 
brought  $19,500. 

The  ./Eneid,  Virgil's  epic  poem,  is  contained  in  twelve  books.  When 
Troy  was  taken  by  the  Greeks  and  set  on  fire,  ^Eneas,  with  his  father, 
son  and  wife,  took  flight,  with  the  intention  of  going  to  Italy,  the  original 
birthplace  of  the  family.  The  wife  was  lost,  and  the  old  man  died  on  the 
way;  but  after  numerous  perils  by  sea  and  land,  ^Eneas  and  his  son  Asca- 
nius  reached  Italy.  Here  Latinus,  the  reigning  king,  received  the  exiles 
hospitably,  and  promised  his  daughter  Lavinia  in  marriage  to  ^neas; 
but  she  had  been  already  betrothed  by  her  mother  to  prince  Turnus,  son 
of  Daunus,  king  of  Rutuli,  and  Turnus  would  not  forego  his  claim.  Lat- 
inus, in  this  dilemma,  said  the  rivals  must  settle  the  dispute  by  an  appeal 
to  arms.  Turnus  being  slain,  ^neas  married  Lavinia,  and  ere  long 
succeeded  his  father-in-law  on  the  throne. 

Petrarch  appears  to  have  been  the  first  of  modern  poets  crowned 
with  laurel,  1341.  Warton  shows  there  were  royal  poets  about  the  Eng- 
lish kings  before  the  time  of  Richard  I.,  whose  court  poet,  Blondel,  is 
said  to  have  discovered  the  place  of  the  king's  captivity  and  to  have 
been  the  means  of  his  release.  Chaucer  as  royal  poet  was  allowed  a 
gallon  of  wine  a  day,  and  before  that  time  a  harper  to  Henry  III.  had  an 
allowance  of  wine.  Charles  I.  in  1630  made  the  office  patent  and  settled 
both  a  stipend  and  wine  on  the  '  'laureate. ' '  Till  Tennyson  was  made  poet 
the  stipend  was  $635  plus  $135  for  the  purchase  of  a  cask  of  canary.  The 
term  arose  thus:  the  king  chose  a  laureated  student  of  Oxford  or  Cam- 
bridge, that  is,  a  student  to  whom  a  laurel  crown  had  been  presented  for 
the  best  Latin  ode  in  praise  of  Alma  Mater.  In  France  crowning  with 
laurels  is  continued  still. 


116  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

John  Alden  was  one  of  the  early  Pilgrim  settlers  in  love  with  Pris- 
cilia,  the  beautiful  Puritan.  Miles  Standish,  a  bluff  old  soldier,  wishing 
to  marry  Priscilla,  asked  John  Alden  to  go  and  plead  for  him;  but  the 
maiden  answered  archly,  "Why  don't  you  speak  for  yourself,  John." 
Soon  after  this,  Standish  being  reported  killed  by  a  poisoned  arrow,  John 
spoke  for  himself,  and  the  maiden  consented.  Standish,  however,  was 
not  killed,  but  only  wounded;  he  made  his  re-appearance  at  the  wedding, 
where,  seeing  how  matters  stood,  he  accepted  the  situation  with  the  good 
natured  remark- 

If  you  would  be  served  you  must  serve  yourself;  and  moreover 
No  man  can  gather  cherries  in  Kent  at  the  season  of  Christmas. 

Longfellow,  Courtship  of  Miles  Standish,  ix. 

The  Harleian  MSS.  were  a  collection  of  MSS.  formed  by  Robert 
Harley,  Earl  of  Oxford  (1661-1725),  and  purchased  by  government  in 
1754  of  the  Duchess  of  Portland  (his  granddaughter)  for  $50,000.  There 
are  14, 236  original  rolls,  charters  and  other  deeds,  besides  7,639  volumes. 
The  collection  is  very  miscellaneous,  but  its  main  character  is  historical. 
It  is  rich  in  heraldic  and  genealogical  MSS.,  in  county  visitations,  par- 
liamentary and  legal  proceedings,  original  records  and  calendars,  abbey 
registers,  missals,  antiphonaries,  and  other  Catholic  service  -  books, 
ancient  English  poetry,  and  works  on  arts  and  sciences.  It  is  kept  in 
the  British  Museum  library.  It  also  contains  the  oldest  known  MS.  of 
Homer's  "  Odyssey,"  two  very  early  copies  of  the  Latin  Gospels  in  gold 
letters,  300  MS.  Bibles  or  Biblical  books,  200  volumes  of  the  Fathers,  etc. 

"Gesta  Romanorum"  ("  the  deeds  of  the  Romans"),  is  the  title  of  a 
collection  of  short  stories  and  legends,  in  the  Latin  tongue,  widely  spread 
during  the  middle  ages,  but  of  the  authorship  of  which  little  is  known 
save  that  it  took  its  present  form  most  likely  in  England  about  the  end 
of  the  thirteenth  or  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century.  The  stories 
are  invariably  moralized,  and  indeed  the  edifying  purpose  throughout  is 
the  sole  unifying  element  of  the  collection.  The  title  is  only  so  far  de- 
scriptive as  the  nucleus  of  the  collection  consists  of  stories  from  Roman 
history,  or  rather  pieces  from  Roman  writers,  not  necessarily  of  any 
greater  historical  value  than  that  of  Androcles  and  the  lion  from  Aulus 
Gellius.  Moralized,  mystical  and  religious  tales,  as  well  as  other  pieces, 
many  of  ultimate  oriental  origin,  were  afterwards  added,  and  upon  them 
edifying  conclusions  hung  but  awkwardly,  bringing  the  whole  up  to 
about  one  hundred  and  eighty  chapters. 

Excalibur  was  the  name  of  the  famous  mystic  sword  of  King  Arthur. 
There  seem  to  have  been  two  swords  so  called.  One  was  the  sword 
sheathed  in  stone,  which  no  one  could  draw  thence,  save  he  who  was  to 
be  king  of  the  land.  Above  two  hundred  knights  tried  to  release  it, 
but  failed;  Arthur  alone  could  draw  it  with  ease,  and  thus  proved  his 
right  of  succession.  This  sword  is  called  Excalibur,  and  is  said  to  have 
been  so  bright  "that  it  gave  light  like  thirty  torches. "  After  his  fight 
with  Pellinore  the  king  told  Merlin  he  had  no  sword,  and  Merlin 
took  him  to  a  lake,  and  Arthur  saw  an  arm  "clothed  in  white  samite, 
tliat  held  a  fair  sword  in  the  hand,"  Presently  the  Lady  of  the  Lake 
appeared,  and  Arthur  begged  that  he  might  have  the  sword,  and  the  lady 
told  him  to  go  and  fetch  it.  When  he  came  back  to  it  he  took  it,  "and 
the  arm  and  hand  went  under  the  water  again."  This  is  the  sword  gen- 
erally called  Excalibur.  When  about  to  die,  King  Arthur  sent  an  attend- 
ant to  cast  the  sword  back  again  into  the  lake,  and  again  the  hand 
"clothed  in  white  samite"  appeared,  caught  it,  and  disappeared. 


POETRY  AND  GENERAL  LITERATURE.  117 

Lady  Godiva  is  the  famous  patroness  of  Coventry,  England,  who 
built  herself  an  everlasting  name  by  an  unexampled  deed  of  magnanim- 
ity and  devotion.  About  the  year  1040  Leofric,  Earl  of  Mercia  and  Lord 
of  Coventry,  imposed  certain  exactions  upon  the  inhabitants  Lard  and 
grievous  to  be  borne.  His  wife,  the  lady  Godiva,  besought  her  husband 
to  give  them  relief,  and  pleaded  so  earnestly  that,  to  escape  from  her  im- 
portunities, he  would  grant  her  the  favor,  but  only  on  the  impossible 
condition  that  she  would  ride  naked  through  the  town.  Godiva  ordered 
proclamation  to  be  made  that  on  a  certain  day  no  one  should  be  in  the 
streets,  or  even  look  from  their  houses,  when,  "clothed  on  with  chastity," 
she  rode  through  the  town;  and  her  husband,  in  admiration  of  her  intrepid 
devotion,  performed  his  promise.  Tennyson's  poem,  "Godiva,"  is  well 
known. 

Byron's  tale  called  "The  Giaour"  is  supposed  to  be  told  by  a  Turkish 
fisherman  who  had  been  employed  all  the  day  in  the  gulf  of  ^Egina,  and 
landed  his  boat  at  night- fall  on  the  Piraeus,  now  called  the  harbor  of  Port 
Leone.  He  was  eye-witness  of  all  the  incidents,  and  in  one  of  them  a 

principal  agent  (see  line  352:   "I  hear  the  sound  of  coming  feet ".) 

The  tale  is  this:  Leilah,  the  beautiful  concubine  of  the  caliph  Hassan, 
falls  in  love  with  a  giaour,  flees  from  the  seraglio,  is  overtaken  by  an 
emir,  put  to  death,  and  cast  into  the  sea.  The  giaour  cleaves  Hassan's 
skull,  flees  for  his  life,  and  becomes  a  monk.  Six  years  afterwards  he 
tells  his  history  to  his  father  confessor  on  his  death-bed,  and  prays  hi«n 
to  "lay  his  body  with  the  humblest  dead,  and  not  even  to  inscribe  his 
name  on  his  tomb."  Accordingly,  he  is  called  "the  Giaour,"  and  is 
known  by  no  other  name  (1813). 

El  Dorado  (" the  Golden  or  Gilded  Land"),  originally  existed  but 
vaguely  in  the  imaginations  of  the  Spanish  conquerors  of  America, 
whose  insatiable  avarice,  feeding  greedily  on  the  marvellous  accounts 
readily  supplied  by  the  natives — who  were  only  anxious  to  get  rid  of  their 
robber-guests— loved  to  dream  of  richer  rewards  than  those  of  Mexico 
and  Peru.  But  after  Orellana's  voyage  down  the  Amazon,  in  1540,  the 
report  was  greatly  embellished,  and  the  locality  of  the  fabulous  region 
placed  near  the  head  springs  of  the  Orinoco.  Many  a  soldier  of  fortune 
perished  in  the  search,  many  a  brave  troop  of  adventurers  brought  but  a 
fraction  of  their  number  back,  before  the  vast  Lake  of  Parime,  with 
Manoa,  the  city  of  gold,  on  its  northern  shore,  was  reluctantly  relegated 
to  the  atlas  of  the  poets.  The  most  famous  expeditious  were  those  of 
Philip  von  Hutten  (1541-46)  and  Sir  Walter  Raleigh;  the  last  was  that  of 
Antonio  Santos,  in  1780. 

Every  land  and  age  has  heard  of  Bluebeard,  the  hero  of  the  well-known 
nursery  tale,  so  named  from  the  color  of  his  beard.  The  story  is  widely 
known  in  Western  Europe,  but  the  form  in  which  it  has  become  familiar 
is  not  an  independent  version,  but  a  free  translation  of  that  given  by  Per- 
rault  in  his  famous  "  Contes  "  (1697).  In  this  story  Bluebeard  is  a  seigneur 
of  great  wealth,  who  marries  the  daughter  of  a  neighbor  in  the  country, 
and  a  month  after  the  wedding  goes  from  home  on  a  journey  leaving 
his  wife  the  keys  of  his  castle,  but  forbidding  her  to  enter  one  room. 
She  cannot  resist  her  curiosity,  opens  the  door  to  find  the  bodies  of  all 
Bluebeard's  former  wives,  and  at  once  sees  the  fate  to  which  she  herself 
is  doomed.  Bluebeard,  on  his  return,  discovers,  from  a  spot  of  blood 
upon  the  key,  wThich  could  not  be  cleaned  off,  that  his  wife  had  broken 
his  command,  and  tells  her  that  she  must  die.  She  begs  for  a  short 


118  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

respite  to  commend  herself  to  God,  sends  her  sister  Anne  to  the  top  of 
the  tower  to  look  round  if  any  help  is  near,  and  finally  is  just  on  the 
point  o<~  having  her  head  cut  off,  when  her  two  brothers  burst  in  and 
despatcn  Rjuebeard.  There  are  many  versions  of  the  story,  all  agreeing 
in  essential  details.  It  is  found  in  the  German,  French,  Greek,  Tuscan, 
Icelandic,  Bsthonian,  Gaelic  and  Basque  folk-lore. 

Few  but  have  read  somewhat  of  the  Flying  Dutchman,  a  phantom 
ship,  seen  in  stormy  weather  off  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  thought  to 
forebode  ill-luck.  The  legend  is  that  it  was  a  vessel  laden  with  precious 
metal,  but  a  horrible  murder  having  been  committed  on  board,  the 
plague  broke  out  among  the  crew,  and  no  port  would  allow  the  ship  to 
enter,  so  that  it  was  doomed  to  float  about  like  a  ghost,  and  never  to 
enjoy  rest.  Another  legend  is  that  a  Dutch  captain,  homeward  bound, 
met  with  long-continued  headwinds  off  the  Cape,  but  swore  he  would 
double  the  cape  and  not  put  back,  if  he  strove  till  the  day  of  doom.  He 
was  taken  at  his  word,  and  there  he  still  beats,  but  never  succeeds  in 
rounding  the  point.  Captain  Marryat  has  a  novel  founded  on  this 
legend,  called  "The  Phantom  Ship,"  1836. 

The  "Wandering Jew"  was  last  seen  in  the  seventeenth  century. 
On  January  1,  1644,  he  appeared  at  Paris,  and  created  a  great  sensation 
among  all  ranks.  He  claimed  to  have  lived  sixteen  hundred  years,  and 
to  have  traveled  through  all  regions  of  the  world.  He  was  visited  by 
many  prominent  personages,  and  no  one  could  accost  him  in  a  language 
of  which  he  was  ignorant.  He  replied  readily  and  without  embarrass- 
ment to  any  questions  propounded,  and  he  was  never  confounded  by 
any  amount  of  cross-questioning.  He  seemed  familiar  with  the  history 
of  persons  and  events  from  the  time  of  Christ,  and  claimed  an  acquaint- 
ance with  all  the  celebrated  characters  of  sixteen  centuries.  Of  himself 
he  said  that  he  was  usher  of  the  court  of  judgment  in  Jerusalem,  where 
all  criminal  cases  were  tried  at  the  time  of  our  Savior;  that  his  name 
was  Michab  Ader;  and  that  for  thrusting  Jesus  out  of  the  hall  with  these 
words,  "  Go,  why  tarriest  thou  ?  "  the  Messiah  answered  him,  "I  go, 
but  tarry  thou  till  I  come,"  thereby  condemning  him  to  live  till  the  day 
of  judgment.  The  learned  looked  upon  him  as  an  impostor  or  madman, 
yet  took  their  departure  bewildered  and  astonished. 

The  famous  John  Gilpin  was  a  linen-draper,  living  in  London.  His 
wife  said  to  him,  '  'Though  we  have  been  married  twenty  years,  we  have 
taken  no  holiday;"  and  at  her  advice  the  well-to-do  linen-draper  agreed 
to  make  a  family  party,  and  dine  at  the  Bell,  at  Edmonton.  Mrs.  Gilpin, 
her  sister,  and  four  children  went  in  the  chaise,  and  Gilpin  promised  to 
follow  on  horseback,  having  borrowed  a  horse  from  his  friend,  a  calender. 
As  madam  had  left  the  wine  behind,  Gilpin  girded  it  fast  in  two  stone 
bottles  to  his  belt,  and  started  on  his  way.  The  horse  being  fresh,  began 
to  trot,  and  then  to  gallop;  and  John,  being  a  bad  rider,  grasped  the  mane 
with  both  his  hands.  On  went  the  horse,  off  flew  John  Gilpin's  cloak, 
together  with  his  hat  and  wig.  The  dogs  barked,  the  children  screamed, 
the  turnpike  men  (thinking  he  was  riding  for  a  wager)  flung  open  their 
gates.  He  flew  through  Edmonton,  and  never  stopped  till  he  reached 
Ware,  when  his  friend,  the  calender,  gave  him  welcome,  and  asked  him  to 
dismount.  Gilpin,  however,  declined,  saying  his  wife  would  be  expect- 
ing him.  So  the  calender  furnished  him  with  another  hat  and  wig,  and 
Gilpin  harked  back  again,  when  similar  disasters  occurred,  till  the  horse 
stopped  at  his  house  in  London. 


POETRY  AND  GENERAL  LITERATURE.  119 

VANITY  OF  THE  SCHOLASTICS. 

It  was  much  the  fashion,  especially  with  German  and  Dutch  authors 
who  wrote  in  Latin,  to  convert  their  names  into  a  Greek  or  Latin  equiva- 
lent, or  to  give  them  a  classic  turn  as: 

The  real  name  of  Agricola,  the  reformer  and  friend  of  Luther,  was 
Schneider  (a  tailor).  This  was  assuming  another  name. 

Bucer  was  a  Dominican  and  friend  of  Luther,  whose  real  name  was 
Kuhhorn  (cow-horn),  of  which  bucer  is  the  Greek. 

Desiderius  Erasmus  was  the  assumed  name  of  a  Dutchman  whose 
real  name  was  Gheraerd  Gheraerd,  of  which  Desiderius  is  the  Latin  and 
Erasmos  the  Greek. 

Melanchthon  was  one  of  Luther's  friends,  whose  real  name  was 
Schwartzerde  (black  earth).  Melanchthon  is  the  Greek  for  a  "  heap  of 
black  earth." 

CEcolampadius  is  the  Latinized  name  of  Johan  Hausschein,  the 
reformer. 

Paracelsus  is  Graeco-Latin  for  Bombast.  The  name  was  assumed 
by  A.  T.  Bombast. 

Porphyry  is  the  Grecized  name  of  Malk,  a  disciple  of  Plotin. 

Regiomontanus,  a  Latinized  form  of  Konigsberger.  Johann  Miiller 
called  himself  Konigsberg  in  Franconia. 

Stobseus  is  Stubbs  Latinized. 


COPYRIGHT  AND  INTERNATIONAL  COPYRIGHT. 

Copyright  is  the  exclusive  right  to  multiply  copies  of  a  written  or 
printed  composition,  or  of  a  work  of  art.  Such  rights  were  claimed  by 
authors  even  before  the  introduction  of  printing.  After  the  invention  of 
the  printing  press,  the  right  to  publish  books  became  the  subject  of 
licenses  and  patents.  The  terms  of  copyright  and  the  legal  questions 
bearing  on  them  are  so  complex  as  to  demand  study  in  special  treatises. 

The  first  steps  to  secure  international  copyright  to  protect  the  works 
of  artists  and  authors  were  taken  at  Berne,  September,  1885.  Prominent 
part  in  the  proceedings  was  taken  by  representatives  from  Great  Britain, 
France,  Germany,  Italy,  Spain,  Netherlands,  Sweden  and  Norway, 
Switzerland,  Tunis,  Hayti,  and  Honduras.  A  draft  of  a  convention  was 
settled  to  secure  in  each  of  these  countries  international  copyright.  An 
office  of  International  Union  for  protection  of  literary  and  artistic  works 
was  established  under  the  supervision  of  the  Swiss  Government.  In 
Great  Britain,  acts  of  Parliament  were  passed  successively  in  1844,  1852, 
1875,  and  1886,  to  secure  to  foreign  authors  and  artists  the  copyright  of 
their  works,  provided  British  artists  and  authors  were  reciprocally  pro- 
tected in  such  foreign  countries,  discretion  being  given  to  Her  Majesty, 
by  order  in  council,  to  fix  conditions  of  compliance.  In  the  United 
States  an  international  copyright  act  came  into  force  July  1,  1891,  secur- 
ing under  certain  conditions,  artistic  and  literary  copyright  between 
Great  Britain  and  the  United  States.  One  important  condition  of  the 
new  act  is  its  requirement  that  the  work  must  be  printed  in  the  United 
States  to  secure  the  advantages  of  international  copyright. 


HOW  LITERATURE    PAYS. 

Idsmith  recei 
000  for 


£1\J  VV       -L/J.  JL  JJ/JN-rY  X  U-IX.LV       JTrVXvJ. 

Goldsmith  received  $300  for  the  "Vicar  of  Wakefield;"  Moore,  $15,- 
for  "LallaRookh;  "Victor  Hugo,  $12, 000 for  "Hernani;"  Chateaubrj- 


120 


MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 


and,  $110,000  for  his  works;  L/amartine,  $16,000  for  "Travels  in  Palestine;" 
Disraeli,  $50,000  for  "Endymion;"  Anthony  Trollope,  $315;  000  for  forty 
five  novels;  Lingard,  $21,500  for  his  "History  of  England;"  Mrs.  Grant 
received  over  $600,000  as  royalty  from  the  sale  of  "The  Personal  Memoirs 
of  U.  S.  Grant."  

LITERARY  PSEUDONYMS. 

Pseudonyms  are  false  names  adopted  by  an  author  to  conceal  his 
identity.  Originally  '  'pseudonymous' '  was  used  of  works  deliberately 
published  under  a  false  name,  so  as  to  induce  people  to  believe  them  the 
works  of  those  whose  names  they  bore,  or  of  works  erroneously  attributed 
to  a  wrong  person. 

The  following  list  of  pseudonyms  adopted  by  famous  authors  has 
been  specially  compiled  for  this  Manual: 

Meredith,  Owen Earl  ofLytton. 

Miller,  Joaquin ...    .  C.  H  Miller. 
Nasby.  Petroleum  V..D.  R.  Locke. 
North,  Christopher.. Prof.  John  Wilson. 
O'Dowd,  Cornelius. .  Charles  Lever. 

Ogilvy.  Gavin J.  M.  Barrie. 

Old  Humphrey G.  Mogridge. 

Omnium. Jacob Matt.  Jas.  Higgins. 

Opium  Eater T.  De  Quincey. 

Optic,  Oliver Win.  T.  Adams. 

O'Rell,  Max Paul  Blouet. 

Ouida Louise  de  la  Rame. 

f  Douglas  Jerrold. 

Q (  A.  T.  Quiller  C9uch. 

f  Sam.  G.  Goodrich; 

W.  Martin; 
Parley,  Peter \  G.  Mogridge; 

W.  Tegg; 

J.  Bennett. 

Phiz Hablot  K.  Browne. 

Pindar,  Peter John  Wolcot. 

Plymley.  Peter Sydney  Smith. 

Prout,  Father F.  S.  Mahony. 

Quirinus Dr.  Dolilnger. 

Rob  Roy John  Macgregor . 

Sand,  George Madame       Dudevant 

(nee  Dupin.) 

Scriblerus,  MartinusSwift,       Pope,      and 
Arbuthnot. 

Shirley     John  Skelton. 

Slick,  Sam T.  C.  Haliburton. 

Stepniak S.  Kartcheffsky. 

Stretlon,  Hesba Sarah  Smith. 

Syntax,  Dr Win.  Combe. 

Titcomb,  Timothy....].  G.  Holland. 


A.L.O.E.  (—A  ZarfyCharlotte   Maria 
of  England) ....          Tucker. 

Adeler,  Max Chas.  Heber  Clark. 

Alexander,  Mrs Mrs.  A.  F.  Hector. 

Anstey,  F. F.  Anstey  Guthrie. 

Atlas  ("World") Edmund  Yates. 

Bab W.  S.Gilbert. 

Bede,  Cuthbert Rev.  Edw.  Bradley. 

Bell,  Acton Anne  Bronte. 

"    Currer Charlotte  Bronte. 

"    Ellis Etnily  Jane  Bronte. 

Bibliophile,  Jacob Paul  Lacroix. 

Bicker-staff,  Isaac Dean        Swift.      and 

Steelein  Taller. 

Biglow,  Hosea J.  Russell  Lowell. 

Billings,  Josh Henry  W.  Shaw. 

Bon  Gaultier Sir  Theodore  Martin 

and  W.  E.  Aytoun. 

Boz Chas.  Dickens. 

Breitmann,  Hans Chas.  G.  Iceland. 

Carmen  Sylva Queen  of  Roumania. 

Conway,  Hugh F-  J-  Fargus. 

Cornwall,  Barry  . .   B.  W.  Procter. 

Crayon  Geoffrey Washington  Irving. 

Danbury  Newsman.].  M.  Bailey 

Elia Charles  Lamb. 

Eliot,  George Mrs.  Mary  Ann  Cross 

(nee  Evans.) 

Ettrick  Shepherd James  Hogg. 

Fern,  Fanny Mrs.  Sara  P.  Parton. 

Graduate  of  Oxford.  John  Ruskin. 
Greenwood,  Grace. . .  Mrs.  Lippincott. 

Greville,  Henry Mme.  Durand. 

H.  H Mrs.       Helen      Hunt 

Jackson. 

Hamilton,  Gail Mary  Abigail  Dodge. 

Harland,  Marion — Mrs.  M.    V.   Terhuue 

(nee  Hawes. ) 
Historicus Sir  W.   Veruon   Har- 

court. 

Jean  Paul J.  P.  F.  Richter. 

Kerr,  Orpheus  C . . . .  R.  H.  Newell. 
Knickerbocker,    Die- 

drich Washington  Irving. 

L.  E.  L Letitia  E.  Landou. 

Lee,  Vernon Violet  Paget. 

Loti,  Pierre Julien  Viaud. 

Lyall.  Edna Ada  Ellen  Bayly. 

Maitland,   Thomas. ..R..  Buchanan. 

Malet,  Lucas Mrs.     Harrison     (nee 

Kingsley.) 
Mathers,  Helen Mrs.        Reeves      (nee 

Matthews.) 


Titmarsh,      Michael 
A  ngelo W.  M.  Thackeray. 

Twain,  Mark Samuel  L.  Clemens. 

Tytler,  Sarah Miss  H.  Keddie. 

Uncle  Remus Joel  Chandler  Harris. 

Urban,  Sylvanus  ...Editor  of  The  Gentle- 
man's Magazine. 

Vacuus  Viator Thomas  Hughes. 

Voltaire Francois  M  a  r  ie 

Arouet. 

IVard,  Artemus Chas.  F.  Browne. 

Warden,  Florence. .  .Mrs.  G.  James. 

Wetherell,  Elizabeth. Susan  Warner. 

Winter,  JohnStrangeMr*.  H.    E.   V.  Stan- 
nard. 

Zadkiel Capt.  R.  J.  Morrison, 

R.  N. 


POETRY  AND  GENERAL  LITERATURE.  121 

THE    FORTY   IMMORTALS    OF   THE    FRENCH    ACADEMY. 


Year 

Elected 

Name. 

Born. 

Predecessor. 

1 

1855... 

Ernest  Wilfred  Gabriel  Bap- 
tiste  Legouve  

Paris,  1807  

Ancelot 

2 
^ 

1862.   . 
1865 

Jacques  Victor  Albe,  Due  de 
Broglie  
Charles  Camille  Doucet.   .  . 

Paris,  1821  
Paris  1812  

Lacordaire,  Pere. 
De  Vigny 

4 
5 
6 

1870... 
1870  ... 
1871  .  .  . 

Emile  Olivier  
Xavier  Marmier  
Henri  Eugene  Orleans.  Due 
d'Aumale     

Marseilles,  1825  .... 
Pontarlier,  1808  

Paris    1C22 

De  Lamartine. 
De  Pongerville. 

7 

8 

1871  .... 
1874.... 

Camille  Felix  Michel  Rous- 
set    
Alfred  Jean   Francois   M6z- 
ieres  

Paris,  1821  
Paris    1826 

Prevost-Paradol. 
St    Marc-Girardin 

9 
10 

1874... 
1875 

Alexandre  Dumas  
John  Emile  Lemoinne  

Paris.  1824  
London    1815 

Lebrun. 
Janin. 

11 

1876  ... 

Jules  Francois  Simon  

Lorient,  1814  

De  Remusat. 

12 

1876.... 

Marie  Louis  Antoine  Bois- 

Nimes  1823 

13 
14 
15 

Ifi 

1877... 
1878... 
1878.... 

1880 

Victorien  Sardou  
Hippolyte  Adolph  Taine.  .  .  . 
Edmund      Armand,       Due 
A'  Audiffret-Pasquier..  .... 
Maxime  Du  Camp  

Paris    1831  
Vouziers,  1826  

Paris.  1823  
Paris    1822      .... 

Autran. 
De  Lomenie. 

Dupanloup  (Bishop^. 
St.  R<-n£-Taillandier. 

17 

1880.... 

Aim6       Joseph       Edmund 

Paris    1817 

Jules  Favre 

18 

19 
20 
21 

1881.... 

1881  .  .  . 
1881.... 
1882.... 

Rene  Francis  Armand  Sully- 
Prudhomme  
1  ouis  Pasteur  — 
Charles  Victor  Cherbulliez  .  . 
Adolphe  Louis  Albert  Per- 

Paris.  IS^  
D61e.  1822. 
Geneva,  1829  

Lyons    1828 

Duvergier  de   Huranne. 
,ittre. 
Dufaure. 

22 

1882  ... 

Edouard  Jules  Henri  Paill- 
eron  

Paris,  1839  

Charles  Blanc. 

23 
24 

1882.... 
It84.... 

Louis   Charles  de  Mazade- 
Percin  
Francoise  Edouard  Joachin 
Coppde  

Castelsarrazin,  1820.. 
Paris    1842 

Comte  de  Champagny. 
De  Laprade 

25 
?fi 

1884.... 
1884  ... 

Ferdinand  Marie  de  Lesseps 
Jean  Victor  Duruy  

Versailles,  1805  
Paris,  1811  

Henri  Martin. 
Mignet. 

27 

1884.... 

Joseph  Louis  Francois  Bert- 
rand  

Paris  1822 

J   B   Dumas 

0^ 

1884 

Paris    1834 

29 
30 

1886  ... 
1886.... 

fean  Baptiste  Leon  Say  
Charles    Marie   Leconte  de 
Lisle  

Paris,  1816  
Isle  de  Reunion   1818 

Edmond  About. 
Victor  Hugo. 

31 
32 

1886..   . 
1886.... 

Aime  Marie  Edouard  Hervg 
Vallery     Clement      Octave 
Gr&ird  .     . 

Isle  de  Reunion,  1835. 
Vire   1828 

Due  de  Noailles. 
Comte  de  Falloux. 

33 

34 

35 

36 

37 
38 

39 

40 

1888... 
1888... 

1888.... 
1888.... 

1890.... 
1891.   .. 
1892.... 

Othenin    Paul    de    Cleron, 
Comte  d'Haussonville  — 
Tules    Arnaud    Arsene  Cla- 
retie  
^enri  Meilhac  
Eugene  Marie  Melchior  Vi- 
comte  de  Vogue  
Charles  Louis  de  Saulces  de 
Freycinet  
Louis  Marie  Julien    Viaud 
(Pierre  Loti)            
Jrnest  Lavisse  
Seat  Vacant  *  

Gurey,  1843  

Limoges.  1840  
Paris,  1830  

Nice.  18,8  
Foix,  1828  

Rochefort.  1850  
Nouvien,  1842  

Caro. 

Cuvillier-Fleury. 
Labiche. 

Desire  Nisard. 

Emile  Augier. 
Octave  Feuillet. 

Jurien  de  la  Gravi£re. 
Joseph  Ernest  R£nan. 

M. 


*In  April,  1893,  M.  Challemel-Lacour  was  elected  to  fiU  vacancy  caused  by  death  of 


122  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

SOME    LARGE    LIBRARIES. 

Statistics  of  twenty  leading  libraries  in  this  country  show  that  of  over 
$500,000  spent,  a  little  more  than  $170,000  was  devoted  to  books,  while 
other  expenses  consumed  $358,000.  In  the  Mercantile  Library  of  New 
York  city  it  cost  14  cents  to  circulate  a  volume;  in  the  Astor  14)4  cents 
are  spent  on  each  volume,  or  27  cents  on  each  reader;  in  Columbia  Col- 
lege Library,  21  y2  cents  per  reader;  in  the  Library  Company  of  Philadel- 
delphia,  26  Cents  per  ^/olume,  or  10  cents  per  head.  The  largest  library 
in  the  world  is  the  National  Library  of  France,  founded  by  Louis  XIV, 
which  now  contains  1,400,000  books,  300,000  pamphlets,  175,000  manu- 
scripts, 300,000  maps  and  charts,  150,000  coins  and  medals,  1,300, 000  en- 
gravings, and  100,000  portraits.  The  Library  of  Congress  is  the  largest 
in  this  country,  as  it  contained  570,000  volumes  in  1886.  The  Mercantile 
Library  of  Philadelphia  was  the  seventh  in  point  of  size  in  this  country 
in  the  same  year.  There  are  in  the  United  States  5,338  libraries. 

The  famous  institution  called  the  British  Museum  began  with  the 
purchase  by  the  government  for  $100,000  of  the  magnificent  library  and 
collection  of  Sir  Hans  Sloane,  which  has  since  been  constantly  added  to, 
and  now  contains  a  million  and  a  half  printed  volumes.  It  now  comprises 
the  Cottonian,  the  Harlean,  theTowney,  the  Elgin,  the  Knight,  theSlade, 
and  other  collections.  In  1881  the  Natural  History, Geological  and  Mineral- 
ogical  Collections  were  removed  to  a  new  building  at  South  Kensington. 

The  famous  Bodleian  Library  was  originally  the  public  library  of 
Oxford  University,  restored  by  Sir  Thomas  Bodley  in  1598.  His  first  act 
was  the  presentation  of  a  large  collection  of  valuable  books,  purchased 
on  the  Continent  at  an  expense  of  $50,000.  By  the  Copyright  Act  it  is 
entitled  to  a  copy  of  every  book  printed  in  Great  Britain.  The  number 
of  volumes  it  possesses  is  estimated  at  about  four  hundred  thousand,  in 
addition  to  between  twenty  thousand  and  thirty  thousand  in  manuscript. 

HONORS  AMONG  BOOKS. 

I.  The  first  book  printed  in  German  (1461)  was  the  "Edelstein,"  (or 
"precious  stone")  by  Ulrich  Boner— a  collection  of  fables,  tales,  and 
maxims  in  reproof  of  evil  ways  and  for  the  encouragement  of  piety  and 
virtue.     The  first  printed  book  was  the  Psalter  of  Mainz,  1457;  the  next 
was  William  Durand's  "Holy  Office"  ( "Rationale  divinorum  officiorum 
libris   viii  distinctum"},  printed  1459;    the  third  was  Balbis'  "Gatholi- 
con,"  a  sort  of  dictionary,  1460;  then  comes  the  "Edelstein,"  in  German. 

II.  The  highest  price  ever  offered  fora  book  was  $96, 000.     It  was 
a  Hebrew  Bible  in  the  possession  of  the  Vatican.     In  1512,  the  Jews  of 
Venice  wished  to  buy  this  book,  but  though  Julius  II.  was  greatly  pressed 
for  money  in  order  to  keep  up  the  Holy  League  against  Louis  XII.  of 
France,  he  declined  to  part  with  the  volume. 

The  German  Government  paid  $50,000  for  the  missal  given  by  Leo 
X.  to  Henry  VIII.,  along  with  the  parchment  conferring  on  him  the 
right  to  assume  the  title  of  "Defender  of  the  Faith."  Charles  II.  gave 
these  relics  to  the  ancestor  of  the  famous  Duke  of  Hamilton,  whose 
library  was  sold  by  Messrs.  Sotheby,  Wilkinson,  and  Hodge  of  London. 

III.  The  largest  book  on  one  subject  is  the  "Ada  Sanctorum,"  of 
the  Bollandists,  not  yet  completed  (1893).    The  61st  volume  was  published 
in  1875. 

IV.  The  oldest  book  in  the  world  is  a  papyrus  containing  the  prov- 
erbs of  PUh-hotep,  an  Egyptian  king,  who  reigned  some 3000  B.C.,  which 


FOE  TR  Y  AND  GENERAL  LITER  A  TURE.  123 

was  before  the  birth  of  Abraham.  It  has  been  in  part  translated  by 
Chabas  and  others,  and  may  be  seen  in  English  dress  in  J.  D.  Heath's 
"Record  of  the  Patriarchal  Age." 


FIRvST  NEWSPAPERS. 

In  ancient  ROME  an  official  gazette,  called  "Ada  Diurna,"  was  issued 
under  the  management  and  authority  of  the  government,  and  posted 
up  daily  in  some  prominent  place  in  the  city. 
In  VENICE  a  paper  of  public  intelligence,  called  "Gazetta"  was 

published  in 1620 

In  ENGLAND  the  first  weekly  newpaper  was  published  by  Nathaniel 

Butler  in 1622 

In  ENGLAND  the  first  daily  newspaper  in 1709 

In  FRANCE  the  first  weekly  newspaper  was  published  in 1631 

In  FRANCE  the  first  daily  in 1777 

In  AMERICA,  at  Boston,  a  newspaper  was  published  in 1690 

In  IRELAND  the  first  newspaper,  called  "Pue's  Occurrences.,"  ap- 
peared in 1700 

In  IRELAND  the  oldest  Dublin  newspaper,  "The  Freeman's  Jour- 
nal," in 1755 

In  GERMANY  the  first  newspaper  was  published  in 1715 

In  HOLLAND  the  first  newspaper  was  published  in 1732 

In  TURKEY  the  first  newspaper  was  published  in 1795 

In  AUSTRALIA  the  first  newspaper  was  published  in 1803 


BOOKS  WE  HEAR  ABOUT. 

"The  Pilgrim's  Progress,"  by  John  Bunyan:  Pt.  i.,  1678;  pt.  ii.,  1684. 
This  is  supposed  to  be  a  dream,  and  to  allegorize  the  life  of  a  Christian, 
from  his  conversion  to  his  death.  His  doubts  are  giants,  his  sins  a  pack, 
his  Bible  a  chart,  his  minister  Evangelist,  his  conversion  a  flight  from 
the  City  of  Destruction,  his  struggle  with  besetting  sins  a  fight  with 
Apollyon,  his  death  a  toilsome  passage  over  a  deep  stream,  and  so  on. 
The  second  part  is  Christiana  and  her  family  led  by  Greatheart  through 
the  same  road,  to  join  Christian,  who  had  gone  before. 

Robinson  Crusoe,  a  tale  by  Daniel  Defoe.  Robinson  Crusoe  ran 
away  from  home,  and  went  to  sea.  Being  wrecked,  he  led  for  many  years 
a  solitary  existence  on  an  uninhabited  island  of  the  tropics,  and  relieved 
the  weariness  of  life  by  numberless  contrivances.  At  length  he  met  a 
human  being,  a  young  Indian,  whom  he  saved  from  death  on  a  Friday. 
He  called  him  his  "man  Friday,"  and  made  him  his  companion  and  serv- 
ant. Defoe  founded  this  story  on  the  adventures  of  Alexander  Selkirk, 
sailing  master  of  the  "Cinque  Ports  Galley,"  who  was  left  by  Captain 
Stradling  on  the  desolate  island  of  Juan  Fernandez  for  four  years  and 
four  months  (1704-1709),  when  he  was  rescued  by  Captain  Woodes  Rog- 
ers and  brought  to  England. 

"The  Vicar  of  Wakefield,"  a  novel,  by  Oliver  Goldsmith,  1766.  Dr. 
Primrose,  a  simple-minded,  pious  clergyman,  with  six  children.  He  be- 
gins life  with  a  good  fortune,  a  handsome  house,  and  wealthy  friends, 
but  is  reduced  to  utter  poverty  without  any  fault  of  his  own,  and,  being 
reduced  like  Job,  like  Job  he  is  restored.  First  he  loses  his  fortune 
through  the  rascality  of  the  merchant  who  held  it.  His  next  great  sor- 
row was  the  elopement  of  his  eldest  daughter,  Olivia,  with  Squire  Thorn- 


124  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

hill.  His  third  was  the  entire  destruction  by  fire  of  his  house,  furniture, 
and  books,  together  with  the  savings  which  he  had  laid  by  for  his 
daughters'  marriage  portions.  His  fourth  was  being  incarcerated  in  the 
county  jail  by  Squire  Thornhill  for  rent,  his  wife  and  family  being  driven 
out  of  house  and  home.  His  fifth  was  the  announcement  that  his  daughtei 
Olivia  "was  dead,"  and  that  his  daughter  Sophia  had  been  abducted. 
His  sixth  was  the  imprisonment  of  his  eldest  son,  George,  for  sending  a 
challenge  to  Squire  Thornhill.  His  cup  of  sorrow  was  now  full,  and 
comfort  was  at  hand:  (1)  Olivia  was  not  really  dead,  but  was  said  to  be 
so  in  order  to  get  the  vicar  to  submit  to  the  squire,  and  thus  obtain  his 
release.  (2)  His  daughter  Sophia  had  been  rescued  by  Mr.  Burchell  (Sir 
William  Thornhili),  who  asked  her  hand  in  marriage.  (3)  His  son 
George  was  liberated  from  prison,  and  married  Miss  Wilmott,  an  heiress. 
(4)  Olivia's  marriage  to  the  squire,  which  was  said  to  have  been  informal, 
was  shown  to  be  legal  and  binding.  (5j  The  old  vicar  was  released,  re- 
established in  his  vicarage,  and  recovered  a  part  of  his  fortune. 

"Ivanhoe,"  a  novel  by  Sir  W.  Scott  (1820).  The  most  brilliant  and 
splendid  of  romances  in  any  language.  Rebecca,  the  Jewess,  was  Scott's 
favorite  character.  The  scene  is  laid  in  England  in  the  reign  of  Richard 
I.,  and  we  are  introduced  to  Robin  Hood  in  Sherwood  Forest,  banquets 
in  Saxon  halls,  tournaments,  and  all  the  pomp  of  ancient  chivalry. 
Rowena,  the  heroine,  is  quite  thrown  into  the  shade  by  the  gentle,  meek, 
yet  high-souled  Rebecca. 

"Vanity  Fair,"  a  novel  by  W.  M.  Thackeray  (1848).  Becky  (Re- 
becca) Sharp,  the  daughter  of  a  poor  painter,  dashing,  selfish,  unprin- 
cipled, and  very  clever,  contrives  to  marry  Rawdon  Crawley,  afterwards 
his  excellency  Colonel  Crawley,  C.  B.,  governor  of  Coventry  Island. 
Rawdon  expected  to  have  a  large  fortune  left  him  by  his  aunt,  Miss 
Crawley,  but  was  disinherited  on  account  of  his  marriage  with  Becky, 
then  a  poor  governess.  Becky  contrive"  to  live  in  splendor  on  "nothing 
a  year,"  gets  introduced  at  court,  and  is  patronized  by  Lord  Steyne, 
earl  of  Gaunt;  but  this  intimacy  giving  birth  to  a  great  scandal,  Becky 
breaks  up  her  establishment,  and  is  reduced  to  the  lowest  Bohemian  life. 
Afterwards  she  becomes  the  "female  companion"  of  Joseph  Sedley,  a 
wealthy  "collector,"  of  Boggley  Wollah,  in  India.  Having  insured  his 
life  and  lost  his  money,  he  dies  suddenly  under  very  suspicious  circum- 
stances, and  Becky  lives  for  a  time  in  splendor«on  the  Continent.  Subse- 
quently she  retires  to  Bath,  where  she  assumes  the  character  of  a  pious, 
charitable  Lady  Bountiful,  given  to  all  good  works.  The  other  part  of 
the  story  is  connected  with  Amelia  Sedley,  daughter  of  a  wealthy  Lon- 
don stock-broker,  who  fails,  and  is  reduced  to  indigence.  Captain 
George  Osborne,  the  son  of  a  London  merchant,  marries  Amelia,  and  old 
Osborne  disinherits  him..  The  young  people  live  for  a  time  together, 
when  George  is  killed  in  Waterloo.  Amelia  is  reduced  to  great  poverty, 
but  is  befriended  by  Captain  Dobbin,  who  loves  her  to  idolatry,  and 
after  many  years  of  patience  and  great  devotion,  she  consents  to  marry 
him.  Becky  Sharp  rises  from  nothing  to  splendor,  and  then  falls;  Amelia 
falls  from  wealth  to  indigence,  and  then  rises 


MYTHOLOGY  AND  FOLK-LORE. 


'Tis  a  history 

Handed  from  ages  down;  a  nurse's  tale. 
Which  children,  open  ey'd  and  mouth'd  devour, 
And  thus,  as  garrulous  ignorance  relates, 
We  learn  it  and  believe. 

— SOUTHEY. 

VAGARIES  OF  HUMAN  BELIEF. 

Chinese  history,  or  fable,  begins  2205  B.  c. 

Orion  was  a  giant  hunter,  noted  for  his  beauty. 

Puck  and  Robin  Goodfellow.  are  identical  myths. 

The  Ogri  were  giants  said  to  feed  on  human  flesh. 

Euphrasia  was  the  name  of  ''the  Grecian  Daughter." 

Olympus,  in  Greece,  was  on  the  confines  of  Macedonia. 

In  Vulcan's  mirror  were  seen  the  past,  present  and  future. 

The  toadstool  is  called  in  Ireland  the  "fairy's  mushroom." 

A  task  that  makes  no  progress  is  likened  to  Penelope's  web. 

At  the  age  of  one  year  Jupiter  was  making  war  on  the  Titans. 

All  known  languages  have  a  story  of  "Jack  the  Giant-Killer. " 

Loki  was  the  god  of  strife  and  evil  in  Scandinavian  mythology. 

Jupiter  chose  the  eagle  as  the  best  preservative  against  lightning. 

The  original  Tom  Thumb  was  a  dwarf  knighted  by  King  Arthur. 

The  obi  superstitions  of  the  negro  are  still  prevalent  in  the  South. 

The  leprechaun  was  an  Irish  goblin  who  could  direct  you  to  hidden 
gold. 

Apotheosis  was  the  deification,  or  raising  of  a  mortal  to  the  rank  of 
a  god. 

The  pagan  priests  of  Egypt  were  the  first  to  reduce  mythology  to  a 
system. 

As  late  as  1805  a  woman  was  tried  for  witchcraft  at  Kircudbright, 
Scotland. 

The  oak  is  sacred  to  Jupiter  because  he  first  taught  mankind  to  live 
upon  acorns. 

Where  fable  ends  and  real  history  begins  is  an  obscure  line  in  the  an- 
nals of  all  nations. 

The  chief  astronomers,  from  Ptolemy  down  to  Kepler,  were  all  be- 
lievers in  astrology. 

125 


126  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

According  to  Homer  Mesopotamia  had  a  breed  of  asses  which  never 
fled  from  an  enemy. 

"Born  in  the  foam  of  the  sea,"  is  the  signification  of  Aphrodite,  the 
Greek  name  for  Venus. 

The  goat  was  the  animal  usually  sacrificed  to  Bacchus,  on  account  of 
its  propensity  to  destroy  the  vine. 

It  is  Memnon's  statue,  at  Thebes,  which  is  said  to  make  musical 
sounds  when  struck  by  the  morning  sun. 

The  ordinary  events  of  nature  transformed  into  allegory  would  ex- 
plain very  many  of  the  legends  of  the  ancients. 

The  gypsies  are  said  to  be  wanderers  because  they  refused  shelter  to 
the  Virgin  and  Christ  Child  on  the  flight  into  Egypt. 

The  peculiar  term  "Black  Art,"  is  applied  to  the  jugglery  of  con- 
jurers and  wizards  who  profess  to  have  dealings  with  the  devil. 

The  wave-crests  in  Killarney  Lake,  Ireland,  are  called  by  the  fisher- 
men .  the  "white  horses  of  O'Donoughue,"  from  a  chieftain  of  that  ilk 
who  perished  in  its  waters. 

The  proper  name  of  Confucius  was  "Kong,"  but  his  followers  added 
"fu-tse,"  meaning  master  or  teacher.  His  books  are  regarded  by  the 
Chinese  as  the  fountain  of  all  wisdom. 

Davy  Jones  is  a  sailor's  familiar  name  for  a  malignant  sea-spirit  or 
the  devil  generally.  The  common  phrase  "Davy  Jones'  locker"  is 
applied  to  the  ocean  as  the  grave  of  men  drowned  at  sea. 

In  all  ancient  mythologies  the  sneeze  is  significant.  If  a  Hindoo, 
while  performing  his  morning  ablutions  in  the  Ganges,  should  sneeze 
before  finishing  his  prayers,  he  immediately  begins  them  over  again. 

It  was  at  one  time  a  common  belief  that  infants  were  sometimes 
taken  from  their  cradles  by  fairies,  who  left  instead  their  own  weakly 
and  starveling  elves.  The  children  so  left  were  called  "changelings." 

In  the  northern  mythology  the  Walkyri  are  either  nine  or  three 
times  nine  divine  maidens  who  cleave  their  way  through  air  and  water 
to  lead  to  Odin  those  who  have  fallen  in  battle  and  who  are  worthy  of 
Walhalla. 

Dagon,  the  national  god  of  the  Philistines,  half-man,  half-fish,  is 
mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament  as  having  temples  at  Gaza  and  Ashdod, 
Several  names  of  places  prove  that  the  worship  of  Dagon  existed  also  in 
other  parts  of  Palestine. 

The  supposed  spirits  which  pervade  the  stars,  each  star  having  its 
own  spirit  (or  soul),  are  termed  astral  spirits.  Paracelsus  taught  that 
every  human  being  had  an  astral  spirit;  hence  the  influence  of  a  per- 
son's particular  star  on  his  life. 

According  to  the  ancient  German  superstition,  the  werewolf  was  a 
man-wolf,  who  had  the  form  of  a  man  by  day  and  that  of  a  wolf  by 
night.  L/ycanthropy,  or  wolf-madness,  was  prevalent  in  Europe,  and 
especially  in  Germany,  in  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries. 

The  name  of  the  favorite  charger  of  Alexander  the  Great  was  Buceph- 
alus, and  this  was  probably  also  the  name  of  a  peculiar  breed  of  horses 
in  Thessaly.  The  young  hero  was  the  first  to  break  in  the  steed,  and 
thus  fulfilled  the  condition  stated  by  an  oracle  as  necessary  for  gaining 
the  crown  of  Macedon. 


MYTHOL  OG  Y  AND  FOLK-L  ORE.  127 

Cynosure  is  the  Greek  name  for  the  constellation  of  the  Little  Bear, 
which  contains  the  pole  star,  by  which  the  Phoenician  mariners  steered 
their  course.  The  name  is  metaphorically  applied  to  anything  that 
attracts  attention,  or  to  which  all  eyes  are  turned. 

The  Scottish  brownie  has  a  rival  in  Spain  who  is  called  the  Ancho, 
and  who  haunts  the  shepherds'  huts,  warms  himself  at  their  fires,  tastes 
their  clotted  milk  and  cheese,  converses  with  the  family,  and  is  treated 
with  familiarity  mixed  with  terror.  The  Ancho  hates  church  bells. 

Sibylline  books  in  Roman  history  contained  the  prophecies  of  the 
Cumaean  Sibyl,  bought  by  Tarquin  the  Proud,  and  preserved  in  the  temple 
of  Jupiter  Capitolinus,  with  which  they  were  burnt,  83  B.  c.  They  were 
consulted  by  order  of  the  senate,  in  cases  of  prodigies  and  calamities. 

An  amulet  was  any  object  worn  as  a.  charm.  It  is  often  a  stone,  or 
a  piece  of  metal,  with  an  inscription  or  some  figures  engraved  on  it,  and 
is  generally  suspended  from  the  neck,  and  worn  as  a  preservative  against 
sickness  or  witchcraft.  Its  origin,  like  its  name,  seems  to  be  oriental. 

The  cockatrice  is  a  fabulous  monster,  often  confounded  wittt  the 
basilisk  and  regarded  as  possessing  similar  deadly  powers.  To  the  charms 
of  the  basilisk  it  added  a  dragon's  tail,  armed  with  a  sting;  and  it  shared 
also  its  power  of  destroying  by  a  glance,  so  often  referred  to  in  Shakes- 
peare and  other  early  writers. 

Cuneiform  is  a  term  descriptive  of  a  form  of  writing  of  which  the 
component  parts  resemble  a  wedge.  It  was  used  by  the  peoples  of 
Babylonia,  Assyria  and  other  ancient  nations,  and  was  inscribed  upon 
stone,  bronze,  iron,  glass  and  clay.  It  was  not  until  the  seventeenth 
century  that  the  wedge-shaped  characters  were  suspected  to  be  other  than 
"idle  fancies  of  the  architects." 

The  talisman  was  a  species  of  charm,  consisting  of  a  figure  engraved 
on  metal  or  stone  when  two  planets  are  in  conjunction,  or  when  a  star  is 
at  its  culminating  point,  and  supposed  to  exert  some  protective  influence 
over  the  wearer  of  it.  The  terms  talisman  and  amulet  are  often  consid- 
ered nearly  synonymous,  but  the  proper  distinctive  peculiarity  of  the 
former  is  its  astrological  character. 

Arthur's  Round  Table  contained  seats  for  one  hundred  and  fifty 
knights.  Three  were  reserved,  two  for  honor,  and  one  (called  the  "siege 
perilous1')  for  Sir  Galahad,  destined  to  achieve  the  quest  of  the  sangreal. 
If  any  one  else  attempted  to  sit  in  it,  his  death  was  the  certain  penalty. 
The  table  shown  visitors  at  Winchester  is  one  of  several  claimed  to  be 
the  "original"  Arthur' s  Round  Table. 

In  the  fanciful  system  of  the  Paracelsists  the  Undines  were  female 
water-sprites.  They  intermarry  readily  with  human  beings,  and  the 
Undine  who  .gives  birth  to  a  child  under  such  a  union  receives,  with  her 
babe,  a  human  soul.  But  the  man  who  takes  an  Undine  to  wife  must  be 
careful  not  to  go  on  the  water  with  her,  or  at  least  must  not  vex  her 
while  there,  or  she  returns  to  her  native  element. 

Isis  was  an  Egyptian  goddess.  The  deities  of  ancient  Egypt  might 
be  male  or  female,  but  in  neither  case  could  the  Egyptian  worshipper 
conceive  a  deity  as  existing  in  isolation:  to  every  deity  of  either  sex 
there  must  be  a  counterpart  of  the  other  sex.  It  was  to  this  notion  that 
the  goddess  Isis  owed  her  origin;  she  was  the  counterpart  of  Osiris,  and 
this  fact  is  expressed  in  the  statement  that  she  was  at  once  wife  and  sis- 
ter of  Osiris. 


128  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

In  classical  antiquities  the  cornucopia,  the  horn  or  symbol  of  plenty, 
is  placed  in  the  hands  of  emblematical  figures  of  Plenty,  Liberality,  and 
the  like,  who  are  represented  as  pouring  from  it  an  abundance  of  fruits 
or  corn.  It  is  frequently  used  in  architecture,  sculpture  and  heraldry. 

A  redoubtable  hero  was  Berserker  in  the  Scandinavian  mythology. 
He  was  the  father  of  twelve  sons  who  inherited  the  name  of  Berserker, 
together  with  his  frenzied  war-like  fury  or  "berserker  rage"  Baring 
Gould  connects  the  name  with  the  were- wolf  myth.  It  literally  means 
"bear-sark"  (shirt),  not  "bare-shirt." 

The  word  hippodrome  is  derived  from  the  Greek  hippos,  "a  horse," 
and  dromos,  "a  racecourse,"  and  is  the  Greek  name  for  the  place  set 
apart  for  horse  and  chariot  races.  Its  dimensions  were,  according  to  the 
common  opinion,  half  a  mile  in  length,  and  one-eighth  of  a  mile  in 
breadth.  In  construction  and  all  the  most  important  points  of  arrange- 
ment it  wras  the  counterpart  of  the  Roman  Circus. 

The  circus  originally  was  an  open  oblong  building  for  Roman  enter- 
tainments. There  were  eight  in  Rome,  the  largest  being  the  Circus 
Maximus,  said  to  be  9,331^  feet  long  and  2,187  feet  wide,  and  able  to  seat 
260,000  persons.  There  were  held  in  them  horse  and  chariot  races,  gym- 
nastic contests,  the  Trojan  games,  and  contests  with  wild  beasts.  The 
modern  circus  is  so  universally  known  as  to  need  no  description. 

Befana  is  a  kind  of  Santa  Klaus,  who  visits  children  on  Twelfth 
Night  to  put  presents  in  a  stocking  hung  at  their  bed.  Befana,  it  is  said, 
was  an  old  woman  busy  cleaning  her  house  when  the  Magi  passed  by, 
but  she  said  she  would  look  out  for  them  on  their  return.  As  they  went 
home  another  way,  she  is  looking  out  for  them  still,  but  entertains  a 
great  fondness  for  young  children.  The  word  is  a  corruption  of  "Epi- 
phania"  (Epiphany.) 

The  tall,  narrow  circular  towers— called  round  towers— tapering  grad- 
ually from  the  base  to  the  summit,  found  abundantly  in  Ireland,  and 
occasionally  in  Scotland,  are  among  the  earliest  and  most  remarkable 
relics  of  the  ecclesiastical  architecture  of  the  British  Islands.  They 
have  long  been  the  subject  of  conjecture  and  speculation,  but  there  can 
be  now  no  doubt  that  they  are  the  work  of  Christian  architects,  and 
built  for  religious  purposes. 

Walhalla  is  the  place  of  residence  for  the  fallen  in  battle  in  Scandina- 
vian Mythology.  The  name  Walhalla  was  given  to  a  magnificent 
marble  structure  of  nearly  the  same  proportions  as  the  Parthenon,  erected 
by  Ludwig  I.  of  Bavaria  (1830-41)  as  a  temple  of  fame  for  all  Germany, 
on  an  eminence  two  hundred  and  fifty  feet  above  the  Danube,  near  Ratis- 
bon.  By  means  of  statues,  busts,  reliefs,  and  tablets  the  mythology  and 
history  of  Germany  are  illustrated,  and  her  greatest  names  commemor< 
ated. 

Thule  was  the  name  given  by  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans  to  the 
most  remote  northern  portion  of  the  world  then  known.  Whether  an 
island  or  part  of  a  continent  nobody  knows.  It  is  first  mentioned  by 
Pytheas,  the  Greek  navigator,  who  says  it  is  "six  days'  sail  from  Britain," 
and  that  its  climate  is  a  "mixture  of  earth,  air  and  sea."  Ptolemy, 
with  more  exactitude,  tells  us  that  the  03°  of  north  latitude  runs  through 
the  middle  of  Thule,  and  adds  that  ' '  the  days  there  are  at  the  equinoxes 
[sic\  twenty-four  hours  long."  This,  of  course  is  a  blunder,  but  the 
latitude  would  do  roughly  for  Iceland. 


MYTHOLOGY  AND  FOLK-LORE.  129 

The  sacred  geese  were  kept  by  the  ancient  Romans  in  the  temple  of 
Juno  on  the  Capitoline  Hill.  These  geese  are  especially  noted  in  Roman 
story,  because  when  a  party  of  Gauls  climbed  stealthily  up  the  steep 
rock  unobserved  by  the  sentinels,  and  even  without  disturbing  the 
watch-dogs,  the  geese  gave  the  alarm  by  their  cackling,  and  Manlius, 
being  aroused,  reached  the  rampart  just  in  time  to  push  over  the  foremost 
Gaul,  and  thus  saved  the  capitol. 

Idris  was  a  mythical  figure  in  Welsh  tradition,  supposed  to  have  been 
at  once  a  giant,  a  prince  and  an  astronomer.  On  the  summit  of  Cader 
Idris  in  Merionethshire  may  be  seen  his  rock-hewn  chair,  and  an 
ancient  tradition  told  that  any  Welsh  bard  who  should  pass  the  night 
upon  it  would  be  found  the  next  morning  either  dead,  mad,  or  endowed 
with  supernatural  poetic  inspiration.  This  tradition  forms  the  subject  of 
a  fine  poem  by  Mrs.  Hemans;  the  gigantic  size  of  the  chair  is  alluded  to 
in  Tennyson's  "Geraint  and  Enid." 

The  name  of  Bucentaur  was  that  of  the  state-galley  in  which  the 
former  Doges  of  Venice  used  to  sail  out  every  year  on  Ascension  Day, 
amid  great  festivities,  in  order,  by  sinking  a  ring  into  the  sea,  to  wed  it 
in  token  of  perpetual  sovereignty.  The  word  signifies  a  monstrous  figure 
of  half  bull  half  man,  such  as  may  originally  have  been  depicted  on  the 
vessel.  The  ceremony  was  already  in  use  in  the  thirteenth  century;  in 
1798  the  last  Bucentaur,  built  in  1722^29,  was  burned  by  the  French,  but 
some  portions,  spared  for  their  gold  work,  are  still  preserved  in  the 
arsenal. 

The  Griffin  is  a  chimerical  creature,  and  first  mentioned  by  Aristeas 
about  500  B.  c.  The  griffin  is  variously  described  and  represented,  but 
the  shape  in  which  it  most  frequently  appears  is  that  of  a  cross  between 
a  lion' and  an  eagle,  having  the  body  and  legs  of  the  former,  with  the 
beak  and  wings  of  the  latter,  and  the  addition  of  pointed  ears.  Sometimes 
the  four  legs  are  all  like  those  of  an  eagle,  ?ud  the  head  is  that  of  acock. 
The  figure  seems  to  have  originated  in  the  East,  as  it  is  found  in  ancient 
Persian  sculptures.  Amongst  the  Greeks  it  appears  on  antique  coins,  and 
as  an  ornament  in  classical  architecture. 

Nectar  is  the  name  given  by  Homer,  Hesiod,  Pindar  and  the  Greek 
poets  generally,  and  by  the  Romans,  to  the  beverage  of  the  gods,  their 
food  being  called  Ambrosia.  But  Sappho  and  Alcman  make  nectar  the 
food  of  the  gods  and  ambrosia  their  drink.  Homer  describes  nectar  as 
resembling  red  wine,  and  represents  its  continued  use  as  causing  immor- 
tality. By  the  later  poets  nectar  and  ambrosia  are  represented  as  of  most 
delicious  odor;  and  sprinkling  with  nectar  or  anointing  with  ambrosia  is 
spoken  of  as  conferring  perpetual  youth,  and  they  are  assumed  as  the 
symbols  of  everything  most  delightful  to  the  taste. 

Vishnu,  "  the  Preserver,"  is  the  second  god  of  the  Hindu  triad,  now 
the  most  worshipped  of  all  Hindu  gods.  Originally  in  the  oldest  Vedas 
a  sun-god,  he  gradually  increased  in  influence  at  the  expense  of  other 
gods,  and  in  the  later  Purana  is  the  supreme  god.  Always  a  friendly 
god,  he  became  specially  the  friend  and  benefactor  of  man  in  his  avatars 
or  incarnations.  The  Vishnuite  doctrines  were  gathered  into  one  body 
in  the  eleventh  century  as  the  Vishnu-Purana.  Of  twenty  principal 
sects  and  a  hundred  minor  brotherhoods  some  are  merely  local,  others 
are  wealthy  bodies  and  wide-spread,  and  one  has  grown  into  a  warlike 
nation,  the  Jains. 

U.  I,— 9 


130  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

Damon  and  Pythias,  two  noble  Pythagoreans  of  Syracuse,  are  re- 
membered as  the  models  of  faithful  friendship.  Pythias  having  been 
condemned  to  death  by  the  elder  Dionysius,  the  tyrant  of  Syracuse, 
begged  to  be  allowed  to  go  home,  for  the  purpose  of  arranging  his 
domestic  affairs,  Damon  pledging  his  own  life  for  the  reappearance  of 
his  friend  at  the  time  appointed  for  his  doom.  Dionysius  consented,  and 
Pythias  returned  just  in  time  to  save  Damon  from  death.  Struck  by  so 
noble  an  example  of  mutual  affection,  the  tyrant  pardoned  Pythias, 
and  desired  to  be  admitted  into  their  sacred  fellowship. 

The  Sacred  Ibis  was  one  of  the  birds  worshipped  by  the  ancient 
Egyptians,  and  was  supposed,  from  the  color  of  its  feathers,  to  symbolize 
the  light  and  shade  of  the  moon.  Its  feathers  were  supposed  to  scare- 
and  even  kill  the  crocodile.  It  appeared  in  Egypt  at  the  rise  and  disap, 
peared  at  the  inundation  of  the  Nile,  and  was  said  to  deliver  Egypt  from 
the  winged  and  other  serpents  which  came  from  Arabia.  As  it  did  not 
make  its  nest  in  Egypt  it  was  believed  to  be  self-engendering,  and  to  lay 
eggs  for  a  lunar  month.  It  was  celebrated  for  its  purity,  and  only  drank 
from  the  purest  water;  besides  which,  it  was  fabled  to  entertain  the  most 
invincible  love  of  Egypt,  and  to  die  of  self-starvation  if  transported  else- 
where. 

A  very  engaging  though  mythical  creature  is  the  "brownie",  which 
in  Scottish  rural  districts  is  believed  to  assist  in  the  housework  at  nights. 
The  brownie  is  good  tempered  and  industrious,  but  has  a  great  objection 
to  slovenliness  and  marks  his  sense  of  neglect  by  pinching  slatternly 
maids.  Good  housewives  leave  out  a  bowl  of  milk  for  him.  If  the  farm 
changed  hands  the  brownie  usually  left,  which  may  explain  why  there 
are  none  now.  The  resemblance  of  the  Scotch  brownie  to  the  Robin 
Goodfellow,  of  English,  and  the  Kobold  of  German  folklore  is  obvious, 
but  perhaps  they  may  be  traced  further  to  the  lares  or  hearth  spirits  of 
the  ancients.  The  Russian  domovoy,  Mr.  Ralston  tells  us,  lives  behind 
the  stove,  and  in  some  families  a  portion  of  the  supper  is  always  set  aside 
for  him;  for  if  he  is  neglected  he  waxes  wroth  and  knocks  the  tables  and 
benches  about  at  night.  Spirits  with  the  same  functions  elsewhere  are 
the  Lithuanian  kanka,  the  Finnish  paara,  and  the  French  lutin. 

Here  and  there  in  the  highways  and  byways  of  the  world  many 
legends  and  superstitions  still  linger  and  continue  to  retain  their  ancient 
prestige.  In  Galicia,  the  province  northeast  of  Hungary,  the  peasants 
believe  that  when  a  star  falls  to  earth  it  is  at  once  transformed  into  a 
rarely  beautiful  woman  with  long  hair,  blonde  and  glittering.  This 
splendid  creature,  miraculously  engendered,  exercises  on  all  who  come 
in  contact  with  her  a  magical  influence.  Every  handsome  youth  unfor- 
tunate enough  to  attract  her  attention  becomes  her  victim.  Thus  having 
allured  them  to  her,  she  encircles  them  with  her  arms  in  an  embrace 
that  becomes  gradually  tighter  and  tighter  until  the  poor  dupes  are 
strangled  to  death.  If  certain  words  are  murmured  the  moment  the  star 
starts  to  fall,  they  cause  her  allurements  to  lose  their  power.  From  this 
superstition  springs  the  custom  of  wishing,  while  a  star  is  seen  hurrying 
through  the  air,  a  wish  said  surely  to  come  true  if  completely  for- 
mulated before  the  light  is  extinguished.  The  Spaniards  saw  in  the 
falling  stars  the  souls  of  their  dead  friends,  the  thread  of  whose  exist- 
ence was  cut  short  by  destiny.  The  Arabs  thought  these  stars  to  be  burn- 
ing stones  thrown  by  the  angels  onto  the  heads  of  devils  who  attempted 
to  enter  paradise. 


MYTHOLOGY  AND  FOLK-LORE.  131 

Hecatomb,  in  the  worship  of  the  Greeks,  and  in  other  ancient  reli- 
gions, meant  a  sacrifice  of  a  large  number  of  victims,  properly,  although 
by  no  means  necessarily,  one  hundred.  As  early  as  the  time  of  Homer 
it  was  usual  only  to  burn  the  legs  wrapped  up  in  the  fat  and  certain 
parts  of  the  intestines,  the  rest  of  the  victim  being  eaten  at  the  festive 
meal  after  the  sacrifice.  In  Athens  the  hecatomb  was  a  most  popular 
form  of  sacrifice;  while  the  thrifty  Spartans,  on  the  contrary,  limited  the 
number  both  of  the  victims  and  of  the  sacrifices.  In  the  hecatomb, 
strictly  so  called,  the  sacrifice  was  supposed  to  consist  of  one  hundred 
bulls,  but  other  animals  were  frequently  substituted. 

Belief  in  witches  has  caused  the  death  of  thousands  of  innocent  per- 
sons in  almost  .all  countries.  In  England  alone  it  is  computed  that 
thirty  thousand  persons  were  burned  at  the  stake  for  witchcraft.  The 
witchcraft  frenzy  rose  to  its  height  in  the  reign  of  James  I.,  who  wrote  a 
book  on  demonology.  It  revived  under  the  Long  Parliament,  when 
Matthew  Hopkins,  the  witch-finder,  plied  his  trade  (1645-7).  Executions 
for  witchcraft  were  prohibited  by  an  edict  of  Louis  XIV.  in  1670.  At 
Salem,  New  England,  in  1692,  nineteen  persons  were  hanged  by  the 
Puritans  for  witchcraft.  The  last  execution  for  witchcraft  in  England 
was  that  of  Mrs.  Hicks  and  her  daughter,  aged  nine,  who  were  hanged 
at  Huntingdon  in  1716.  The  last  execution  in  Scotland  was  at  Dornoch 
in  1722.  The  laws  against  witchcraft  were  repealed  in  1736.  The  last 
witch  was  officially  tried  and  executed  in  1793  in  Posen. 

STORY   OF    THE    NIBELUNGEN    LIED. 

This  famous  historic  poem,  which  is  called  the  Iliad  of  Germany, 
was  produced  about  1210,  and  is  divided  into  two  parts,  and  thirty-two 
lieds  or  cantos.  The  first  part  ends  with  the  death  of  Siegfried,  and  the 
second  part  with  the  death  of  Kriemhild. 

Siegfried,  the  youngest  of  the  kings  of  the  Netherlands,  went  to 
Worms,  to  crave  the  hand  of  Kriemhild  in  marriage.  While  he  was  stay- 
ing with  Giinther,  king  of  Burgundy  (the  lady's  brother),  he  assisted  him 
to  obtain  in  marriage  Brunhild,  queen  of  Issland,  who  announced  pub- 
licly that  he  only  should  be  her  husband  who  could  beat  her  in  hurling 
a  spear,  throwing  a  huge  stone,  and  in  leaping.  Siegfried,  who  possessed 
a  cloak  of  invisibility,  aided  Giinther  in  these  three  contests,  and  Brun- 
hild became  his  wife.  In  return  for  these  services  Giinther  gave  Sieg- 
fried his  sister  Kriemhild  in  marriage.  After  a  time  the  bride  and  bride- 
groom went  to  visit  Giinther,  when  the  two  ladies  disputed  about  the 
relative  merits  of  their  respective  husbands,  and  Kriemhild,  to  exalt 
Siegfried,  boasted  that  Giinther  owed  to  him  his  victories  and  his  wife. 
Brunhild,  in  great  anger,  now  employed  Hagan  to  murder  Siegfried,  and 
this  he  did  by  stabbing  him  in  the  back  while  he  was  drinking  from 
a  brook. 

Thirteen  years  elapsed,  and  the  widow  married  Etzel,  king  of  the 
Huns.  After  a  time  she  invited  Brunhild  and  Hagan  to  a  visit.  Hagan, 
in  this  visit,  killed  Etzel's  young  son,  and  Kriemhild  was  like  a  fury.  A 
battle  ensued,  in  which  Giinther  and  Hagan  were  made  prisoners,  and 
Kriemhild  cut  off  both  their  heads  with  her  own  hand.  Hildebrand, 
horrified  at  this  act  of  blood,  slew  Kriemhild;  and  so  the  poem  ends. — 
Authors  unknown  (but  the  story  was  pieced  together  by  the  minnesingers. ) 

The  "Volsunga  Saga"  is  the  Icelandic  version  of  the  "Nibelungen 
Lied. ' '  This  saga  has  been  translated  into  English  by  William  Morris, 


132  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

The '  'Nibelungen  Lied' '  has  been  ascribed  to  Heinrich  von  Ofterdingen, 
a  minnesinger;  but  it  certainly  existed  before  that  epoch,  if  not  as  a  com- 
plete whole,  in  separate  lays,  and  all  that  Heinrich  von  Ofterdingen 
could  have  done  was  to  collect  the  floating  lays,  connect  them,  and  form 
them  into  a  complete  story. 

THE   SAGAS   OP   THE    NORSEMEN. 

"Edda"  was  the  name  of  the  Bible  of  the  ancient  Scandinavians.  A 
saga  is  a  book  of  instruction,  generally,  but  not  always,  in  the  form  of  a 
tale,like  a  Welsh  "mabinogi."  In  the  "Edda"  there  are  numerous  sagas. 
As  our  Bible  contains  the  history  of  the  Jews,  religious  songs,  moral  prov- 
erbs,and  religious  stories,sothe  "Edda"  contained  the  history  of  Norway, 
religious  songs,  a  book  of  proverbs  and  numerous  stories.  The  original 
"Edda"  was  compiled  and  edited  by  SaemunSigfusson,  an  Icelandic  priest 
and  scald,  in  the  eleventh  century.  It  contains  twenty-eight  parts  or 
books,  all  of  which  are  in  verse. 

Two  hundred  years  later,  Snorro  Sturleson,  of  Iceland,  abridged,  re- 
arranged, and  reduced  to  prose  the  '  'Edda, ' '  giving  the  various  parts  a  kind 
of  dramatic  form,  like  the  dialogues  of  Plato.  It  then  became  needful  to 
distinguish  these  two  works;  so  the  old  poetical  compilation  is  called  the 
"Elder"or"Rhythmical  Edda,  "and  sometimes  the"Sremund  Edda"  while 
the  more  modern  work  is  called  the  "Younger"or  "Prose  Edda"  and  some- 
times the  "Snorro  Edda. "  The  "Younger  Edda"  is,however,  partly  origi- 
nal. Pt.i.  is  the  old  "Edda"  reduced  to  prose,  but  pt.  ii.is  Sturleson 'sown 
collection.  This  part  contains  "The  discourse  of  Bragi"  (the  scald  of  the 
gods)  on  the  origin  of  poetry;  andhere,too,  we  find  the  famous  story  called 
by  the  Germans  "Nibelungen  Lied."  Besides  the  sagas  contained  in  the 
"Eddas,"  there  are  numerous  others.  Indeed,  the  whole  saga  literature 
extends  over  two  hundred  volumes. 

RIP    VAN    WINKLE    AND  OTHER    SLEEPERS. 

Almost  all  nations  have  a  tradition  about  some  sleeper,  who  will  wake 
after  a  long  period  of  dormancy.  Of  these  the  best  known  to  us  is  Rip 
Van  Winkle,  who,  according  to  the  legend  (Washington  Irving's  ver- 
sion), was  a  Dutch  colonist  of  New  York,  who  met  a  strange  man  in  a 
ravine  of  the  Kaatskill  Mountains.  Rip  helped  the  stranger  to  carry  a 
keg  to  a  wild  glen  among  rocks,  where  he  saw  a  host  of  strange  person- 
ages playing  skittles  in  mysterious  silence.  Rip  took  the  first  opportu- 
nity of  tasting  the  keg,  fell  into  a  stupor  and  slept  for  twenty  years.  On 
waking  he  found  that  his  wife  was  dead  and  buried,  his  daughter  married, 
his  village  remodelled,  and  America  had  become  independent. 

Epimenides  the  Gnostic  slept  for  fifty-seven  years. 

Nourjahad,  wife  of  the  Mogul  emperor  Geangir,  who  discovered  the 
otto  of  roses,  slept  seven  years. 

Gyneth  slept  five  hundred  years,  by  the  enchantment  of  Merlin. 

The  seven  sleepers  slept  for  two  hundred  and  fifty  years  in  Mt.  Celion. 

St.  David  slept  for  seven  years. 

The  following  are  not  dead,  but  only  sleep  till  the  fullness  of  their  re- 
spective times:  Elijah,  Endymion,  Merlin,  King  Arthur,  Charlemagne, 
Frederick  Barbarossa  and  his  knights,  the  three  Tells,  Desmond  of  Kil- 
mallock,  Thomas  of  Erceldoune,  Bobadil  el  Chico,  Brian  Boroimhe,  Knez 
Lazar,  King  Sebastian  of  Portugal,  Olaf  Tryggvason,  the  French  slain  in 
the  Sicilian  Vespers,  and  one  or  two  others, 


MYTHOLOGY  AND  FOLK-LORE.  133 

INDIAN    FOLK    LORE. 

As  a  specimen  of  the  folk-lore  of  our  own  aborigines  none  can  sur- 
pass in  interest  the  story  of  Hiawatha,  the  prophet-teacher,  son  of  Mud- 
jekeewis  (the  west  wind}  and  Wenonah  daughter  of  Nokomis.  He 
represents  the  progress  of  civilization  among  the  North  American  Indians. 
Hiawatha  first  wrestled  with  Mondamin  (maize},  and  having  subdued 
it,  gave  it  to  man  for  food.  He  then  taught  man  navigation ;  then  he  sub- 
dued Mishe  Nahma  (the  sturgeon],  and  taught  the  Indians  how  to  make 
oil  therefrom  for  winter.  His  next  exploit  was  against  the  magician 
Megissognon,  the  author  of  disease  and  death;  having  slain  this  mon- 
ster, he  taught  men  the  science  of  medicine.  He  then  married  Minne- 
haha  (laughing  water},  and  taught  man  to  be  the  husband  of  one  wife, 
and  the  comforts  of  domestic  peace.  Lastly,  he  taught  man  picture- 
writing.  When  the  white  men  came  with  the  gospel,  Hiawatha  ascended 
to  the  kingdom  of  Ponemah,  the  land  of  the  hereafter.  Among  many 
other  accomplishments  when  Hiawatha  put  on  his  moccasins,  he  could 
measure  a  mile  at  a  single  stride. 

He  had  moccasins  enchanted, 

Magic  moccasins  of  deer-skin; 

When  he  bound  them  round  his  ankles 

At  each  stride  a  mile  he  measured! 

— LONGFELLOW,  Hiawatha,  iv. 


THE  LANGUAGE  OF  GEMS. 

AMETHYST. — Peace  of  mind.  Regarded  by  the  ancients  as  having 
the  power  to  dispel  drunkenness. 

BLOODSTONE. — I  mourn  your  absence.  Worn  by  the  ancients  as  an 
amulet  or  charm,  on  account  of  the  medicinal  and  magical  virtues  it  was 
supposed  to  possess. 

DIAMOND. — Pride.  Awarded  supernatural  qualities  from  the  most 
remote  period  down  to  the  Middle  Ages.  Has  the  power  of  making  men 
courageous  and  magnanimous.  Protects  from  evil  spirits.  Influences 
the  gods  to  take  pity  upon  mortals.  Maintains  concord  between  hus- 
band and  wife,  and  for  this  reason  was  held  as  the  most  appropriate 
stone  for  the  espousal  ring. 

EMERALD. — Success  in  love.  Mentioned  in  the  Bible  as  worn  in  the 
breast  plate  of  the  High  Priest  as  an  emblem  of  chastity. 

RUBY. — A  cheerful  mind.  An  amulet  against  poison,  sadness,  evil 
thoughts.  A  preservative  of  health.  Admonishes  the  wearer  of  impend- 
ing danger  by  changing  color. 

SAPPHIRE.— Chastity.  Procures  favor  with  princes.  Frees  from 
enchantment.  Prevents  impure  thoughts. 

TOPAZ. — Fidelity.     Calms  the  passions. 

TURQUOISE. — Success  and  happiness.     Preserves  from  contagion. 

GARNET. — Fidelity  in  every  engagement.  Onyx. — Reciprocal  love. 
Opal. — Pure  thoughts.  Pearl.— Purity  and  innocence. 


THE  GIFT  OF  SECOND  SIGHT. 

Second-sight,  a  gift  of  prophetic  vision,  was  long  supposed  in  the 
Scottish  Highlands  and  elsewhere  to  belong  to  particular  persons.  The 
most  common  form  it  took  was  to  see  the  wraith,  fetch,  or  shadowy  sec- 
ond self  of  some  person  soon  to  die,  often  wrapped  in  a  shroud,  or  at- 
tended with  some  other  of  the  special  circumstances  of  death  or  burial. 


134 


MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 


Of  course  the  prophetic  character  may  easily  enough  have  been  a  mere 
additional  assumption,  the  time  of  occurrence  of  distant  events  being  apt 
to  be  confused  with  the  time  of  hearing  of  them.  In  the  popular  mind 
everywhere  the  mystery  of  death,  and  the  instinctive  human  longing  to 
believe  in  a  continuity  of  conscious  spiritual  life  and  sympathy,  have  gen- 
erated a  belief  in  the  probability  of  an  appearance  coinciding  with,  or 
soon  succeeding,  the  death  of  an  individual;  and  from  this  the  step  is 
easy  to  a  belief  in  the  possibility  of  similar  appearances  before  death,  in 
order  to  foreshadow  or  forewarn. 


OLYMPIAN  DEITIES  AND  HEROES. 


ACHA'TES.    The  trusty  friend  of  ^neas. 

ACH'ERON.  The  son  of  Sol  and  Terra, 
changed  by  Jupiter  into  a  river  of  hell. 
Used  also  for  hell  itself. 

ACHIL'LES.  A  Greek  who  signalized  him- 
self in  the  war  against  Troy.  Having 
been  dipped  by  his  mother  in  the  river 
Styx,  he  was  invulnerable  in  every  part 
except  his  right  heel,  but  was  at  length 
killed  by  Pans  with  an  arrow. 

ACT^E  ON.  A  famous  hunter,  who,  having 
surprised  Diana  as  she  was  bathing,  was 
turned  by  her  into  a  stag  and  killed  by 
his  own  dogs. 

ADO'NIS.  A  beautiful  youth  beloved  by 
Venus  and  Proserpine.  He  was  killed 
by  a  wild  boar.  When  wounded,  Venus 
sprinkled  nectar  into  his  blood,  from 
which  flowers  sprang  up. 

./EGE'US.  A  king  of  Athens,  giving  name 
to  the  Aegean  Sea  by  drowning  himseli 
in  it. 

.^3'Gis.  A  shield  given  by  Jupiter  to  Mi- 
nerva. Also  the  name  of  a  Gorgon  whom 
Pallas  slew. 

^NE'AS.  A  Trojan  prince,  son  of  Anchises 
and  Venus;  the  heroe  of  Virgil's  poem, 
the  "^neid." 

JE  OLUS.    The  god  of  the  winds. 

-<5JscuLA'PiDS.  The  god  of  medicine  and 
the  son  of  Apollo.  Killed  by  Jupiter  with 
a  thunderbolt  for  having  restored  Hip- 
polytus  to  life. 

AGAMEM'NON.  King  of  Mycenae  and  Ar- 
gos,  brother  to  Men  elans,  and  chosen 
captain-general  of  the  Greeks  at  the 
siege  of  Troy. 

A' JAX.  Next  to  Achilles,  the  bravest  of  all 
the  Greeks  in  the  Trojan  war. 

AL'BION.  The  son  of  Neptune;  went  into 
Britain  and  established  a  kingdom. 

ALCES  TE,  or  ALCESTIS.  The  daughter  of 
Pelias  and  wife  of  Admetus,  brought 
back  from  hell  by  Hercules. 

AMPHI'ON.  A  famous  musician,  the  son  of 
Jupiter  and  Antiope,  who  built  the  city 
of  Thebes  by  the  music  of  his  harp.  He 
and  his  brother  Zethus  are  said  to  have 
invented  music. 

AMPHITRI  TE.  Goddess  of  the  sea  and 
wife  of  Neptune. 

ANDROM'ACHE.    Wife  of  Hector. 

ANDROM'EDA.  The  daughter  of  Cepheus 
and  Cassiopeia,  who,  contesting  with 
Juno  and  the  Nereides  for  the  prize  of 
beauty,  was  bouud  to  a  rock  by  them 


and  exposed  to  a  sea  monster,  but  was 
rescued  and  married  by  Perseus. 

ANTIG'ONE.  The  daughter  of  CEdipus  and 
Jocasta,  famous  for  her  filial  piety. 

A'PIS.  Son  of  Jupiter  and  Niobe;  called 
also  Serapis  and  Osiris.  Taught  the 
Egyptians  to  sow  corn  and  plant  vines, 
and  worshipped  by  them  in  the  form  of 
an  ox. 

APOL  LO.  The  son  of  Jupiter  and  Latona, 
and  the  god  of  music,  poetry,  eloquence, 
medicine  and  the  fine  arts. 

ARACH'NE.  A  Lydian  princess,  turned 
into  a  spider  for  contending  with  Mi- 
nerva at  spinning. 

ARETHU'SA.  One  of  Diana's  nymphs,  who 
was  changed  into  a  fountain. 

AR'GUS.  The  son  of  Aristor;  said  to  have 
had  a  hundred  eyes;  but  being  killed  by 
Mercury  when  appointed  by  Juno  to 
guard  lo,  she  put  his  eyes  on  the  tail  of 
a  peacock.  Also  an  architect,  who  built 
the  ship  Argo. 

ARIAD'NE.  The  daughter  of  Minos,  who, 
from  love  to  Theseus,  gave  him  a  clew 
of  thread  to  guide  him  out  of  the  Cretan 
labyrinth;  being  afterward  deserted  by 
him,  she  was  married  to  Bacchus  and 
made  his  priestess. 

ARI'ON.  A  lyric  poet  of  Methymna,  who, 
in  his  voyage  to  Italy,  saved  his  life  from 
the  cruelty  of  the  mariners  by  means  of 
dolphins,  which  the  sweetness  of  his 
music  brought  together. 

ATALAN'TA.  A  princess  of  Scyros,  who 
consented  to  marry  that  one  of  her  suit- 
ors who  should  outrun  her,  Hippomenes 
being  the  successful  competitor. 

AT'LAS.  One  ot  the  Titans  and  king  of 
Mauretania;  said  to  have  supported  the 
world  on  his  shoulders;  he  was  turned 
into  a  mountain  by  Perseus. 

AURO'RA.    The  goddess  of  morning. 

BAC'CHUS.  The  son  of  Jupiter  and  Semele 
and  the  god  of  wine. 

BELLER'OPHON.  The  son  of  Glaucus,  king 
of  Ephyra.  He  underwent  numerous 
hardships  for  refusing  an  intimacy  with 
Sthenoboea,  wife  of  Proetus.  the  king  of 
Argos.  With  the  aid  of  the  horse  Pegasus 
he  destroyed  the  Chimera. 

BELLO  NA.  Goddess  of  war;  sister  of 
Mars. 

BERENI'CE.  A  Grecian  lady;  the  only  per- 
son of  her  sex  permitted  to  see  the  Olym- 
pic games. 


MYTHOLOGY  AND  FOLK-LORE. 


135 


BO'REAS.  The  son  of  Astrseus  and  Aurora; 
the  name  of  the  north  wind. 

BRIA  RETJS.  A  giant  who  warred  against 
heaven,  and  was  feigned  to  have  had 
fifty  heads  and  one  hundred  arms. 

BUSI'RIS.  The  son  of  Neptune;  a  tyrant  of 
Egypt  and  a  monstrous  giant,  who  fed 
his  horses  with  human  flesh;  was  killed 
by  Hercules. 

CAD'MUS.  The  son  of  Agenor,  king  of 
Phoenicia;  founder  of  Thebes  and  the 
reputed  inventor  of  sixteen  letters  of  the 
Greek  alphabet. 

CADU'CEUS.  Mercury's  golden  rod  or 
wand. 

CALYP'SO.  One  of  the  Oceanides,  who 
reigned  in  the  island  of  Ogygia,  and 
entertained  and  became  enamored  of 
Ulysses. 

CASSAN'DRA.  A  daughter  of  Priam  and 
Hecuba,  endowed  with  the  gift  of  proph- 
ecy by  Apollo. 

CAS'TOR.  A  son  of  Jupiter  and  Leda.  He 
and  his  twin  brother  Pollux  shared  im- 
mortality alternately,  and  were  formed 
into  the  constellation  Gemini. 

CEN  TAURS.  Children  of  Ixion,  half  men 
and  half  horses,  inhabiting  Thessaly, 
and  vanquished  by  Theseus. 

CER'BERUS.  The  three-headed  dog  of  Pluto, 
guarding  the  gates  of  hell. 

CE'RES.  The  daughter  of  Saturn  and  Cy- 
bele,  and  goddess  of  agriculture. 

CHA'RON.  The  son  of  Erebus  and  Nox, 
and  ferryman  of  hell,  who  conducted 
the  souls  of  the  dead  over  the  rivers  Styx 
and  Acheron. 

CHARYB  pis.  A  ravenous  woman,  turned 
by  Jupiter  into  a  very  dangerous  gulf  or 
whirlpool  on  the  coast  of  Sicily. 

CHI'MERA.  A  strange  monster  of  I^ycia, 
killed  by  Bellerophon. 

CIR'CE.    A  noted  enchantress. 

CLYTEMNES'TRA.  The  faithless  wife  of 
Agamemnon,  killed  by  her  son  Orestes. 

Co  MUS.     The  god  of  merriment. 

CRO'CUS.  A  young  man  enamored  of  the 
nymph  Smilax,  and  changed  into  a 
flower. 

CRCE  sus.  King  of  L,ydia;  the  richest  man 
of  his  time. 

CU'PID.  Son  of  Mars  and  Venus;  the  god 
of  love 

CYB'ELE.  The  daughter  of  Ccelus  and 
Terra;  wife  of  Saturn  and  mother  of  the 
gods. 

CY'CLOPS.  Vutoan's  workmen,  giants  who 
had  only  one  eye  in  the  middle  of  their 
foreheads;  slain  by  Apollo  in  a  pique 
against  Jupiter. 

D^D'ALUS.  A  most  ingenious  artificer  of 
Athens,  who  formed  the  Cretan  laby- 
rinth and  invented  the  auger,  axe,  glue, 
plumb-line,  saw,  and  masts  and  sails  for 
ships. 

DANA'IDES,  or  BE'LIDES.  The  fifty  daugh- 
ters of  Danaus,  king  of  Argos,  all  of 
whom,  except  Hypermnestra,  killed  their 
husbands  on  the  first  night  of  their  mar- 
riage, and  were  therefore  doomed  to 
draw  water  out  of  a  deep  well  and  eter- 
nally pour  it  into  a  cask  full  of  holes. 


DAPH'NE.  A  nymph  beloved  by  Apollo, 
the  daughter  of  the  River  P  e  n  e  u  s  , 
changed  into  a  laurel  tree. 

DAPH'NIS.  A  shepherd  of  Sicily  and  son 
of  Mercury,  educated  by  the  nymphs 
and  inspired  by  the  Muses  with  the  love 
of  poetry. 

DEJANI'RA.  Wife  of  Hercules,  who  killed 
herself  in  despair,  because  her  husband 
burnt  himself  to  avoid  the  torment  occaT 
sioned  by  the  poisoned  shirt  she  had 
given  him  to  regain  his  love. 

DEL'PHI,  A  city  of  Phocis,  famous  for  a 
temple  and  an  oracle  of  Apollo. 

DEUCA'LION  The  son  of  Prometheus  and 
king  of  Thessaly,  who,  with  his  wife 
Pyrrha,  was  preserved  from  the  general 
deluge,  and  repeopled  the  world  by 
throwing  stones  behind  them,  as  di- 
rected by  the  oracle. 

DIAN'A.  Daughter  of  Jupiter  and  Latona 
and  goddess  of  hunting,  chastity  and 
marriage. 

DI'DO.  Founder  and  queen  of  Carthage; 
daughter  of  Belus  and  wife  of  Sichseus. 
According  to  Virgil,  she  entertained 
^neas  on  his  voyage  to  Italy,  and  burnt 
herself  through  despair  because  he  left 
her. 

DIOME'DES.  Son  of  Tydeus  and  king  of 
^2$tolia;  gained  great  reputation  at  Troy, 
and,  with  Ulysses,  carried  off  the  Pal- 
ladium. 

DRY'ADES.    Nymphs  of  the  woods. 

ECH'O.  The  daughter  of  Aer,  or  Air,  and 
Tellus,  who  pined  away  for  love  of  Nar- 
cissus. 

ELEC'TRA.  Daughter  of  Agamemnon  and 
Clytemnestra ;  instigated  her  brother 
Orestes  to  revenge  their  father's  death 
upon  their  mother  and  ^gisthus. 

ELYS'IUM.  The  happy  residence  of  the 
virtuous  after  death. 

ENCEL'ADUS.  Son  of  Titan  and  Terra  and 
the  strongest  of  the  giants;  conspired 
against  Jupiter  and  attempted  to  scale 
heaven. 

ENDYM'ION.  A  shepherd  and  astronomer 
of  Caria,  condemned  to  a  sleep  of  thirty 
years. 

ER'EBUS.  The  son  of  Chaos  and  Nox;  an 
infernal  deity.  A  river  of  hell,  and  often 
used  by  the  poets  for  hell  itself. 

EUMEN'IDES.  A  name  of  the  Furies. 

EURO  PA.  The  daughter  of  Agenor;  car- 
ried by  Jupiter,  in  the  form  of  a  white 
bull,  into  Crete. 

EORY'ALTJS.  A  Peloponnesian  chief  in 
the  Trojan  war.  Also  a  Trojan  and  a 
friend  of  Nisus,  for  whose  loss  ^Jneas 
was  inconsolable. 

EURYD'ICE.  Wife  of  Orpheus;  killed  by  a 
serpent  on  her  marriage  day. 

EVAD'NE.  Daughter  of  Mars  and  Thebe; 
threw  herself  on  the  funeral  pyre  of  her 
husband,  Cataneus. 

FATES.  Powerful  goddesses,  who  pre- 
sided over  the  birth  and  the  life  of  man- 
kind, were  the  three  daughters  of  Nox 
and  Erebus,  named  Clotho,  Lachesis  and 
Atropos.  Clotho  was  supposed  to  hold 
the  distaff,  I^achesis  to  draw  the  thread 


136 


MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 


of  human  life,  and  Atropos  to  cut  it 
off. 

FAU'NI.  Rural  gods,  described  as  having 
the  legs,  feet  and  ears  of  goats. 

FAU  NUS.  Son  of  Mercury  and  Nox  and 
father  of  the  Fauni. 

Fi.o  RA.    The  goddess  of  flowers. 

FORTU'NA.  The  goddess  of  fortune;  said 
to  be  blind. 

FUR  IBS.  The  three  daughters  of  Nox  and 
Acheron,  named  Alecto,  Tisiphone  and 
Megsera,  with  hair  composed  of  snakes, 
and  armed  with  whips,  chains,  etc. 

GALATE  A.  A  sea-nymph,  daughter  of  Ne- 
reus  and  Doris,  passionately  loved  by 
Polyphemus. 

GAN'YMEDE.  The  son  of  Tros,  king  of 
Troy,  whom  Jupiter,  in  the  form  of  an 
eagle,  snatched  np  and  made  his  cup- 
bearer. 

GOR  DIUS.  A  husbandman,  but  afterward 
king  of  Phrygia,  remarkable  for  tying  a 
knot  of  cords,  on  which  the  empire  of 
Asia  depended,  in  so  intricate  a  manner 
that  Alexander,  unable  to  unravel  it,  cut 
it  asunder. 

GOR'GONS.  The  three  daughters  of  Phor- 
cus  and  Ceta,  named  Stheno,  Euryale 
and  Medusa.  Their  bodies  were  covered 
with  impenetrable  scales,  their  hair  en- 
twined with  serpents;  they  had  only  one 
eye  betwixt  them,  and  they  could  change 
into  stones  those  whom  they  looked  on. 

GRA'CES.  Three  goddesses,  Aglaia,  Thalia 
and  Euphrosyne,  represented  as  beauti- 
ful, modest  virgins,  and  constant  attend- 
ants on  Venus. 

HAR'PIES.  Winged  monsters,  daughters 
of  Neptune  and  Terra,  named  Aello,  Ce- 
laeno  and  Ocypete,  with  the  faces  of  vir- 
gins, the  bodies  of  vultures  and  hands 
armed  with  claws. 

HE'BE.  The  daughter  of  Juno;  goddess  of 
youth  and  Jupiter's  cup-bearer ;  ban- 
ished from  heaven  on  account  of  an  un- 
lucky fall. 

HEC/TOR.  The  son  of  Priam  and  Hecuba; 
the  most  valiant  of  the  Trojans,  and 
slain  by  Achilles. 

HEC/UBA.  The  wife  of  Priam,  who  tore 
her  eyes  out  for  the  loss  of  her  children. 

HEL'ENA,  or  HEL'EN.  The  wife  of  Mene- 
Iseus  and  the  most  beautiful  woman  of 
her  age,  who,  running  away  with  Paris, 
occasioned  the  Trojan  war. 

HER  CULES.  The  son  of  Jupiter  and  Alc- 
mena;  the  most  famous  hero  of  antiquity, 
remarkable  for  his  great  strength  and 
numerous  exploits. 

HERMI'ONE.  The  daughter  of  Mars  and 
Venus  and  wife  of  Cadmus;  was  changed 
into  a  serpent.  Also,  a  daughter  of  Mene- 
laeus  and  Helena,  married  to  Pyrrhus. 

HE'RO.  A  beautiful  woman  of  Sestos,  in 
Thrace,  and  priestess  of  Venus,  whom 
Leander  of  Abydos  loved  so  tenderly 
that  he  swam  over  the  Hellespont  every 
night  to  see  her;  but  he,  at  length,  being 
unfortunately  drowned,  she  threw  her- 
self, in  despair,  into  the  sea. 

HRSPER'IDES.  Three  nymphs,  ^5igle,  Are- 
thusa  and  Hesperethusa,  daughters  of 


Hesperus.  They  had  a  garden  bearing 
golden  apples,  watched  by  a  dragon, 
which  Hercules  slew  and  bore  away  the 
fruit. 

HES'PJBRUS.  The  son  of  Japetus  and 
brother  to  Atlas;  changed  into  the  even- 
ing star. 

HYACIN  THUS.  A  beautiful  boy,  beloved 
by  Apollo  and  Zephyrus.  The  latter 
killed  him,  but  Apollo  changed  the  blood 
that  was  spilt  into  a  flower  called  hya- 
cinth. 

HY  ADES.  Seven  daughters  of  Atlas  and 
JEihra,  changed  by  Jupiter  into  seven 
stars. 

HY  DRA.  A  celebrated  monster,  or  ser- 
pent, with  seven,  or,  according  to  some, 
fifty  heads,  which  infested  the  I,ake 
L,erna.  It  was  killed  by  Hercules. 

HY  MEN.  Son  of  Bacchus  and  Venus,  and 
god  of  marriage. 

HYP'ERION.    Sou  of  Ccelus  and  TeiTa. 

ICA'RIUS.  Son  of  CEbalus;  having  received 
from  Bacchus  a  bottle  of  wine,  he  went 
into  Attica  to  showmen  the  use  of  it,  but 
was  thrown  into  a  well  by  some  shep- 
herds whom  he  had  made  drunk, 
and  who  thought  he  had  given  them 
poison. 

Ic  ARUS.  The  son  of  Daedalus,  who,  flying 
with  his  father  out  of  Crete  into  Sicily 
and  soaring  too  high,  melted  the  wax  of 
his  wings  and  fell  into  the  sea,  thence 
called  the  Icarian  sea. 

I'o.  The  daughter  of  Inachus,  turned  by 
Jupiter  into  a  white  heifer,  but  after- 
ward resumed  her  former  shape;  was 
worshipped  after  her  death  by  the  Egyp- 
tians under  the  name  of  Isis. 

IPHIGENI'A.  The  daughter  of  Agamem- 
non and  Clytemnestra,  who,  standing 
ready  as  a  victim  to  be  sacrificed  to  ap- 
pease the  ire  of  Diana,  was  by  that  god- 
dess transformed  into  a  white  hart  and 
made  a  priestess. 

I'RIS.  The  daughter  of  Thumas  and  Elec- 
tra:  one  of  the  Oceanides  and  messenger 
and  companion  of  Juno,  who  turned  her 
into  a  rainbow. 

IXI'ON.  A  king  of  Thessaly  and  father  of 
the  Centaurs.  He  killed  his  own  sister, 
and  was  punished  by  being  fastened  in 
hell  to  a  wheel  perpetually  turning. 

JA'NUS.  The  son  of  Apollo  and  Creusa 
and  first  king  of  Italy,  who,  receiving 
the  banished  Saturn,  was  rewarded  by 
him  with  the.  knowledge  of  husbandry 
and  of  things  past  and  future. 

JA'SON.  The  leader  of  the  Argonauts,  who, 
with  Medea's  help,  obtained  the  golden 
fleece  from  Colchis. 

JU'NO.  The  daughter  of  Saturn  and  Ops; 
sister  and  wife  of  Jupiter,  the  great 
queen  of  heaven  and  of  all  the  gods,  and 
goddess  of  marriages  and  births. 

JU'PITER,  or  ZEUS.  The  son  of  Saturn  and 
Ops;  the  supreme  deity  of  the  heathen 
world,  the  most  powerful  of  the  gods  and 
governor  of  all  things. 

l,AOc'6qN.  A  son  ofPriam  and  Hecuba 
and  high  priest  of  Apollo,  who  opposed 
the  reception  of  the  wooden  horse  into 


MYTHOLOGY  AND  FOLK-LORE. 


137 


Troy,  for  which  he  and  his  two  sons 
were  killed  by  serpents. 

LAOM  EDON.  A  king  of  Troy,  killed  by 
Hercules  for  denying  him  his  daughter 
Hesione  after  he  had  delivered  her  from 
the  sea-monster. 

IVA'RES.  Inferior  gods  at  Rome,  who  pre- 
sided over  houses  and  families;  sons  of 
Mercury  and  Lara. 

LE'THE.  A  river  of  hell  whose  waters 
caused  a  total  forgetfulness  of  things 
past. 

I,rj  CIFER.  The  name  of  the  planet  Venus, 
or  morning  star;  said  to  be  the  son  of 
Jupiter  and  Aurora. 

ivU'NA.  The  moon;  the  daughter  of  Hy- 
perion and  Terra. 

LUPER'CALIA.    Feasts  in  honor  of  Pan. 

MARS.    The  god  of  war. 

MEDE'A.  The  daughter  of  ^tes  and  a 
wonderful  sorceress  or  magician;  she  as- 
sisted Jason  to  obtain  the  golden  fleece. 

MEM  NON.  The  son  of  Tithonus  and  Au- 
rora and  king  of  Abydon;  killed  by 
Achilles  for  assisting  Priam,  and  changed 
into  a  bird  at  the  request  of  his  mother. 

MENELA'US.  The  son  of  Atreus,  king  of 
Sparta;  brother  of  Agamemnon  and  hus- 
band of  Helen. 

MEN  TOR.  The  faithful  friend  of  Ulysses, 
the  governor  of  Telemachus,  and  the 
wisest  man  of  his  time. 

MERCURY,  or  HERMHS.  The  son  of  Ju- 
piter and  Maia;  messenger  of  the  gods, 
inventor  of  letters,  and  god  of  eloquence, 
commerce  and  robbers. 

Mr  DAS.  A  king  of  Phrygia,  who  had  the 
power  given  him  of  turning  whatever  he 
touched  into  gold. 

MINER'VA,  or  PALLAS.  The  goddess  of 
wisdom, the  arts,  and  war;  produced  from 
Jupiter's  brain. 

MIN  OTAUR.  A  celebrated  monster,  half 
man  and  half  bull. 

MNEMOS  YNE.  The  goddess  of  memory, 
and  mother  of  the  nine  Muses. 

Mo  MUS.  The  son  of  Nox  and  god  of  folly 
and  pleasantry. 

MOR  PHEUS.  The  minister  of  Nox  and 
Somnus,  and  god  of  sleep  and  dreams. 

Mu  SES.  Nine  daughters  of  Jupiter  and 
Mnemosyne,  named  Calliope,  Clio, 
Erato,  Euterpe,  Melpomene,  Polyhym- 
nia, Terpsichore,  Thalia  and  Urania. 
They  were  mistresses  of  all  the  sciences 
and  governesses  of  the  feasts  of  the  gods. 

Mu  TA.    Goddess  of  silence. 

NA'IADES.  Nymphs  of  streams  and  fount- 
ains. 

NAKCIS'SUS.  A  beautiful  youth,  who,  fall- 
ing in  love  with  his  own  reflection  in  the 
water,  pined  away  into  a  daffodil. 

NEM  ESIS.  One  of  the  infernal  deities  and 
goddess  of  revenge. 

NEP'TUNE.  The  son  of  Saturn  and  Ops; 
god  of  the  sea  and,  next  to  Jupiter,  the 
most  powerful  deity. 

NES'TOR.  The  son  of  Neleus  and  Chloris 
and  king  of  Pylos  and  Messenia.  He 
fought  against  the  Centaurs,  was  distin- 
guished in  the  Trojan  war,  and  lived  to 
a  great  age. 


NI'OBE.  Daughter  of  Tantalus  and  wife 
of  Amphion,  who,  preferring  herself  to 
L.atona,  had  her  fourteen  children  killed 
by  Diana  and  Apollo,  and  wept  herselt 
into  a  stone. 

Nox.  The  most  ancient  of  all  the  deities 
and  goddess  of  night. 

OCEAN'IDES.  Sea-nymphs,  daughters  of 
Oceanus;  three  thousand  in  number. 

OCE'ANTJS.    An  ancient  sea-god. 

OSp'iprjs.  King  of  Thebes,  who  solved  the 
riddle  of  the  Sphinx,  unwittingly  killed 
his  father,  married  his  mother,  and  at 
last  ran  mad  and  tore  out  his  eyes. 

OM'PHALE.  A  queen  of  L,ydia,  with  whom 
Hercules  was  so  enamored  that  he  sub- 
mitted to  spinning  and  other  unbecom- 
ing offices. 

ORES'TES.    The  son  of  Agamemnon. 

OR  PHKUS.  A  celebrated  Argonaut,  whose 
.••kill  in  music  is  said  to  have  been  so 
great  that  he  could  make  rocks,  trees, 
etc.,  follow  him.  He  was  the  son  of  Ju- 
piter and  Calliope. 

PALLA'DIUM.  A  statue  of  Minerva,  which 
the  Trojans  imagined  fell-  from  heaven, 
and  with  which  their  city  was  deemed 
unconquerable. 

PAN.  The  son  of  Mercury  and  the  god  of 
shepherds,  huntsmen  and  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  country. 

PANDO'RA.  The  first  woman,  made  by 
Vulcan,  and  endowed  with  gifts  by  all 
the  deities.  Jupiter  gave  her  a  box 
which  contained  all  the  evils  and  m^er- 
ies  of  life,  but  with  hope  at  the  bottom. 

PAR'IS,  or  ALEXANDER.  Son  of  Priam  and 
Hecuba  ;  a  mos-t  beautiful  youth,  who 
ran  away  with  Helen,  and  thus  occa- 
sioned the  Trojan  war. 

PARNAS'SUS.  A  mountain  of  Phocis  famous 
for  a  temple  of  Apollo;  the  favorite  resi- 
dence of  the  Muses. 

PEG'ASUS.  A  winged  horse  belonging  to 
Apollo  and  the  Muses,  which  sprang 
from  the  blood  of  Medusa  when  Perseus 
cut  off  her  head. 

PENA'TES.  Small  statues,  or  household 
gods. 

PENEL'OPE.  A  celebrated  princess  of 
Greece,  daughter  of  Icarus  and  wife  of 
Ulysses;  celebrated  for  her  chastity  and 
constancy  in  the  long  absence  of  her 
husband. 

PER'SEUS.  Son  of  Jupiter  and  Danae;  per- 
formed many  extraordinary  exploits  by 
means  of  Medusa's  head. 

PHA'ETON.  Son  of  Sol  (Apollo)  and  Cli- 
.mene.  He  asked  the  guidance  of  his 
father's  chariot  for  one  day  as  a  proof  of 
his  divine  descent;  but,  unable  to  man- 
age the  horses,  set  the  world  on  fire,  and 
was  therefore  struck  by  Jupiter  with  a 
thunderbolt  into  the  River  Po. 

PHILOME'LA.  The  daughter  of  Pandion, 
king  of  Athens;  changed  into  a  nightin- 
gale. 

PHIN  EAS.  King  of  Paphlagonia;  had  his 
eyes  torn  out  by  Boreas,  but  was  recom- 
pensed with  the  knowledge  of  futurity. 
Also,  a  king  of  Thrace,  turned  into  a 
stone  by  Perseus. 


138 


MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 


PHCE'BUS.    A  title  of  Apollo.  I 

PLE'IADES.  Seven  daughters  of  Atlas  and 
Pleione,  changed  into  stars. 

PLU'TO.  The  son  of  Saturn  and  Ops, 
brother  of  Jupiter  and  Neptune  and  the 
god  of  the  infernal  regions. 

POMO'NA.  The  goddess  of  fruits  and  an- 
tumn. 

PRI' AM.  The  last  king  of  Troy,  the  son  of 
Laomedon,  under  whose  reign  Troy  was 
taken  by  the  Greeks. 

PROME'THEUS.  The  son  of  Japetus;  said 
to  have  stolen  fire  from  heaven  to  ani- 
mate two  bodies  which  he  had  formed 
of  clay,  and  was  therefore  chained  by 
Jupiter  to  Mount  Caucasus,  with  a  vul- 
ture perpetually  gnawing  his  liver. 

PROSERPINE.    Wife  of  Pluto. 

PRO'TEUS.  The  son  of  OceanusandTethys; 
a  sea-god  and  prophet,  who  possessed 
the  power  of  changing  himself  into  any 
shape. 

PSY'CHE.  A  nymph  beloved  by  Cupid  and 
made  immortal  by  Jupiter. 

PYG'MIES.  A  nation  of  dwarfs  only  a  i  pan 
long,  carried  away  by  Hercules. 

PYR'AMUS  and  THISBE.  Two  lovers  of 
Babylon,  who  killed  themselves  with 
the  same  sword,  and  thus  caused 
the  berriesof  the  mulberry  tree,  under 
which  they  died,  to  change  from  white 
to  red. 

PY'THON  A  huge  serpent,  produced  from 
the  mud  of  the  deluge;  killed  by  Apollo, 
who,  in  memory  thereof,  instituted  the 
Pythian  games. 

RE'MUS.  The  elder  brother  of  Romulus, 
killed  by  him  for  ridiculing  the  city 
walls. 

ROMULUS.  The  son  of  Mars  Ilia;  thrown 
into  the  Tiber  by  his  uncle,  but  saved, 
with  his  twin  brother,  Remus,  by  a  shep- 
herd; became  the  founder  and  first  king 
of  Rome. 

S^T'URN.  A  son  of  Ccelus  and  Terra;  god 
of  time. 

SAT'YRS.  Attendants  of  Bacchus;  horned 
monsters,  half  goats,  half  men. 

SEMIR'AMIS.  A  celebrated  queen  ot  As- 
syria, who  built  the  walls  of  Babylon; 
was  slain  by  her  own  son  Ninyas  and 
turned  into  a  pigeon. 

SILE'NUS.  The  foster-father,  master  and 
companion  of  Bacchus.  He  lived  in  Ar- 
cadia, rode  on  an  ass  and  was  drunk 
every  day. 

SI'RENS.     Sea-nymphs,  or   sea-monsters, 


the  daughters  of  Oceanus  and  Amphi- 
trite. 

SIS'YPHUS.  The  son  of  ^olus;  a  most 
crafty  prince,  killed  by  Theseus  and  con- 
demned by  Pluto  to  roll  up  hill  a  large 
stone,  which  constantly  fell  back  again. 

SOM'NUS.  The  son  of  Erebus  and  Nox  and 
the  god  of  sleep. 

SPHINX.  A  monster  who  destroyed  her- 
self because  CEdipus  solved  the  enigma 
she  proposed. 

STEN'TOR.  A  Grecian  whose  voice  is  re- 
ported to  have  been  as  strong  and  as 
loud  as  the  voices  of  fifty  men  together. 

STYX.    A  river  of  hell. 

SYLVANUS.    A  god  of  woods  and  forests. 

TA'CITA.    A  goddess  of  silence. 

TAN'TALUS.  The  son  of  Jupiter  and  king 
of  L,ydia,  who  served  up  the  limbs  of  his 
son  Pelops  to  try  the  divinity  of  the 
gods,  for  which  he  was  plunged  to  the 
chin  in  a  lake  of  hell  and  doomed  to 
everlasting  thirst  and  hunger. 

TAR'TARUS.  The  part  of  the  infernal  re- 
gions in  which  the  wicked  were  pun- 
ished. 

TAU'RUS.  The  bull  under  whose  form  Ju- 
piter carried  away  Europa. 

TELEM'ACHUS.    The  only  son  of  Ulysses.' 

TI'TAN.  The  son  of  Coelus  and  Terra, 
elder  brother  of  Saturn  and  one  of  the 
giants  who  warred  against  heaven. 

TRI'TON.  The  son  of  Neptune  and  Amphi- 
trite,  a  powerful  sea-god  and  Neptune's 
trumpeter. 

TROY.  A  city  of  Phrygia,  famous  for  hold- 
ing out  a  siege  of  ten  years  against  the 
Greeks,  but  finally  captured  and  de- 
stroyed. 

ULYS'SES.  King  of  Ithaca,  who,  by  his 
subtlety  and  eloquence,  was  eminently 
serviceable  to  the  Greeks  in  the  Trojan 
war. 

VE'NUS,  or  APHRODITE.  One  of  the  most 
celebrated  deities  of  the  ancients,  the 
wife  of  Vulcan,  the  goddess  of  beauty, 
the  mother  of  love,  and  the  mi  tress  of 
the  graces  and  of  pleasures. 

VES'TA.  The  sister  of  Ceres  and  Juno,  the 
goddess  of  fire  and  patroness  of  vestal 
virgins. 

VUI/CAN.  The  god  who  presided  over 
subterraneous  fire,  patron  of  workers  in 
metal. 

ZEPH'YRUS.  The  west  wind,  son  of  JEolus 
and  Aurora  and  lo'ver  of  the  goddess 
Flora. 


ELYSIUM  AND  HADES. 

Elysium,  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  was  the  regions  inhabited  by  the  blessed 
after  death.  They  are  placed  by  Homer  at  the  extremities  of  the  earth,  by  Plato  at 
the  antipodes,  and  by  others  in  the  Fortunate  Islands  (the  Canaries).  They  were  at 
last  transferred  to  the  interior  of  the  earth,  which  is  Virgil's  notion.  The  happiness  of 
the  blessed  consisted  in  a  life  of  tranquil  enjoyment  in  a  perfect  summer  land,  where 
the  heroes,  freed  from  all  care  and  infirmities,  renewed  their  favorite  sports. 

Hades  was  originally  the  Greek  name  of  the  lord  of  the  lower  or  invisible  world, 
afterwards  called  Pluto;  but  in  later  times,  as  in  the  Greek  Scriptures,  it  is  applied  to 
the  region  itself.  With  the  ancients  Hades  was  the  common  receptacle  of  departed 
spirits. 


INDUSTRY  AND  COMMERCE. 


Each  climate  needs  what  other  climes  produce, 
And  offers  something  to  the  general  use; 
No  land  but  listens  to  the  common  call, 
And  in  return  receives  supply  from  all. 

— COWPER. 

FACTS  AND  CHANNELS  OF  TRADE. 

Envelopes  were  first  used  in  1839. 

The  first  lucifer  match  was  made  in  1829. 

First  steamer  crossed  the  Atlantic  in  1819. 

The  first  horse  railroad  was  built  in  1826-7. 

The  first  newspaper  advertisement  was  in  1652. 

The  greatest  grain  port  in  the  world  is  Chicago. 

Cork  is  the  bark  taken  from  a  species  of  oak  tree. 

Edward  III.  is  called  the  Father  of  English  commerce. 

The  canning  industry  is  making  great  headway  in  Georgia. 

There  are  20,000,000  acres  under  cotton  in  the  United  States. 

Soap  was  first  manufactured  in  England  in  the  sixteenth  century. 

First  American  express  ran  from  New  York  to  Boston — W.  F.  Ham- 
den's. 

Until  1776  cotton  spinning  was  performed  by  the  hand  spinning 
wheel. 

The  first  mill-stones  sent  over  here  from  England  paid  /"ll  freight 
in  1628. 

Postage  stamps  first  came  into  use  in  England  in  1840;  in  this  coun- 
try in  1847. 

The  Wetherills  of  Philadelphia  made  white  lead  before  the  American 
Revolution. 

During  1891  there  were  584  factories  in  this  country  engaged  in  the 
silk  industry. 

Since  1840  the  world's  production  of  meat  has  increased  57  per  cent, 
that  of  grain  120  per  cent. 

The  exports  of  this  country  in  the  fiscal  year  1891-2,  amounted  to 
1970,506,282;  imports,  $828,321,646. 

The  largest  number  of  whaling  ships  in  the  world  is  sent  out  by 
Nantucket  and  New  Bedford,  Mass. 


140  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

Certificates  for  proficiency  in  commercial  knowledge  are  now  granted 
at  Cambridge  and  Oxford  universities. ' 

Ostrich  taming  is  a  very  profitable  industry  in  Africa,  where  it  is 
computed  there  are  over  150,000  tame  birds. 

First  sugar-cane  in  the  United  States  was.  cultivated  near  New 
Orleans,  1751;  first  sugar  mill  was  built  in  1758. 

From  August  '91  to  August  '92  our  cotton  crop  was  reported  at  9,035,- 
379  bales,  an  increase  of  382,000  over  previous  year. 

The  Harrisons,  who  figure  so  extensively  in  our  manufactures,  made 
oil  of  vitriol  in  Philadelphia  in  1806,  the  first  in  the  country. 

The  leather  industry  in  the  United  States  was  worth  $130,000,000  in 
the  administration  of  Gen.  Taylor  and  employed  146,000  persons. 

Virginia  led  off  just  before  the  Constitution  in  putting  a  tariff  on 
foreign  leather  and  shoes,  and  Congress  soon  followed  the  example. 

It  is  said  to  cost  less  to  send  the  product  of  an  acre  of  wheat  from 
Dakota  to  England  than  it  does  to  manure  an  acre  of  land  in  England 
so  that  it  can  grow  good  wheat. 

In  1860  Chicago  had  less  than  twelve  millions  of  total  products  for 
all  her  factories,  while  today  such  factories  as  the  Pullman  works  turn 
out  that  value  of  cars  alone  in  a  year. 

The  name  demurrage  in  mercantile  law  means  the  sum  paid  by  the 
owner  of  a  ship  to  the  charterer  for  keeping  the  ship  in  port  a  longer 
time  than  that  provided  in  the  charter. 

According  to  Orfila,  the  proportion  of  nicotine  in  Havana  tobacco  is 
two  per  cent;  in  French  six  per  cent,  and  in  Virginia  tobacco  seven  per 
cent.  That  in  Brazilian  is  still  higher. 

The  production  of  mercury  reaches  about  55,000  to  66,000  frascos  a 
year.  The  frascos  are  enormous  bottles  of  cast  iron,  which  contain  four 
arrobes  of  about  twenty-five  pounds  each. 

The  Cinchona  tree  is  indigenous  to  Peru,  and  from  it  quinine  is  ex- 
tracted; it  derives  its  name  from  the  Countess  of  Chinchon,  who  was 
cured  of  fever  by  the  bark  (Peruvian  bark). 

Paper  making  ranks  high  among  the  industries  of  the  United  States. 
Last  year  there  were  about  1,100  mills  in  operation  in  this  country, 
having  an  average  capacity  of  about  16,000  pounds  of  paper. 

A  new  substance  called  valzin  is  now  being  manufactured  in  Berlin 
under  a  patent,  and  it  is  claimed  to  be  two  hundred  times  sweeter  than 
sugar  and  free  from  certain  objectionable  properties  of  saccharin. 

A  commission  agent,  or  merchant,  is  a  person  employed  to  sell  goods 
consigned  or  delivered  to  him  by  another  who  is  called  his  principal,  for 
a  certain  percentage,  commonly  called  his  commission  or  factorage. 

The  world  annually  consumes  about  650,000  tons  of  coffee.  Esti- 
mating coffee  as  being  worth  about  $400  per  ton,  which  is  about  a  good 
average,  this  represents  an  outlay  of  $260,000,000  for  this  one  beverage 
each  year. 

New  Orleans  boasts  the  largest  custom-house  in  this  or  any  other 
land.  It  was  begun  in  1848  and  over  thirty  years  elapsed  before  it  was 
finished  and  ready  for  use.  It  is  built  of  Quincy  granite  and  the  interior 
is  finished  in  finest  marble.  It  has  111  rooms.  The  height  from  the 


INDUSTR  Y  AND  COMMERCE.  141 

pavement  to  the  top  of  the  cornice  is  80  feet,  and  to  the  top  of  the 
light  on  the  dome,  187  feet.  The  dome  itself  is  49  feet  square  and  61 
feet  high.  The  estimated  total  cost  of  building,  $4, 900,000. 

Caviare  is  the  salted  roe  of  the  common  sturgeon  and  other  fishes  of 
the  same  genus.  It  is  esteemed  by  epicures  as  a  delicacy,  but  the  taste  is 
purely  an  acquired  one— hence  the  phrase,  "caviare  to  the  multitude." 

A  commercial  traveler  is  a  person  whose  occupation  is  to  transact 
business  as  the  accredited  traveling  representative  of  a  trading  house  to 
other  trading  houses.  In  this  country  he  is  commonly  styled  a  "drum- 
mer." 

The  latest  authority  puts  the  silk  production  of  the  world  down  at 
|320,000,000  worth  of  silk  annually,  of  which  France  produces  two-fifths 
of  the  whole,  with  her  230,000  looms.  China  and  Japan  grow  one-half  of 
all  the  raw  silk. 

Clipper  is  a  name  familiarly  given  to  a  sailing  ship  built  expressly 
for  speed.  Aberdeen  was  long  celebrated  for  building  swift  tea-clippers, 
which  since  1860  have  been  gradually  superseded  by  steamers.  The  Bal- 
timore clippers  were  also  famous. 

The  Zollverein  ("Customs  Union")  was  a  union  of  the  German  States 
for  fiscal  purposes  under  the  leadership  of  Prussia.  The  first  step  towards 
its  establishment  was  taken  in  1818.  It  continued  to  exist  until  the  Ger- 
man Empire  was  founded  in  1871. 

In  1820  we  made  only  400  tons  of  white  lead  in  the  whole  country, 
and  at  the  end  of  the  civil  war  we  made  14,000  tons.  A  white  lead  manu- 
facturer of  Cincinnati,  Mr.  Goshorn,  was  the  President  or  Director-Gen- 
eral of  the  Philadelphia  Exhibition. 

Customs  duties  are  the  portion  of  the  revenue  derived  from  a  tax  on 
imports.  In  some  countries,  customs  duties  are  imposed  on  certain  ex- 
ports also.  Customs  is  the  general  term  applying  to  the  service  of  their 
collection,  also  to  the  amounts  collected. 

One  tug  on  the  Mississippi  can  take  in  six  days,  from  St.  Louis  to 
New  Orleads,  barges  carrying  10,000  tons  of  grain,  which  would  require 
seventy  railway  trains  of  fifteen  cars  each.  Tugs  in  the  Suez  Canal  tow 
a  vessel  from  sea  to  sea  in  forty-four  hours. 

The  average  annual  production  of  flax  is  as  follows:  Russia,  270,000 
tons;  Austria,  53,000;  Germany,  48,000;  Belgium  and  Holland,  38,000; 
France,  37,000;  United  Kingdom,  25,000;  Italy,  23,000;  United  States, 
12,000;  Scandinavia,  4,000-total,  510,000  tons. 

Corundum  is  a  mineral  consisting  essentially  of  mere  alumina,  yet 
of  great  specific  gravity — about  four  times  that  of  water — and  of  retnark- 
ble  hardness,  being  inferior  in  this  respect  only  to  the  diamond.  Miner- 
alogists regard  the  sapphire  as  a  variety  of  corundum. 

Having  imported  some  big  cattle  from  Denmark,  the  Ingalls  family 
of  Lynn,  near  Boston,  began  a  tannery  about  1630,  and  a  shoemaker  fol- 
lowed in  five  years,  and  from  these  beginnings  we  record  the  vast  shoe 
industry  of  Lynn,  which  has  produced  a  Vice-President  in  Henry  Wilson. 

The  Alpaca  is  a  half  domesticated  fawn  of  the  wild  vicuna,  closely 
related  to  the  llama.  It  somewhat  resembles  the  sheep  in  form,  but  has 
a  longer  neck  and  a  more  elegant  head.  It  is  a  native  of  the  Andes. 
About  fifty  years  ago  the  wool  of  the  alpaca,  which,  if  allowed  to  remain 
for  some  seasons  grows  to  a  great  length,  became  a  regular  article  of 


142  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

commerce.  Sir  Titus  Salt,  of  England,  was  the  first  person  to  take  steps 
toward  raising  the  alpaca  manufacture  to  its  present  status  as  a  consider- 
able industry.  Various  attempts  have  been  made  to  introduce  the  alpaca 
into  the  United  States,  but  all  have  resulted  in  failure. 

There  is  a  lake  of  pitch  in  the  island  of  Trinidad  about  a  mile  and  a 
half  in  circumference.  While  the  asphaltum  near  the  shores  is  sufficiently 
hard  at  most  seasons  to  sustain  men  and  quadrupeds,  it  grows  soft  and 
warm  toward  the  center,  and  there  it  is  in  a  boiling  state. 

Rum  is  a  kind  of  spirit  made  by  fermenting  and  distilling  the 
"sweets"  that  accrue  in  making  sugar  from  cane-juice.  The  scummings 
from  the  sugar  pans  give  the  best  rum  that  any  particular  plantation  can 
produce;  scummings  and  molasses  the  next  quality;  and  molasses  the 
lowest. 

Anthracite,  called  in  America  hard  coal,  as  opposed  to  bituminous 
or  soft  coal,  has  its  largest  fields  in  Pennsylvania.  It  has  only  a  small 
proportion  of  the  constituents  of  bitumen  and  consists  almost  entirely  of 
carbon.  It  burns  nearly  without  smell,  smoke  or  flame  and  gives  out  an 
intense  heat. 

The  Chamber  of  Commerce  is  a  body  of  merchants,  traders,  bankers 
and  others,  associated  for  the  purpose  of  promoting  the  interests  of  its 
own  members,  of  the  town  or  district  to  which  the  society  belongs,  and 
of  the  community  generally,  in  so  far  as  these  have  reference  to  trade  and 
merchandise. 

The  United  States  produces  2,220  pounds  of  grain  to  each  inhabitant; 
Denmark,  2,005;  Canada,  1,500;  Russia,  1,200;  Roumania,  1,150;  Spain, 
1,100;  France,  990;  Sweden,  980;  Argentine  Republic,  850;  Australia,  760; 
Germany,  700;  Belgium,  600;  Portugal,  550;  Ireland,  500;  Scotland,  490; 
England,  360. 

Disston  sold  his  common  saws  for  a  profit  of  only  seven  cents  on  the 
dozen  in  order  to  underbid  the  English,  who  then  controlled  our  market. 
Out  of  that  manufacture  the  Disston  boys  have  erected  a  whole  town,  and 
there  is  no  man  in  Australia  or  the  British  Colonies  that  would  not  prefer 
the  American  saw  to  a  foreign  one. 

The  ways  of  auctioneers  in  different  parts  of  the  world  vary  greatly. 
In  England  and  America  the  seller  bears  the  expense  of  the  sale,  but  in 
France  the  purchaser  pays  the  cost,  five  per  cent  being  added  to  the  price 
he  pays.  In  Holland  it  is  still  worse,  the  buyer  being  required  to  pay 
ten  per  cent  additional  for  the  expenses  of  the  sale. 

A  Galleon  was  a  large  ship  formerly  used  by  the  Spaniards  to  carry 
home  the  gold,  silver,  and  other  wealth  contributed  by  the  Mexican  and 
South  American  colonies.  They  were  armed,  and  had  usually  three  or 
four  decks,  with  bulwarks  three  or  four  feet  thick,  and  stem  and  stern 
built  up  high  like  castles.  They  had  a  particular  fascination  for  Drake 
and  other  Elizabethan  rovers  who  so  contrived  that  many  of  them  never 
reached  the  ports  of  Spain. 

The  blue  pigments  in  common  use  by  artists  are  few  in  number,  and 
consist  of  native  and  Artificial  Ultramarine,  Cobalt,  Indigo  and  Prussian 
Blue.  Genuine  ultramarine,  prepared  from  the  mineral  lapis  lazuli,  and 
ordinary  cobalt  blue,  sold  for  artists'  work,  are  permanent  colors.  They 
are  used  either  alone,  or  mixed  with  other  pigments,  chiefly  for  skies  and 
distances  in  landscape;  and  by  themselves,  or  to  make  up  grays  and 
other  mixed  tints  in  figure  painting. 


INDUSTRY  AND  COMMERCE.  143 

The  Mississippi  river,  from  the  source  of  the  Missouri  to  the  Eads 
jetties,  is  the  longest  river  in  the  world.  It  is  4,300  miles  in  length  and 
drains  an  area  of  1,726,000  square  miles.  The  Amazon,  Which  is  without 
doubt  the  widest  river  in  the  world,  including  the  Beni,  is  4,000  miles  in 
length  and  drains  2,330,000  square  miles  of  territory. 

The  name  bitumen  is  especially  given  to  a  mineral  substance  of  a 
highly  inflammable  character,  marked  by  a  peculiar  odor.  It  is  gener- 
ally supposed  to  be  a  vegetable  origin.  The  term  is  very  broad  in  its 
use  by  mineralogists  and  by  some  is  made  to  include  the  mineral  resins, 
naphtha,  petroleum,  asphalt  and  mineral  caoutchouc. 

Bricks  and  common  pottery  ware  owe  their  red  color  to  the  iron 
naturally  contained  in  the  clay  of  which  they  are  formed,  the  iron,  by 
the  action  of  the  heat,  being  converted  into  red  oxide  of  iron.  Some 
varieties  of  clay,  like  that  found  near  Milwaukee,  contain  little  or  no  iron, 
and  bricks  made  from  such  clay  are  consequently  of  a  light  yellow  color. 

Curacoa  is  a  well  known  and  esteemed  liqueur,  usually  made  in 
Holland  with  the  dried  peel  of  the  Curacoa  orange,  the  peel  being 
macerated  with  water,  and  then  distilled  with  spirit  and  water.  The 
result  is  sweetened  with  sugar,  and  a  little  Jamaica  rum  is  often  added. 
A  palatable  imitation  can  be  made  from  the  fresh  peel  of  bitter  oranges 
and  whisky. 

The  fair  of  Nijni-Novgorod  is  the  greatest  in  the  world,  the  value  of 
goods  sold  being  as  follows:  1841,  $35,000,000;  1857,  $60,000,000;  1876, 
$140,000,000;  the  attendance  in  the  last  named  year  including  150,000 
merchants  from  all  parts  of  the  world.  In  that  of  Leipsic  the  annual 
average  of  sales  is  $20,000,000,  comprising  20,000  tons  of  merchandise, 
of  which  two-fifths  is  books. 

Coastguard  is  the  name  of  a  British  organization  formerly  intended 
merely  to  prevent  smuggling,  but  now  constituted  so  as  to  serve  as  a 
defensive  force  also.  The  old  coastguardsmen  were  in  the  employment  of 
the  Customs  department;  they  were  posted  along  the  shore  at  spots  com- 
manding extensive  views  of  the  beach,  and  were  expected  to  be  always 
on  the  lookout  for  smugglers.  In  1856  the  coastguard  was  transferred  to 
the  Admiralty. 

Ambergris  is  a  fatty  substance  supposed  to  be  a  morbid  secretion  in 
the  intestinal  canal  of  the  spermaceti  whale.  It  is  found  in  lumps  weigh- 
ing from  half  an  ounce  to  one  hundred  pounds  and  upwards,  either 
floating  upon  the  sea  or  washed  up  on  beaches.  Often  it  is  taken  imme- 
diately from  the  whale.  Ambergris  is  largely  used  in  perfumery,  and  is 
worth  about  $30  an  ounce.  In  general  appearance  it  is  like  dirty,  gray  fat, 
with  yellow  or  reddish  striae.  It  contains  little  black  spots,  caused  by  the 
presence  of  the  beaks  of  the  sepia  octopodia.  Spec,  gravity  .780  to  .920. 

In  commerce  and  political  economy  Barter  is  the  exchange  of  one 
commodity  for  another,  as  contrasted  with  the  sale  of  commodities  for 
money.  It  is  simply  a  primitive  form  of  exchange  carried  on  in  coun- 
tries in  which  the  use  of  money  has  not  yet  been  introduced  or  is  not 
prevalent.  It  was  an  economic  stage  through  which  all  communities 
must  have  passed.  Even  yet  in  many  rude  countries  barter  is  very  com- 
mon; and  European  travelers  find  it  convenient  to  take  with  them  weap- 
ons, tools  and  ornaments  to  exchange  with  the  natives  for  their  commod- 
ities. In  civilized  communities  barter  is  a  very  exceptional  thing,  hav- 
ing been  superseded  by  the  use  of  money  in  various  forms. 


144  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

The  much  abused  "potato  bug"  or  Colorado  beetle  is  an  oval  insect, 
half  an  inch  long,  its  body  of  yellow  color,  spotted  with  black,  with  ten 
black  longitudinal  stripes  on  the  elytra.  It  is  a  native  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  It  is  specially  destructive  to  potato  crops,  and  has  at  various 
times  done  great  damage  to  those  of  the  United  States  aud  even  managed 
to  get  into  England  and  other  countries. 

General  Washington,  in  1789,  visited  a  mill  at  Hartford,  Conn., 
which  made  5, 000  yards  of  cloth  and  sold  it  at  $5  a  yard.  Washington 
wrote  in  his  diary:  "Their  broadcloths  are  not  of  the  first  quality  as  yet, 
but  they  are  good,  as  are  their  cassinets,  cassimeres,  serges,  and  everlast- 
ings; of  the  broadcloth  I  ordered  a  suit  to  be  sent  to  me  at  New  York, 
and  of  the  commoner  goods  a  whole  piece  to  make  breeches  for  my  serv- 
ants." 

In  the  working  of  railways  very  important  advantages  have  been 
reaped  from  what  is  now  known  as  the  "block-system."  The  line  is 
divided  into  a  number  of  comparatively  short  sections,  and  no  train  is 
allowed  to  pass  into  a  section  till  the  signals  at  either  end  indicate  that 
the  section  is  entirely  clear  of  other  trains.  The  signals  are  directed  by 
telegraph;  and,  if  the  system  is  strictly  observed,  collisions  become  im- 
possible. 

A  viscid  and  adhesive  substance  which  is  placed  on  twigs  of  trees, 
or  wire-netting,  to  catch  the  birds  that  may  alight  thereon,  is  thence 
called  birdlime.  It  is  generally  prepared  from  the  middle  bark  of  the 
holly,  mistletoe  or  distaff-thistle,  by  treating  with  water,  boiling  for  sev- 
eral hours,  straining  and  exposing  to  fermentation  for  several  weeks. 
The  result  is  a  gelatinous  mucilage,  consisting  mainly  of  a  substance 
called  viscin. 

The  degrees  of  alcohol  in  wines  and  liquors  are:  Beer,  4.0;  porter, 
4.5;  ale,  7.4;  cider,  8.6;  Moselle,  9.6;  Tokay,  10.2;  Rhine,  11.0;  Orange, 
11.2;  Bordeaux,  11.5;  hock,  11.6;  gooseberry,  11.8;  Champagne,  12.2; 
claret,  13.3;  Burgundy,  13.6;  Malaga,  17.3;  Lisbon,  18.5;  Canary,  18.8; 
sherry,  19.0;  Vermouth,  19.0;  Cape,  19.2;  Malmsey,  19.7;  Marsala,  20.2; 
Madeira,  21.0;  port,  23.2;  Curacoa,  27.0;  aniseed,  33.0;  Maraschino,  34.0; 
Chartreuse,  43.0;  gin,  51.6;  brandy,  53.4;  rum,  53.7;  Irish  whisky,  53.9; 
Scotch,  54.3 

"High  seas"  means  the  open  sea,  including  the  whole  extent  of  sea  so 
far  as  it  is  not  the  exclusive  property  of  any  particular  country.  The  rule 
of  international  law  is  that  every  country  bordering  on  the  sea  has  the 
exclusive  sovereignty  over  such  sea  to  the  extent  of  three  miles  from  its 
shores;  but  all  beyond,  not  within  three  miles  of  some  other  country,  is 
open  or  common  to  all  countries.  The  part  of  sea  within  three  miles' 
distance  is  generally  called  the  territorial  sea  of  the  particular  country, 
or  mare  clausum. 

Koumiss  is  an  intoxicating  beverage  much  esteemed  by  the  Kal- 
mucks. It  is  made  from  the  soured  and  fermented  milk  of  mares,  and 
has  an  acidulous  taste.  A  spirit  is  obtained  from  it  by  distillation.  The 
tribes  which  use  koumiss  are  free  from  pulmonary  phthisis,  and  the 
observation  of  this  fact  has  led  to  the  beneficial  use  of  an  artificial  kou- 
miss made  of  ass's  and  cow's  milk  in  cases  of  consumption.  Of  late  ex- 
tensive establishments  have  been  founded  in  the  southeast  of  Russia  for 
treating  invalids  with  genuine  koumiss;  one  at  Samara  is  visited  by  fif- 
teen hundred  patients  in  a  season. 


INDUSTRY  AND  COMMERCE.  145 

The  Non-importation  Act  was  passed  by  Congress  on  March  26, 1806, 
to  prohibit  the  importation  of  British  manufactures  into  the  United 
States.  The  immediate  cause  of  this  prohibition  was  the  annoyance 
caused  by  the  "Leander"  cruising  off  New  York,  and  insisting 
on  searching  American  vessels  under  pretence  of  looking  for  desert- 
ers. In  one  of  these  searches  an  American  sailor,  named  Pearce,  was 
killed,  and  the  hostility  of  the  States,  which  had  long  been  smouldering, 
burst  into  a  blaze. 

India  rubber  is  obtained  mostly  from  the  Seringueros  of  the  Amazon, 
who  sell  it  for  about  12  cents  a  pound  to  the  merchants  of  Para,  but  its 
value  on  reaching  England  or  the  United  States  is  over  50  cents  a 
pound.  The  best  rubber  forests  in  Brazil  will  ultimately  be  exhausted, 
owing  to  the  reckless  mode  followed  by  the  Seringueros  or  tappers. 
The  ordinary  product  of  a  tapper's  work  is  from  10  to  16  pounds  daily. 
There  are  120  india  rubber  manufacturers  in  the  United  States,  employing 
15,000  operatives,  who  produce  280,000  tons  of  goods,  valued  at  $260,000 
000,  per  annum. 

Amber  is  a  substance  analogous  to  the  vegetable  resins,  usually  of 
a  pale-yellow  color.  It  occurs  in  round,  irregular  lumps,  grains  or 
drops,  slightly  brittle  and  emits  a  pleasant  odor  when  rubbed.  It  melts 
at  536°  F.  Amber  becomes  negatively  electric  by  friction,  and  possesses 
this  property  in  a  high  degree — which,  indeed,  was  first  observed  in  it, 
and  the  term  electricity  is  derived  from  elektron,  the  Greek  name  of 
amber.  The  specific  gravity  of  amber  is  1.065  to  1.070.  Amber  was 
anciently  regarded  as  a  charm  against  witchcraft.  It  is  employed  exten- 
sively in  the  arts,  for  the  mouthpieces  of  pipes,  for  jewelry  and  other 
ornamental  purposes. 

The  name  alcohol  (Arab,  al-kofi'l,  originally  applied  to  a  collyrium, 
a  very  fine  powder  of  antimony  for  staining  the  eyelids;  afterwards 
"essence,"  "spirits").  Ordinary  or  ethyl  alcohol  is  a  limpid,  colorless 
liquid,  of  a  hot  pungent  taste,  and  having  a  slight  but  agreeable  smell. 
It  is  the  characteristic  ingredient  of  fermented  drinks,  gives  them  their 
intoxicating  quality,  and  is  obtained  from  them  by  distillation.  It  is 
said  to  have  been  first  obtained  by  this  process  by  Abucasis,  in  the 
twelfth  century.  If  we  look  at  the  extraordinary  consumption  of  these 
liquors  for  various  purposes,  it  is  seen  to  be  one  of  the  most  important 
substances  produced  by  art. 

The  overland  route  to  India,  Australia  and  the  East,  is  now  under- 
stood to  be  that  from  England  across  France,  through  Mont  Cenis  by 
tunnel,  to  Brindisi  in  Italy,  thence  through  the  Levant,  the  Suez  Canal, 
Red  Sea  and  Indian  Ocean.  This  makes  the  journey  only  about  half  as 
long  as  the  voyage  round  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  a  little  over  six 
thousand  miles  instead  of  more  than  twelve  thousand.  The  saving  in 
time  is  even  more  considerable.  The  time  from  London  to  Bombay  is 
about  four  weeks,  instead  of  three  months  by  the  Cape.  In  1838  a 
monthly  service  was  started  to  carry  the  mails  across  Egypt;  but  to  Lieu- 
tenant Waghorn  (1800-50)  belongs  the  credit  of  first  showing  how  the 
voyage  from  India  could  be  still  further  shortened.  On  October  31,  1845, 
he  arrived  in  London  with  the  Bombay  mail  of  October  1  (via  Austria, 
Bavaria,  Prussia  and  Belgium)  The  railway  from  Suez  to  Alexandria  by 
Cairo  was  opened  in  1858;  but  the  great  event  that  rendered  the  over- 
land route  available  for  passengers  generally  was  the  opening  of  the  Suez 
Canal  in  1869. 

U.  I.— 10 


146  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

The  variety  of  starch  called  Arrowroot  is  extracted  from  the  roots 
of  certain  plants  growing  in  tropical  countries.  It  is  a  fine  starchy  farina, 
much  valued  as  a  delicacy,  and  as  an  easily  digestible  food  for  children 
and  invalids.  It  is  obtained  from  the  root-stocks  of  different  species  of 
Maranta.  The  species  chiefly  yielding  it  is  a  native  of  tropical  America, 
cultivated  in  the  West  India  Islands,  and  growing  about  two  feet  high, 
with  ovate-lanceolate  somewhat  hairy  leaves,  clusters  of  small  flowers  on 
two-flowered  stalks,  and  globular  fruit  about  the  size  of  currants.  The 
rhizomes  are  often  more  than  a  foot  long,  of  the  thickness  of  a  finger, 
jointed,  and  almost  white,  covered  wTith  large  papery  scales.  They  are 
dug  up  when  a  year  old,  washed,  carefully  peeled,  and  reduced  to  a 
milky  pulp.  In  Jamaica  the  roots  are  reduced  by  beating  in  deep  wooden 
mortars;  in  Bermuda  by  means  of  a  wheel-rasp;  but  modern  machinery 
has  now  been  introduced. 

Steam  navigation  practically  commenced  in  1802,  with  the  launch  of 
the  "Charlotte  Dundas,"  which  plied  on  Forth  and  Clyde  Canal.  She 
had  one  paddle-wheel  near  the  stern.  Fulton,  who  invented  the  paddle- 
box,  established  the  American  steamboat  system  with  his  "Clermont" 
(1807),  which  plied  on  the  Hudson.  The  first  steamer  used  in  ocean 
navigation  was  Stevens'  "Phcenix,"  which  steamed  from  New  York  to 
Philadelphia  in  three  days  (1808.)  The  first  passenger  steamer  in  Great 
Britain  was  Henry  Bell's  "Comet,"  built  at  Port  Glasgow  (1812.)  The 
first  steam  vessel  in  the  British  navy  was  also  called  the  "Comet,"  built 
at  Woolwich  dockyard  (1822).  Regular  steamboat  communication  across 
the  Atlantic  was  established  in  1838.  The  first  screw  steamer  in  Great 
Britain  was  the  "Archimedes,"  built  on  the  Thames  (1839);  the  first 
screw  steamer  in  the  British  navy  was  the  "Dwarf  (1843);  and  the  first 
iron  screw  steamer  was  the  "Fire  Queen,"  built  at  Glasgow(1845).  Ocean 
steamers  are  now  built  of  steel. 

A  famous  Indian  product  is  Arrack,  or  Rack,  a  name  often  used  for 
all  sorts  of  distilled  spirituous  liquors,  but  chiefly  applying  to  that  pro- 
cured from  toddy  or  the  fermented  juice  of  the  cocoa  or  other  palms,  as 
well  as  from  rice,  and  the  kind  of  brown  sugar  called  jaggery.  The  palms  in 
other  tropical  countries  furnish  a  fermented  beverage  similar  to  the  toddy 
of  India,  and  in  a  few  instances  also  it  is  distilled,  but  arrack  essentially 
belongs  to  India  and  the  adjacent  countries.  The  cocoanut  palm  is  a  chief 
source  of  toddy  or  palm  wine,  which  is  obtained  from  trees  ranging  from 
twelve  to  sixteen  years  old,  or  in  fact  at  the  period  when  they  begin  to 
show  the  first  indication  of  flowering.  After  the  flowering  shoot  orspadix 
enveloped  in  its  spathe  is  pretty  well  advanced,  and  the  latter  is  about  to 
open,  tne  toddy-man  climbs  the  tree  and  cuts  off  the  top  of  the  flower- 
shoot;  he  next  ties  a  ligature  round  the  stalk  at  the  base  of  the  spadix, 
and  with  a  small  cudgel  he  beats  the  flower-shoot  and  bruises  it.  This  he 
does  daily  for  a  fortnight,  and  if  the  tree  is  in  good  condition,  a  consid- 
erable quantity  of  a  saccharine  juice  flows  from  the  cut  apex  of  the  flower- 
shoot,  and  is  caught  in  a  pot  fixed  conveniently  for  the  purpose,  and 
emptied  every  day.  It  flows  freely  for  fifteen  or  sixteen  days,  and  less 
freely  day  by  day  for  another  month  or  more;  a  slice  has  to  be  removed 
from  the  top  of  the  shoot  very  frequently.  The  juice  rapidly  ferments, 
and  in  four  days  is  usually  sour;  previous  to  that  it  is  a  favorite  drink 
known  in  some  parts  of  India  as  callu,  and  to  the  Europeans  as  toddy. 
When  turning  sour,  it  is  distilled  and  converted  into  arrack.  It  is 
largely  manufactured  in  Goa,  Batavia,  Ceylon  and  Siam.  A  similar 


INDUSTRY  AND  COMMERCE.  147 

spirit  is  made  pretty  largely  from  the  magnificent  fan-leaved  palm,  and 
also  from  the  so-called  date-sugar  palm.  The  name  is  also  given  to  a 
spirit  obtained  from  rice  and  sugar  fermented  with  cocoanut  sap.  An 
imitation  arrack  may  be  prepared  by  dissolving  ten  grains  of  benzoic 
acid  in  a  pint  of  rum.  

RAILWAY  MILEAGE  OF  THE  WORLD. 

The  dates  of  the  opening  of  the  first  railways,  and  the  mileage  in 
1891,  of  the  principal  countries  are  as  under: 

Austria-Hungary 20th  September,  1828 16,467 

Belgium 5th  May,  1835  3,215 

Denmark 18th  September,  1844 1 ,223 

France 1st  October,  1828 22,586 

Germany 7th  December,  1835 25,969 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland 27th  September,  1825 20,073 

Greece 18th  February,  1869 239 

Italy 3d  October,  1839 8,117 

Netherlands 13th  September,  1839 1,887 

Norway 14th  July,  1853 970 

Portugal 9th  July,  1854 1,280 

Russia 4th  April,  1838 19,027 

Spain 30th  October,  1848 6, 127 

Sweden 9th  February,  1851 1,623 

Switzerland 15th  June,  1844 1,929 

Turkey 4th  October,  1860 1,096 


Egypt 26th  January,  1856 1 ,494 

India 18th  April,  1853 16,996 

United  States 17th  April,  1827 167,000 

Canada  19th  March,  1847 14,000 

Mexico 8th  October,  1850 5, 827 

Argentine  Republic 14th  December,  1864 5,798 

Brazil SOthApril,  1854 5,779 

Chili January,  1852 1,926 

Colombia January,  1880 230 

Paraguay 1st  October,  1863 149 

Peru 29thMay,  1851 994 

Uruguay 1st  January,  1869 637 

Venezuela 9th  February,  1866 441 

AROUND  THE  WORLD  IN  EIGHTY-TWO  DAYS. 
This  will  be  of  interest  to  those  "tourists"  who  contemplate  the 
"girdling  of  the  earth!" 

Start  from  any  of  the  Atlantic  cities  to  Omaha,  Neb.,  via  the  regular  trunk  lines  of 
railway— about  1,400  miles,  in  two  days  and  two  hours. 

From  Omaha  to  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  via  Union  and  Central  Pacific  railroads — 1,914 
miles,  in  four  days  and  six  hours. 

From  San  Francisco  to  Yokohama,  Japan,  by  Pacific  Mail  line  of  steamers— 4,700 
miles,  in  twenty-two  days. 

From  Yokohama  to  Hong  Kong,  China,  by  Pacific  Mail  or  Peninsular  and  Oriental 
steamers— 1,600  miles,  in  six  days. 

From  Hong  Kong  to  Calcutta,  India,  by  Peninsular  and  Oriental  steamers — 3,500 
miles,  in  fourteen  days. 

From  Calcutta  to  Bombay,  India,  by  the  East  Indian  and  Great  Indian  Peninsular 
railways — 1,450  miles,  in  three  days. 

From  Bombay  to  Suez,  Egypt,  by  Peninsular  and  Oriental  steamers — 3,600  miles, 
in  fourteen  days. 

From  Suez  to  Alexandria,  Egypt,  by  rail — 225  miles,  in  ten  hours. 

From  Alexandria  to  Brindisi,  Italy,  by  Peninsular  and  Oriental  steamers — 850  miles, 
in  three  days. 

From  Brindisi  to  I<ondon,  England,  by  rail,  via  Paris  or  the  Rhine — 1,200  miles,  in 
thieedays. 

From  Ix>ndon  to  Liverpool,  England,  by  railway — 200  miles,  in  six  hours. 

From  Liverpool  to  the  Atlantic  cities,  America,  by  either  of  the  great  Atlantic  steam- 
ship lines — 3,000  miles,  in  ten  days. 

Total  distance,  23,639  miles.  Time,  eighty-two  days.  Fare,  about  $1,100;  with  $4 
per  day  for  meals  and  incidentals,  the  total  cost  of  the  trip,  |1,500. 


148  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

THEORY    OF    AUCTIONS. 

One  of  the  most  convenient  modes  of  offering  property  for  sale  is 
correctly  indicated  by  the  name  "Auction,"  which  means  an  arrange- 
ment for  increasing  the  price  by  exciting  competition  amongst  purchas- 
ers. In  the  Dutch  Auction  of  the  "Cheap  Jack,"  the  usual  mode  of  pro- 
ceeding is  reversed,  the  property  being  offered  at  a  higher  price  than 
that  which  the  seller  is  willing  to  accept,  and  gradually  lowered  till  a 
purchaser  isfound.  "Cheap  John"  auctions  are  extensively  in  vogue  in 
the  larger  cities  of  this  country,  in  which  "cappers"  and  other  shady 
characters  are  employed  to  bid  upon  articles  and  entrap  unwary  persons 
into  extravagant  purchases.  These  institutions  have  become  public 
nuisances,  and  many  of  them  are  little  better  than  "fences"  for  stolen 
goods.  Thus  far  not  much  has  been  accomplished  in  the  way  of  their 
suppression.  In  legitimate  auctions  "Conditions  of  Sale"  are  usually 
published,  which  constitute  the  terms  on  which  the  seller  offers  his  prop- 
erty, and  form  an  integral  part  of  the  contract  between  seller  and  pur- 
chaser. The  contract  is  completed  by  the  offer  or  bid  on  the  part  of  the 
purchaser,  and  the  acceptance  by  the  seller  or  his  representative,  which 
is  formally  declared  by  the  fall  of  the  auctioneer's  or  salesman 'shammer, 
and  in  former  times  by  the  running  of  a  sandglass,  the  burning  of  an  inch 
of  candle  (hence  the  term  "sale  by  the  candle"),  or  any  other  means 
which  may  have  been  specified  in  the  conditions  of  sale.  Mere  adver- 
tisement does  not  make  a  contract.  These  conditions  or  articles  ought 
further  to  narrate  honestly  and  fully  the  character  of  the  object  or  the 
nature  of  the  right  to  be  transferred,  to  regulate  the  manner  of  bidding, 
prescribe  the  order  in  which  offerers  are  to  be  preferred,  and  to  name  a 
person  who  shall  be  empowered  to  determine  disputes  between  bidders, 
and  in  cases  of  doubt  to  declare  which  is  the  purchaser. 

CURIOUS  BY-PRODUCTS  OF  COAL. 

There  are  a  good  many  products  from  coal,  of  which  the  majority  of 
people  know  nothing.  Their  number  will  go  into  the  thousands,  and 
research  into  this  particular  branch  of  inorganic  chemistry  is  bringing 
new  and  rich  rewards  to  scientists  each  year.  One  of  the  hydrocarbons 
distinctly  produced  from  coal  tar  is  benzole.  This  is  the  base  of  magenta 
red  and  blue  coloring  matters  and  of  the  oil  of  bitter  almonds.  This  oil 
formerly  came  entirely  from  the  vegetable  product  from  which  it  takes 
its  name,  but  now  it  is  to  a  large  extent  made  from  benzole,  and  a  chemi- 
cally pure  product  is  secured.  The  vegetable  oil  of  bitter  almonds  con- 
tains a  certain  amount  of  prussic  acid,  which  is  a  poisonous  substance. 
Toluene,  or  tolulo,  is  another  product  from  coal  tar,  which  is  the  base  of 
a  great  many  chemicals.  Benzoic  acid,  which  used  to  be  made  almost 
entirely  from  plants,  is  now  readily  made  from  toluene.  Carbolic  acid 
is  another  product  of  tolulo.  The  latter  is  a  colorless  fluid  with  a  smell 
very  much  like  crude  petroleum,  while  carbolic  acid  and  salicylic  acid, 
two  of  its  products,  are  far  from  being  sweet-smelling  compounds.  Yet 
this  same  tolulo  is  the  basis  of  a  number  of  very  fragrant  products.  Win- 
tergreen  oil,  much  purer  than  from  the  plant,  and  generally  preferred 
by  confectioners  and  others  who  use  it,  is  one;  oil  of  cinnamon,  cinna- 
mic  acid,  and  oil  of  cloves  are  among  the  middle  products  which  are  in 
great  demand.  As  yet  the  products  of  coal  tar  have  not  been  made  use 
of  for  medicines  to  any  great  extent,  except  as  disinfectants,  but,  from 
experiments  now  going  on,  it  is  hoped  to  produce  pure  quinine  from 


INDUSTRY  AND  COMMERCE. 


149 


chinolene,  one  of  the  coal  tar  products,  and  scientists  say  that  it  is  only 
a  question  of  time  when  all  alkaloids  known,  and  probably  others  not 
now  known,  will  be  made  from  coal  tar.  It  would  take  a  good-sized 
book  to  even  begin  to  give  an  idea  of  the  commercial  products  alone  of 
coal  tar.  Nearly  every  known  color,  except  cochineal  red  and  indigo 
blue,  is  made,  and  the  latter  was  produced  after  nine  years  of  experiment 
by  the  eminent  German  scientist,  Byer  of  Munich,  but  the  manufacture 
was  so  expensive  that  it  has  never  been  done  except  for  scientific  pur- 
poses. The  logwood  and  madder  dyes  of  our  grandmothers'  days  are 
rarely  seen  in  the  market  now,  owing  to  the  cheapness  with  hich  they 
are  manufactured.  Red  ink,  which  formerly  was  made  almost  ex- 
clusively from  carmine,  is  now  made  from  cosine,  one  of  the  numerous 
coal-tar  progeny. 

COAL  PRODUCTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Compiled  from  the  Report  of  the  Eleventh  Census,  covering  product 
of  1889.     Weight  expressed  in  short  tons  of  2,000  pounds: 


STATES 

TONS 

STATES. 

TONS. 

STATES. 

TONS. 

Alabama  

3,378,484 

Kentucky  

2.399,755 

Tennessee  

1,925,689 

Arkansas  

279,584 

Maryland  

2,939.715 

Texas  

128216 

California     and 

Michigan     

67  431 

Utah 

236  601 

186  119 

2  567  823 

Colorado  

2,360,536 

Montana  

363,301 

Anthracite 

2817 

Georgia     and 

226  156 

Nebraska      and 
Dakotas 

30307 

Bituminous  .  .. 

865,786 
993  724 

Illinois  
Indiana 

12,104,272 
2845057 

New  Mexico  
Ohio 

486,983 
9  976  787 

West  Virginia.... 
Wyoming     .  .  . 

6.231.880 
1  388  947 

Indian  Territory 
Iowa  
Kansas  

732832 
4,061,704 
2,230,763 

Pennsylvania: 
Anthracite  
Bituminous  .  .  . 

45  544,970 
36,174.089 

Total  product,  1889,  short  tons,  140,730,288,    equivalent  to  125,652,056  long  tons  of 
2,240  pounds.  

THE  WORLD'S  COAL-FIELDS. 

AREA  IN  SQUARE  MILES.— China  and  Japan,  200,000;  United  States, 
194,000;  India,  35,000;  Russia,  27,000;  Great  Britain,  9,000;  Germany, 
3,600;  France,  1,800;  Belgium,  Spain,  and  other  countries,  1,400.  Total, 
471,800. 

The  coal-fields  of  China,  Japan,  Great  Britain,  Germany,  Russia,  and 
India  contain  apparently  303,000,000,000  tons,  which  is  enough  for 
seven  hundred  years  at  present  rate  of  consumption.  If  to  the  above  be 
added  the  coal-fields  in  the  United  States,  Canada,  and  other  countries, 
the  supply  will  be  found  ample  for  one  thousand  years.  Improved  ma- 
chinery has  greatly  increased  the  yield  per  miner,  and  thus  produced  a 
fall  in  price  to  the  advantage  of  all  industries. 


THE  WORLD'S    FINEST   HARBORS. 

San  Francisco  may  fairly  claim  to  have  the  most  capacious  natural 
harbor  of  any  of  the  world's  great  trading  marts.  It  is  also  one  of  the 
very  safest.  It  is  entered  through  the  Golden  Gate,  a  passage  a  mile 
wide  and  thirty-five  feet  deep  at  low  tide — admitting  the  largest  ships 
afloat  without  danger  of  grounding.  The  landlocked  bay  of  which  this 
harbor  is  part  is  fifty  miles  long,  and  averages  five  miles  in  width.  There 
all  the  shipping  of  the  entire  globe  could  anchor  in  perfect  safety.  Port 


150  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

Philip  bay,  the  chief  harbor  of  Victoria,  Australia,  is  larger  than  the 
bay  of  San  Francisco,  being  about  thirty-eight  miles  long  by  thirty-three 
broad,  but  its  very  breadth,  with  its  surroundings,  leaves  it  exposed  to 
storms  from  certain  quarters.  Port  Jackson,  on  which  Sydney,  New 
South  Wales,  Australia,  is  located,  is  a  magnificent  harbor,  completely 
landlocked,  extending  inland  in  some  places  fully  twenty  miles,  and 
having  ample  depth  of  water  for  vessels  of  the  heaviest  burden.  The 
harbors  of  New  York  City,  Rio  Janeiro,  Brazil,  and  Havana,  Cuba,  are 
capacious  and  secure.  Next  come  those  of  Boston,  Norfolk,  Va.,  Port- 
land, Me.,  Halifax,  N.S.,  Copenhagen,  Constantinople,  Hong  Kong, 
Yokohama  and  Nagasaki.  The  great  ports  situated  on  the  -banks  of 
rivers,  such  as  London,  Liverpool,  Glasgow,  Lisbon,  Philadelphia,  New 
Orleans,  Quebec,  Shanghai,  Canton,  Calcutta,  etc.,  are  not  included  in 
the  definition  of  harbors  as  here  considered. 


CONDENSED  POSTAL  INFORMATION. 

LOCAL,  or  DROP  LETTERS,  two  cents  for  each  ounce  at  all  letter  cal' 
rier  offices,  and  at  other  offices  1  cent. 

LETTERS  to  any  part  of  the  United  States  or  the  Dominion  of  Canada, 
2  cents  for  each  ounce  or  fraction  thereof. 

LETTERS  to  Great  Britain  or  Ireland,  or  the  Continent  of  Europe,  5 
cents  for  each  half  ounce. 

LETTERS  may  be  registered  by  paying  a  charge  of  10  cents. 

POSTAL  CARDS  costing  one  cent  each  can  be  sent  to  any  part  of  the 
United  States  or  Canada.  They  may  be  sent  to  Newfoundland,  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  by  adding  a  1  cent  stamp. 

PRINTED  MATTER:  1.  Printed  Books,  Periodicals,  Transient  News- 
papers and  other  matter  wholly  in  print,  in  unsealed  envelopes  1  cent 
for  each  two  ounces  or  fraction  thereof. 

2.  Printed  circulars  may  bear  the  date,  address  and  signature   at 
this  rate. 

3.  Reproductions  by  electric  pen,  Hektograph,  and  similar  pro- 
cesses, same  as  Printed  Matter. 

ARTICLES  OF  MERCHANDISE,  SEEDS,  CUTTINGS,  ROOTS,  and  other 
mailable  matter  1  cent  for  each  ounce  or  fraction  thereof. 

ALL  PACKAGES  of  mail  matter  not  charged  with  letter  postage  must 
be  arranged  so  the  same  can  be  conveniently  examined  by  postmasters. 
If  not  so  arranged,  letter  postage  will  be  charged. 

ARTICLES  OF  MERCHANDISE  may  be  registered  at  the  rate  of  10  cents 
a  package,  subject  to  proper  examination  before  registration.  The  name 
and  the  address  of  sender  must  be  indorsed  in  writing,  or  in  print,  on 
each  package  offered  for  registration. 

ANY  PACKAGE  may  have  the  name  and  address  of  the  sender,  with 
the  word  "from"  prefixed  on  the  wrapper,  and  the  number  and  names 
of  the  articles  may  be  added  in  brief  form. 

POSTAL  NOTE,  payable  to  bearer  at  any  money  order  office  designed 
by  the  purchaser  of  the  note,  must  be  for  an  amount  under  five  dollars, 
and  will  cost  three  cents. 

MONEY  ORDERS:  The  fee  for  a  money  order  amounting  to  $10  is 
8  cents;  $10  to  $15,  10  cents;  $15  to  $30,  15  cents;  $30  to  $40,  20  cents;  $40 
to  $50,  25  cents;  $50  to  $60,  30  cents;  $60  to  $70,  35  cents;  $70  to  $80  dol- 
lars, 40  cents;  $80  to  $100,  45  cents. 


HANDICRAFT  AND  INVENTION. 


Toiling — rej  oicing — sorrowing, 

Onward  through  life  he  goes; 
Each  morning  sees  some  task  begun, 

Each  evening  sees  it  close; 
Something  attempted,  something  done, 

Has  earned  a  night's  repose! 

— I«ONGFELL(JW. 

TRIUMPHS  OF  SKILL   AND  GENIUS. 

Telescopes  were  invented  in  1590. 

The  first  steel  pen  was  made  in  1830. 

The  telephone  was  invented  in  1861. 

The  Chinese  invented  paper,  170  B.  C. 

Ben  Franklin  used  the  first  lightning  rods  in  1752. 

The  phonograph  was  invented  by  T.  A.  Edison  in  1877. 

Stained  glass  windows  were  used  in  the  eighth  century. 

The  first  illumination  with  gas  was  in  Cornwall,  Eng.,  in  1792. 

Spectacles  were  invented  by  an  Italian  in  the  thirteenth  century. 

St.  Peter's  church  at  Rome  was  begun  in  1415,  and  opened  in  1626, 

Daguerre  and  Nieper  invented  the  process  of  daguerreotype  in  1839. 

The  first  illumination  by  gas  in  the  United  States  was  at  Boston  in 
1822. 

The  first  complete  sewing  machine  was  patented  by  Elias  Howe, 
Jr.,  in  1846. 

The  first,  electric  telegraph,  Paddington  to  Brayton,  Eng.,  was  put 
into  operation  in  1835. 

The  first  musical,  notes  were  used  in  1338;  they  were  first  printed 
in  the  fifteenth  century. 

Umbrellas  were  not  seen  in  England  until  1768,  when  Gen.  Washing- 
ton was  thirty -six  years  old. 

A  minister  in  England  made  $50,000  by  inventing  an  odd  toy  that 
danced  by  winding  it  with  a  string. 

The  great  wall  of  China,  built  200  B.  C.,  is  1,250  miles  in  length,  20 
feet  high,  and  25  feet  thick  at  the  base. 

Glass  mirrors  were  first  made  by  Venetians  in  the  thirteenth  century. 
Polished  metal  was  used  before  that  time. 

It  appears  that  on  the   Santee  river,  in  South  Carolina,  they  were 
manufacturing  cotton  by  machinery  in  1790. 

151 


152  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

The  different  shot  towers  in  this  country,  such  as  that  in  Philadelphia, 
were  put  up  as  early  as  1808  to  the  height  of  180  feet. 

Printing  was  known  in  China  in  the  sixth  century.  It  was  intro- 
duced into  England  about  1474,  and  into  America  in  1536. 

Pins  date  to  1543  in  France,  and  were  made  in  England  in  1626.  Be- 
fore that  time  they  used  thorns  and  clasps  in  place  of  pins. 

Burnt  brick  are  known  to  have  been  used  in  building  the  Tower  of 
Babel.  They  were  introduced  into  England  by  the  Romans. 

The  man  who  invented  the  return  ball,  an  ordinary  wooden  ball  with 
a  rubber  string  attached  to  pull  it  back,  made  $1, 000, 000  from  it. 

The  first  cigar-ship  was  a  steam  pleasure  yacht  built  in  the  shape  of 
a  cigar  from  the  design  of  Mr.  Ross  Winans.  It  was  launched  on  the 
Thames  in  1886. 

The  longest  fence  in  the  world  is  in  Australia — one  thousand  two 
hundred  and  thirty-six  miles.  It  is  made  of  wire  netting,  and  its  object 
is  to  keep  out  rabbits. 

The  longest  span  of  wire  in  the  world  is  used  for  a  telegraph  in  India 
over  the  river  Ristuah.  Its  length  is  over  six  thousand  feet,  and  it  is 
stretched  between  two  hills  twelve  hundred  feet  high. 

As  large  a  sum  as  was  ever  obtained  for  any  invention  was  enjoyed 
by  the  Yankee  who  invented  the  inverted  glass  bell  to  hang  over  gas  jets 
to  protect  ceilings  from  being  blackened  by  smoke. 

Every  one  has  seen  the  metal  plates  that  are  used  to  protect  the  heels 
ana  soles  of  rough  shoes,  but  every  one  doesn't  know  that  within  ten 
years  the  man  who  hit  upon  the  idea  has  made  $250,000. 

The  common  needle  threader,  which  every  one  has  seen  for  sale,  and 
which  every  woman  owns,  was  a  boon  to  needle  users.  The  man  who 
invented  it  has  an  income  of  $10,000  a  year  from  his  invention. 

The  Great  Wall  of  China  was  completed  B.  c.  214  by  Chi-Hwang-Ti 
of  the  Tsin  dynasty.  Every  third  man  of  the  whole  empire  was  em- 
ployed on  the  work,  and  half  a  million  of  them  died  of  starvation. 

The  screw  propeller  of  the  steamship  "Umbria,"  is  twenty-four  and 
one-half  feet  in  diameter,  and  weighs  thirty-nine  tons.  Its  four  blades 
are  made  of  manganese  bronze,  and  the  metal  in  them  cost  over  $16,- 
000. 

The  use  of  granite  and  flint  broken  to  pieces  one  or  two  ounces  in 
weight  to  form  roads,  was  recommended  by  John  Macadam,  a  Scotchman, 
in  1819;  the  plan  was  adopted,  and  he  received  $50,000  from  the  British 
government,  and  was  appointed  surveyor-general  of  the  Metropolitan 
roads. 

Paris  claims  the  finest  theater  in  the  world.  It  is  of  solid  stone,  fin- 
ished with  marble  floors,  and  covers  about  four  acres  of  ground.  L/aScala, 
of  Milan,  has  the  largest  seating  capacity,  while  the  Auditorium,  at  Chi- 
cago, completed  in  1889,  seatii  g  seven  thousand,  ranks  second  in  that 
respect. 

When  Catherine  of  Russia  was  on  the  throne,  an  ingenious  peasant 
presented  her  with  a  marvelous  watch,  which  is  at  present  being  exhib- 
ited in  St.  Petersburg.  In  size  and  shape  it  somewhat  resembles  a  chick- 
en's egg.  When  wound  up  to  the  proper  pitch  it  plays  religious  chants, 
accompanied  with  scenic  effects. 


HANDICRAFT  AND  INVENTION.  153 

The  Chubb  lock  was  named  after  its  inventor,  a  London  locksmith. 
In  addition  to  the  usual  tumblers,  it  had  an  extra  one,  which  fixed  the 
bolt  immovably  if  one  of  the  ordinary  tumblers  was  lifted  a  little  too 
high. 

The  inventor  of  the  roller  skate  has  made  $1,000,000,  notwithstand- 
ing the  fact  that  his  patent  had  nearly  expired  before  the  value  of  it  was 
ascertained  in  the  craze  for  roller  skating  that  spread  over  the  country  a 
few  years  ago. 

The  highest  monument  in  the  world  is  the  Washington  monument, 
being  five  hundred  and  fifty-five  feet.  The  highest  structure  of  any  kind 
is  the  Eiffel  Tower,  Paris,  finished  in  1889,  and  nine  hundred  and  eighty- 
nine  feet  high. 

The  American  hunting  dagger  or  bowie-knife  was  named  after  its 
inventor,  Colonel  Jim  Bowie,  who,  born  about  1790,  fell  at  Fort  Alamo 
in  the  Texan  war  (1836).  Its  curved,  double-edged  blade  is  ten  to  fifteen 
inches  long,  and  above  an  inch  wide. 

They  were  making  cannons  in  1814  at  the  Fort  Pitt  works,  Pitts- 
burg,  to  be  used  by  Commodore  Perry  on  Lake  Erie.  It  was  many  a  year 
before  we  began  to  make  copper  and  brass  out  there,  say  in  1850,  after  we 
had  developed  Lake  Superior  copper. 

How  old  do  you  suppose  silk  is?  It  was  spun  in  China  two  thousand 
six  hundred  and  forty  years  before  Christ,  and  Isaiah  seems  to  refer  to  it 
when  he  says:  "They  that  work  in  sirokott  or  fine  flax,  and  they  that 
weave  network,  shall  be  confounded." 

Out  of  Sussex  Co.,  Eng.,  William  Penn  took  seven  hundred  of  the 
best  mechanics,  millwrights,  carpenters  etc.,  and  brought  them  to  the 
United  States.  The  first  county  he  struck,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Dela- 
ware, he  named  in  their  honor  Sussex  County. 

Glass  paper  or  cloth  is  made  by  powdering  glass  more  or  less  finely 
and  sprinkling  it  over  paper  or  calico  still  wet  with  a  coat  of  thin  glue; 
the  powdered  glass  adheres  as  it  dries.  Glass  paper  is  very  extensively 
employed  as  a  means  for  polishing  wood-work. 

It  was  only  one  hundred  and  six  years  ago  that  a  committee  was  ap- 
pointed in  Philadelphia  to  inquire  into  the  process  of  coloring  leather  as 
practiced  in  Turkey  and  Morocco.  They  paid  an  Armenian  whom  they 
found  ^100  and  a  gold  medal  to  give  them  the  information. 

The  largest  anvil  known  is  that  used  in  the  Woolwich  Arsenal,  Eng- 
land. It  weighs  sixty  tons.  The  anvil  block  upon  which  it  rests  weighs 
one  hundred  and  three  tons.  Altogether  six  hundred  tons  of  iron  were 
used  in  the  anvil,  the  block  and  the  foundation  work. 

The  process  for  making  Bessemer  Steel  was  invented  by  Sir  Henry 
Bessemer  in  1856.  It  converts  fused  pig  iron  into  steel  by  blowing  air 
through  it  and  clearing  it  of  carbon,  and  then  adding  enough  carbon  to 
make  steel.  Another  kind  of  Bessemer  steel  is  made  from  inferior  pig 
iron  by  a  modified  process  and  is  termed  Basic  steel. 

The  telephone  is  an  instrument  designed  to  reproduce  sounds  at  a 
distance  by  means  of  electricity.  Professor  Graham  Bell's  articulating 
telephone  was  produced  in  1877.  Communication  by  telephone  between 
New  York  and  Chicago  (1,000  miles),  was  opened  in  1893,  between  Paris 
and  Marseilles  (563  miles)  in  1888,  and  between  London  and  Paris  in 
1891. 


154  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

The  gimlet-pointed  screw  has  produced  more  wealth  than  most  sil- 
ver mines,  and  the  Connecticut  man  who  first  thought  of  putting  copper 
tips  on  the  toes  of  children's  shoes,  is  as  well  off  as  if  he  had  inherited 
$1,000,000,  for  that's  the  amount  his  idea  has  realized  for  him. 

The  largest  bells  in  the  world  are  the  following,  their  weight  being 
given  in  tons:  Moscow,  216;  Burmab.,117;  Pekin,  53;  Novgorod,  31;  Notre 
Dame,  18;  Rouen,  18;  Olmutz,  18;  Vienna,  18;  St.  Paul's,  16;  West- 
minster, 14;  Montreal,  12;  Cologne,  11;  Oxford,  8;  St.  Peter's,  8. 

The  Chicopee  works  near  Springfield,  Mass.,  started  in  1829,  and 
began  to  manufacture  cutlery,  and  also  cast  the  first  American  statuary, 
such  as  the  gates  of  the  Capitol  at  Washington,  the  statue  of  Washington 
in  New  York,  and  that  of  De  Witt  Clinton  in  Greenwood  Cemetery. 

French  ingenuity  has  contrived  an  improved  stone-cutting  saw  of 
remarkable  efficiency— a  circular  saw  having  its  edge  set  with  black  di- 
amonds in  the  same  way  as  the  straight  blades;  but  as  the  strain  on  the 
diamond  is  all  in  one  direction,  the  setting  can  be  made  much  firmer. 

Umbrellas  commenced  to  be  made  on  a  large  scale  in  this  country  in 
1820  by  the  Wrights,  who  are  still  at  it,  and  who  were  four  brothers,  all 
from  Oxfordshire,  England.  For  ten  years  they  made  only  one  hundred 
umbrellas  a  day,  and  by  the  time  of  the  civil  war  made  three  thousand  a 
day. 

A  hot  water  fountain  is  in  operation  in  Paris.  The  water  that  feeds 
the  fountain  passes  through  a  coil  of  copper  tubing  three  hundred  feet 
long.  By  dropping  a  sou  in  a  slot  jets  of  gas  are  turned  on  and  ignited. 
By  this  means  the  water  is  heated.  For  each  sou  one  is  entitled  to  eight 
liters.  It  is  expected  that  this  fountain  will  be  of  great  assistance  to 
the  poor. 

The  catamaran  is  a  raft  formed  usually  of  three  pieces  of  wood  lashed 
together,  the  middle  piece  being  longer  than  the  others,  and  serving  as  a 
keel;  on  this  the  rower  kneels  or  squats,  and  works  a  paddle.  These 
simple  vessels  are  used  by  the  natives  of  Madras  to  maintain  communica- 
tion between  ships  and  the  shore,  ordinary  boats  being  rendered  unsafe 
by  the  surf. 

Many  things  we  used  to  have  in  perfection  we  see  no  more.  For 
instance,  paper  collars  in  1853  were  being  manufactured  by  the  million. 
Bismarck  says  that  as  late  as  the  war  of  1870,  Burnside  came  to  camp  with 
another  American,  who  wore  a  paper  collar.  But  celluloid  has  replaced 
paper,  and  linen  and  cotton  have  become  so  cheap  that  it  hardly  pays  to 
wear  the  poor  article. 

Vellum  is  the  name  originally  given  to  a  fine  variety  of  parchment, 
made  of  calfskin.  Vellum  is  prepared  from  the  skins  of  kids,  lambs, 
and  young  calves.  Some  of  the  earliest  printed  books  were  done  on 
vellum,  and  some  of  the  best  of  the  early  miniature  portraits  were 
painted  on  a  specially  fine  quality  of  vellum  prepared  from  the  skins  of 
calves  prematurely  born. 

The  Union  arch  of  the  Washington  Aqueduct  is  the  largest  in  the 
world,  being  two  hundred  and  twenty  feet;  'twenty  feet  in  excess  of  the 
Chester  arch  across  the  Dee  in  England,  sixty-eight  feet  longer  than  that 
of  the  London  Bridge;  ninety-two  feet  longer  than  that  at  Neuilly  on  the 
Seine,  and  one  hundred  feet  longer  than  that  of  Waterloo  Bridge.  The 
height  of  the  Washington  arch  is  one  hundred  feet. 


HANDICRAFT  AND  INVENTION.  155 

A  diamond  cut  at  Antwerp  is,  with  one  exception,  the  largest  in  the 
world.  It  weighed  474  carats,  but  has  lost  275  in  the  cutting.  It  will 
still,  however,  hold  its  place  as  second  largest  cut  stone,  being  exceeded 
only  by  the  Persian  Great  Mogul,  which  weighs  280  carats.  The  Koh- 
i-noor  weighs  only  102^  carats.  The  Antwerp  diamond  is  about  as  large 
as  a  pigeon's  egg,  and  measures  .786  inches  each  way. 

The  pretty  trinkets  called  Bog  Oak  Ornaments  are  turned  or  carved 
from  the  trunks  of  the  black  oak,  which  is  especially  suitable  for  the  pur- 
pose, the  yew,  fir  and  other  woods,  which  are  often  found,  of  a  dark  color 
and  well  preserved,  in  the  peat  bogs  of  Great  Britain,  Ireland  and  other 
countries.  The  trade  originated  in  the  reign  of  George  IV.  The  annual 
value  of  such  goods  sold  in  Dublin  has  been  estimated  at  $100,000. 

In  shipping  the  caisson  is  an  apparatus  for  lifting  a  vessel  out  of  the 
water  for  repairs  or  inspection.  It  is  usually  a  hollow  structure,  sunk  by 
letting  water  into  it.  There  is  an  air  chamber  inside,  which  allows  it  to 
sink  only  to  a  certain  depth.  In  that  state  it  is  hauled  under  the  ship's 
bottom,  the  traps  or  openings  are  closed,  the  water  is  pumped  out,  and 
the- caisson  rises  with  the  ship  upon  it.  Pontoon  is  another  term  for  the 
same  apparatus. 

One  of  the  cleverest  inventions  ever  passed  on  by  the  patent  office  is 
the  machine  for  sticking  common  pins  in  the  papers  in  which  they  are 
sold.  The  contrivance  brings  up  the  pins  in  rows,  draws  the  paper  into 
position,  crimps  it  into  two  lines,  then,  at  a  single  push,  passes  the  pins 
through  the  paper  and  sets  them  in  position.  The  machine  almost 
seems  to  think  as  it  works,  and  to  examine  the  paper  to  see  if  it  is  prop- 
erly folded  before  pushing  the  pins  into  place. 

The  steam  engine  in  its  present  form  was  the  invention  of  James 
Watt  (1768),  whose  great  improvement  consisted  in  performing  conden- 
sation in  a  separate  vessel  from  the  cylinder,  and  in  producing  both  the 
up  and  down  stroke  of  the  piston  by  steam.  The  compound  engine,  in 
which  the  steam  receives  its  expansion  is  a  second  and  larger  cylinder, 
was  the  invention  of  Jonathan  Hornblower  (1781).  The  marine  engine 
of  Elder  (1854;  is  an  adaptation  of  Horn  blower's  compound  engine. 

The  Eiffel  Tower  is  a  colossal  iron  structure  erected  by  Gustave 
Eiffel,  a  French  engineer,  on  the  Champs  de  Mars.  It  was  completed 
March  31,  1889.  It  contains  three  stories,  reached  by  a  series  of  elevators 
or  lifts,  and  the  platform  at  the  summit  is  985  feet  above  the  ground. 
About  seventeen  hundred  tons  of  iron  were  employed  in  its  construction ; 
the  cost  was  about  $1,000,000.  The  London  Great  Tower  now  (1893)  in 
process  of  construction  will  exceed  the  Eiffel  Tower  in  height  by  200  feet 
and  is  to  be  of  polished  steel. 

.  The  largest  and  grandest  temple  of  worship  in  the  world  is 
St.  Peter's  Cathedral  at  Rome.  It  stands  on  the  site  of  Nero's  circus,  in 
the  northwest  part  of  the  city,  and  is  built  in  form  of  a  Latin  cross.  The 
total  length  of  the  interior  is  612>£  English  feet;  transept,  446  >£;  height 
of  nave,  152^  feet;  diameter  of  cupola,  193  feet;  height  of  dome  from 
pavement  to  top  of  cross,  448  feet.  The  great  bell  alone  without  the 
hammer  or  clapper  weighs  18,600  pounds,  or  over  nine  and  one- 
fourth  tons.  The  foundation  was  laid  in  1450  A.  D.  Forty-three 
Popes  lived  and  died  during  the  time  the  work  was  in  progress.  It  was 
dedicated  in  the  year  1626,  but  not  entirely  finished  until  the  year  1880. 
The  cost,  in  round  numbers,  is  set  down  at  $70,000,000. 


156  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

In  engineering  the  caisson  is  a  chest  used  in  "laying"  the  founda- 
tions of  the  piers  of  bridges,  quays  and  like  structures,  in  deep  and  rapid 
rivers.  It  consists  of  a  very  strong  platform  of  timber  or  metal  plates,  to 
which  the  sides  are  attached.  The  site  of  the  pier  being  leveled  by  dredg- 
ing or  otherwise,  the  caisson  is  brought  over  the  spot,  and  moored  in  the 
proper  position.  Two  or  three  of  the  lower  courses  of  masonry  are  then 
built  upon  the  platform  of  the  caisson,  and  the  water  is  slowly  admitted 
by  a  sluice,  in  order  to  cause  the  caisson  to  settle  into  its  place. 

The  annual  manufacture  of  looking  glass  in  Europe  is  something 
like  eighteen  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  square  yards.  In  the  mirrors  of 
today  the  light  is  reflected  by  a  layer  of  silver  or  an  amalgam  of  tin,  but  a 
proportion  of  light  is  lost  in  the  process  of  reflection,  and  the  image  is 
less  luminous  than  the  original.  The  value  of  a  looking  glass  is  esti- 
mated by  the  thickness  of  the  glass,  because  the  thicker  they  are  the 
stronger  they  must,  be;  but,  speaking  scientifically,  thick  glasses  are  de- 
fective, because  the  outlines  of  the  image  reflected  are  less  clearly  defined. 

The  largest  ship  ever  built,  the  Great  Eastern,  recently  broken  to 
pieces  and  sold  to  junk  dealers,  was  designed  and  constructed  by  Scott 
Russell  at  Millwall  on  the  Thames.  Work  on  the  giant  vessel  was  com- 
menced in  May,  1854.  She  was  successfully  launched  January  13,  1858. 
The  launching  alone  occupied  the  time  from  November  3,  1857,  until  the 
date  above  given.  Her  total  length  was  six  hundred  and  ninety-two 
feet;  breadth,  eighty-three  feet;  total  weight  when  launched,  twelve 
thousand  tons.  Her  first  trip  of  any  consequence  was  made  to  New 
York  in  1859-60. 

The  problem  of  silent  machinery  has  been  brought  a  step  nearer  solu- 
tion by  the  introduction  in  Austria  of  cog-wheels  made  of  pressed  raw- 
hide, which  work  in  conjunction  with  wheels  of  cast  iron,  steel  and  other 
metals.  The  wheels  possess  great  strength.  They  do  not  require  lubri- 
cating, and  are,  therefore,  clean  in  operation.  They  substantially  reduce 
the  vibration  of  the  machinery  in  which  they  are  used.  They  can  be  had 
ready-made  or  in  the  form  of  rawhide  disks  for  shaping  by  the  pur- 
chaser. They  are  supported  by  a  wooden  framework,  and  after  being 
cut  the  wheel  is  covered  with  a  shellac  solution. 

As  a  process  of  mining  and  engineering  Blasting  is  the  method  of 
loosening  or  shattering  masses  of  solid  fracturable  matter  by  means  of  ex- 
plosive compounds.  It  is  an  operation  of  fundamental  importance  for, 
without  the  agency  of  powerful  explosives,  many  of  the  greatest  under- 
takings of  modern  times  would  have  been  practically  impossible.  The 
greatest  blast  ever  exploded  was  in  the  removal  of  Flood  Rock  at  Hell 
Gate,  in  the  East  River,  New  York,  when  80,166  cubic  yards  of  rock  were 
tunneled  out  and  270,717  cubic  yards  were  blasted.  The  resistance 
offered  equalled  500,000  tons  of  rock  and  200,000  tons  of  water. 

Solomon's  Temple  was  dedicated  in  the  year  1005  B.  c.  It  was  eighty 
cubits  in  length,  by  forty  cubits  in  width  (cubic  =  eighteen  in.)  and 
thirty  cubits  high,  with  a  porch  one  hundred  and  twenty  cubits  in  height. 
The  Holy  of  Holies  was  a  cube  of  twenty  cubits  each  way.  Two  pillars 
of  brass,  eighteen  cubits  high  and  twelve  cubits  in  circumference,  named 
respectively  Joachim  and  Boaz,  were  set  up  in  the  porch  of  the  temple, 
and  by  some  critics  have  been  considered  obelisks.  Three  tiers  of  small 
chambers  were  ranged  externally  to  the  walls  of  the  Temple  on  three 
sides  of  the  building,  and  were  used  for  the  accommodation  of  the  priest- 
hood. 


HANDICRAFT  AND  INVENTION.  157 

One  of  the  most  famous  roads  in  the  world  is  the  "Appian  Way,"  or 
'  'The  Queen  of  Roads. ' '  It  was  built  by  Appius  Claudius  Caecus  while  he 
was  censor,  313  B.  C.  It  is  the  oldest  and  most  celebrated  of  all  the  Roman 
roads,  and  with  its  branches  connected  Rome  with  all  parts  of  southern 
Italy.  It  had  an  admirable  substructure  or  foundation, from  which  all  the 
loose  soil  had  been  carefully  removed.  Above  this  were  various  strata 
cemented  with  lime;  and  lastly  came  the  pavement,  consisting  of  large 
hard  hexagonal  blocks  of  stone,  composed  principally  of  basaltic  lava, 
and  joined  together  with  great  nicety,  so  as  to  appear  one  smooth  mass. 

The  largest  and  costliest  private  mansion  in  the  world  is  that  belong- 
ing to  Lord  Bute,  called  Mountstuart,  and  situated  near  Rothesay.  It 
covers  nearly  two  acres;  is  built  in  gothic  style;  the  walls,  turrets  and 
balconies  are  built  of  stone.  The  immense  tower  in  the  center  of  the 
building  is  one  hundred  and  twenty  feet  high,  with  a  balcony  around 
the  top.  The  halls  are  constructed  entirely  of  marble  and  alabaster,  and 
the  rooms  are  finished  in  mahogany,  rosewood  and  walnut.  The  fire- 
places are  all  carved  marbles  of  antique  design.  The  exact  cost  of  this 
fairy  palace  is  not  known,  but  it  has  never  been  estimated  at  less  than 
$8,000,000. 

In  the  rigging  of  a  ship  a  block  is  an  important  part  of  the  apparatas 
necessary  for  raising  sails  and  yards,  tightening  ropes,  etc.  The  block 
comprises  both  the  frame  or  shell,  and  the  pulley  or  pulleys — usually 
termed  "sheaves" — contained  within  it.  In  nautical  and  mechanical 
language  a  tackle  includes  the  rope  as  well  as  the  block  through  which  it 
works.  Ships'  blocks  vary  greatly  in  size,  shape,  power,  designation, 
and  use,  but  nearly  every  block  comprises  a  shell  or  wooden  exterior,  a 
sheave  or  wheel  on  which  the  rope  runs,  a  pin  or  axle  on  which  the 
sheave  turns,  and  a  strap  (of  rope  or  iron)  to  fasten  the  block  to  any  par- 
ticular station. 

A  Sedan  chair  is  a  portable  covered  vehicle  for  carrying  a  single  per- 
son, borne  on  two  poles  by  two  men.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  town 
of  Sedan,  where  this  species  of  conveyance  is  said  to  have  been  invented. 
The  Duke  of  Buckingham  used  one  in  the  reign  of  James  I.  The  pro- 
ceeding gave  general  offence,  and  it  was  made  a  matter  of  public  remark 
that  this  royal  favorite  used  his  fellow  countrymen  to  do  the  work  of 
beasts.  In  September  1634  Sir  Sanders  Buncombe  got  a  letter  patent, 
granting  him  the  sole  right  and  privilege  for  fourteen  years  to  use  and 
let  for  hire  within  L,ondon  and  Westminster  "covered  chairs"  to  prevent 
the  unnecessary  use  of  coaches;  according  to  Evelyn  he  got  the  notion 
from  Naples. 

The  Sarcophagus  is  any  stone  receptable  for  a  dead  body.  The  name 
originated  in  the  property  assigned  to  a  species  of  stone,  found  at  Assos 
in  Troas  and  used  in  early  times,  of  consuming  the  whole  body,  with  the 
exception  of  the  teeth,  within  the  space  of  forty  days.  The  oldest  known 
sarcophagi  are  those  of  Egypt,  some  of  which  are  contemporary  with  the 
pyramids.  The  earliest  of  these  are  of  a  square  or  oblong  form,  and  either 
plain  or  ornamented  with  lotus  leaves;  the  later  are  of  the  form  of 
swathed  mummies,  and  bear  inscriptions.  The  pyramids  were  sepulchral 
tombs  built  to  contain  the  sarcophagi  of  the  kings  of  Egypt;  the  Phoeni- 
cian and  Persian  kings  were  also  buried  in  sarcophagi.  The  Roman  sar- 
cophagi of  the  earlier  republican  period  were  plain.  Sarcophagi  were 
occasionally  used  in  the  later  republic,  although  burning  had  become 
the  more  general  mode  of  disposing  of  the  dead. 


158  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

The  great  pyramid  of  Cheops  is  the  largest  structure  ol  any  kind  ever 
erected  by  the  hand  of  man.  Its  original  dimensions  at  the  base  were 
764  feet  square,  and  its  perpendicular  height  in  the  highest  point  488  feet; 
it  covers  four  acres,  one  rood,  and  twenty-two  perches  of  ground  and  has 
been  estimated  by  an  eminent  architect  to  have  cost  not  less  than  $145,- 
200,000.  Internal  evidence  proves  that  the  great  pyramid  was  begun 
about  the  year  2170  B.C.,  or  the  time  of  the  birth  of  Abraham.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  about  5,000,000  tons  of  hewn  stone  were  used  in  its  construc- 
tion, and  the  evidence  points  to  the  fact  that  these  stones  were  brought 
a  distance  of  nearly  seven  hundred  miles  from  quarries  in  Arabia. 

The  largest  locomotive  ever  constructed  prior  to  1880  was  that  made 
at  the  Baldwin  Locomotive  Works  during  the  early  part  of  1879.  It  was 
turned  out  ready  for  use  April  10th  of  that  year  and  named  Uncle  Dick. 
Uncle  Dick  weighed  130,000  pounds;  was  sixty  feet  from  headlight  to  the 
rear  end  of  the  tender.  He  is  now  at  work  on  the  Atchison,  Topeka  & 
Santa  Fe]  road.  During  the  year  1883  the  same  works  that  constructed 
Uncle  Dick  turned  out  several  locomotives  for  the  Northern  Pacific  rail- 
road, each  weighing  180,000  pounds.  During  the  same  year,  as  if  to  over- 
shadow the  Baldwin  works,  the  Central  Pacific  Company  caused  to  be 
built  at  their  shops  in  Sacramento,  Cal. ,  what  are  really  the  largest  loco- 
motives in  the  world.  They  have  eight  drive-wheels  each,  the  cylinders 
are  nineteen  inches  in  diameter,  and  the  stroke  three  feet.  These  engines 
weigh,  with  the  tender,  as  Uncle  Dick's  weight  was  given,  almost  190,000 
pounds.  The  Baldwin  Works,  in  1889,  completed  for  the  Northern  Pacific 
an  engine  weighing,  with  tender,  225,000  pounds. 

The  soldering  of  glass  and  procelain  with  metals  is  a  novel  French 
process,  and  its  adaptations  are  likely  to  be  as  numerous  as  they  are 
valuable.  It  is  also  simple.  The  portion  of  the  tube  that  is  to  be  sol- 
dered is  first  covered  with  a  thin  layer  of  platinum,  this  deposit  being 
obtained  by  covering  the  slightly  heated  glass,  by  means  of  a  brush,  with 
very  neutral  chloride  of  platinum,  mixed  with  essential  oil  of  chamomile, 
the  latter  being  slowly  evaporated,  and,  when  the  white  and  odoriferous 
vapors  cease  to  be  given  off,  the  temperature  is  raised  to  a  red  heat;  the 
platinum  is  then  reduced  and  covers  the  glass  tube  with  a  layer,of  bright 
metal.  On  connecting  the  tube  thus  metalized  and  placed  in  a  bath  of 
sulphate  of  copper,  to  the  negative  pole  of  a  battery  of  suitable  energy, 
there  is  deposited  on  the  platinum  a  ring  of  copper,  which  will  be  mal- 
leable and  very  adhesive  if  the  operation  has  been  properly  performed. 
In  this  state  the  glass  tube,  covered  with  copper,  can  be  treated  like  a 
genuine  metalic  tube,  and  be  soldered  to  iron,  copper,  bronze,  platinum, 
or  any  metal  that  can  be  united  with  tin  solder. 

The  great  Egyptian  obelisk  in  Central  Park,  New  York,  is  one  of  the 
most  noted  monoliths  in  the  world.  It  was  quarried,  carved  and  erected 
about  the  time  of  Abraham,  to  commemorate  the  deeds  of  an  ancient 
Pharaoh.  Five  hundred  years  later  the  conquering  Sesostris,  the  bad 
Pharaoh  of  Scripture,  carved  on  its  surface  the  record  of  his  famous  reign. 
The  royal  cartouch  (or  oval)  shows  that  the  work  was  done  under  the  im- 
mediate order  and  sanction  of  the  king.  But  Sesostris  (or  Rameses  II) 
reigned  one  hundred  years  before  the  Trojan  war;  so  all  the  sym- 
bols now  seen  on  Cleopatra's  Needle  were  already  venerable  with  age  in 
the  days  of  Priam,  Hector,  Helen,  Agamemnon,  Achilles  and  Ulysses. 
The  Roman  poet  Horace  says  there  were  brave  men  before  Agamemnon, 
but  they  lacked  a  Homer  to  save  their  names  from  oblivion.  Sesostris, 


HANDICRAFT  AND  INVENTION.  159 

however,  was  an  exception.  He  escaped  oblivion  without  the  aid  of  a 
Homer.  Homer's  heroes  are  to  be  congratulated  above  all  men  on  hav- 
ing their  story  sung  by  such  a  minstrel;  but  with  this  thought  there 
always  goes  a  little  doubt  as  to  whether  there  ever  were  such  heroes  and 
such  deeds  outside  of  Homer's  imagination.  The  hard  granite  of  the 
Egyptian  monuments  leaves  no  doubt  that  Sesostris  lived  and  reigned. 


DURABILITY  OF  DIFFERENT  WOODS. 

Experiments  have  been  lately  made  by  driving  sticks,  made  from 
different  woods,  each  two  feet  long  and  one  and  one-half  inches  square, 
into  the  ground,  only  one-half  an  inch  projecting  outward.  It  was 
found  that  in  five  years  all  those  made  of  oak,  elm,  ash,  fir,  soft  mahog- 
any and  nearly  every  variety  of  pine,  were  totally  rotten.  I/arch,  hard 
pine  and  teak  wood  were  decayed  on  the  outside  only,  while  acacia,  with 
the  exception  of  being  also  slightly  attacked  on  the  exterior,  was  other- 
wise sound.  Hard  mahogany  and  cedar  of  Lebanon  were  in  tolerably 
good  condition;  but  only  Virginia  cedar  was  found  as  good  as  when  put 
in  the  ground.  This  is  of  some  importance  to  builders,  showing  what 
woods  should  be  avoided,  and  what  others  used  by  preference  in  under- 
ground work. 

The  duration  of  wood  when  kept  dry  is  very  great,  as  beams  still 
exist  which  are  known  to  be  nearly  1,100  years  old.  Piles  driven  by  the 
Romans  prior  to  the  Christian  era  have  been  examined  of  late,  and  found 
to  be  perfectly  sound  after  an  immersion  of  nearly  2,000  years. 

The  wood  of  some  tools  will  last  longer  than  the  metals,  as  in  spades, 
hoes  and  plows.  In  other  tools  the  wood  is  first  gone,  as  in  wagons, 
wheelbarrows  and  machines.  Such  wood  should  be  painted  or  oiled; 
the  paint  not  only  looks  well,  but  preserves  the  wood;  petroleum  oil 
is  as  good  as  any  other. 

Hardwood  stumps  decay  in  five  or  six  years;  spruce  stumps  decay 
in  about  the  same  time;  hemlock  stumps  in  eight  to  nine  years;  cedar, 
eight  to  nine  years;  pine  stumps,  never. 

Cedar,  oak,  yellow  pine  and  chestnut  are  the  most  durable  woods  in 
dry  places. 

Timber  intended  for  posts  is  rendered  almost  proof  against  rot  by 
thorough  seasoning,  charring  and  immersion  in  hot  coal  tar. 


THE  WORLD'S  NOTED  BRIDGES. 

The  Sublician  bridge  at  Rome  is  the  oldest  wooden  bridge  in  exist- 
ence. .  It  was  built  in  the  seventh  century.  The  old  London  Bridge  was 
the  first  stone  bridge.  It  was  built  in  1176.  The  first  cast  iron  bridge  was 
erected  at  Coalbrookdale,  Eng.,  in  1779.  The  Niagara  Suspension 
bridge  was  built  by  Roebling,  in  1852.  It  cost  $400,000,  is  245  feet  above 
the  water,  1,260  feet  long.  The  Havre  de  Grace  bridge  over  the  Susque- 
hanna  is  3,271  feet  long.  The  longest  general  traffic  draw-bridge  in  the 
world  is  at  Rush  Street,  Chicago,  111. 

The  largest  stone  bridge  on  the  face  of  the  earth  is  that  finished  in 
May,  1885,  at  Lagang,  China.  Chinese  engineers  had  sole  control  of  its 
construction.  It  crosses  an  arm  of  the  China  Sea,  is  nearly  six  miles  in 
length,  is  composed  entirely  of  stone,  and  has  300  arches,  each  70  feet 
high.  It  is  the  most  colossal  structure  ever  reared  by  man,  yet  we  sneer 
at  the  ''heathen  Chinee."  The  largest  truss  iron  bridge  in  the  world 


160  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION, 

crosses  the  Frith  of  Tay,  Scotland.  It  is  18,612  feet  in  length  and  com- 
posed of  eighty-five  spans.  The  Forth  Bridge,  across  the  Forth  at 
Queensferry,  was  commenced  1883,  and  opened  March  4,  1890.  The 
river  at  Queensferry  is  about  4,000  feet  wide  at  low  water.  The  principal 
feature  of  this  work  is  the  extraordinary  length,  for  a  rigid  structure,  of 
the  two  main  spans,  each  of  which  has  a  length  of  1710  feet,  made  up  of 
two  cantilevers,  each  680  feet  long,  united  by  a  central  girder  350  feet  long. 
The  two  main  spans  are  supported  on  the  small  island  of  Inchgarvie. 
The  Forth  Bridge  has  a  total  height  above  high  water  of  361  feet,  and 
a  clear  headway  above  high  water  of  150  feet,  and  carries  two  lines  of 
rails.  The  longest  wooden  bridge  in  the  world  is  that  crossing  Lake 
Ponchartrain,  near  New  Orleans,  La.  It  is  a  trestle-work  twenty-one 
miles  in  length,  built  of  cypress  piles  which  have  been  saturated  with 
creosote  oil  to  preserve  them.  The  highest  bridge  in  the  United  States 
is  over  Kinzina  Creek,  near  Bradford,  Pa.  It  was  built  in  1882,  has  a 
total  span  of  2,051  feet,  and  is  301  feet  above  the  creek  bed. 

The  oldest  chain  bridge  in  the  world  is  said  to  be  that  at  Kingtung, 
in  China.  The  Menai  Bridge,  in  Wales,  was  constructed  by  Mr.  Telford, 
1825;  its  length  is  580  feet.  Clifton  Suspension  Bridge  at  Bristol  is  702 
feet  long  and  245  feet  above  high  water.  The  suspension  bridge  between 
New  York  and  Brooklyn  is  1,595^  feet  long  in  the  center  span,  and 
4,355  feet  altogether;  its  width  is  eighty-five  feet.  It  is  a  railway,  vehi- 
cular and  foot  bridge.  • 

SELECTED  HINTS  FOR  ARTISANS. 

FURNITURE  POLISH. — For  French  polishing  cabinet-makers  use:  Pale 
shellac,  1  pound;  mastic,  1|  ounces;  alcohol  of  90  per  cent  standard,  1  to 
1£  pints.  Dissolve  cold,  with  frequent  stirring. 

CEMENT  FOR  RUBBER  BOOTS. — A  good  cement  for  rubber  boots  is 
made  by  dissolving  crude  rubber  in  bisulphuret  of  carbon,  making  the 
solution  rather  thin.  Put  the  cement  upon  the  patch  and  the  boot,  heat 
both,  and  put  them  together. 

PIANO  POLISH. — Take  equal  proportions  of  turpentine,  linseed  oil 
and  vinegar.  Mix;  rub  in  well  with  a  piece  of  flannel  cloth.  Then 
polish  with  a  piece  of  chamois  skin.  This  treatment  will  entirely  re- 
move the  dingy  appearance  that  age  gives  to  fine  woods 

How  To  EXPEL  RATS. — Get  a  piece  of  lead  pipe  and  use  it  as  a 
funnel  to  introduce  about  1^  ounces  of  sulphide  of  potassium  into  any 
outside  holes  tenanted  by  rats;  not  to  be  used  in  dwellings.  To  get 
rid  of  mice  use  tartar  emetic  mingled  with  any  favorite  food;  they  will 
eat,  sicken  and  take  their  leave. 

HAND  GRENADES. — Take  chloride  of  calcium,  crude,  20  parts;  com- 
mon salt,  5  parts;  and  water,  75  parts.  Mix  and  put  in  thin  bottles.  In 
case  of  fire,  a  bottle  so  thrown  that  it  will  break  in  or  very  near  the  fire 
will  put  it  out.  This  mixture  is  better  and  cheaper  than  many  of  the 
high-priced  grenades  sold  for  the  purpose  of  fire-protection. 

To  TEST  WATER. — The  purity  of  water  can  be  ascertained  as  fol- 
lows: Fill  a  large  bottle  made  of  colorless  glass  with  water;  look  through 
the  water  at  some  black  object.  Pour  out  some  of  the  water  and  leave 
the  bottle  half  full;  cork  the  bottle  and  place  it  for  a  few  hours  in  a  warm 
place;  shake  up  the  water,  remove  the  cork,  and  critically  smell  the  air 
contained  in  the  bottle.  If  it  has  any  smell,  particularly  if  the  odor  is 


HANDICRAFT  AND  INVENTION,  161 

repulsive,  the  water  should  not  be  used  for  domestic  purposes.  By  heat- 
ing the  water  an  odor  is  evolved  that  would  not  otherwise  appear. 
Water  fresh  from  the  well  is  usually  tasteless,  even  if  it  contains  a  large 
amount  of  putrescible  organic  matter.  All  water  for  domestic  purposes 
should  be  perfectly  tasteless,  and  remain  so  even  after  it  has  been 
warmed,  since  warming  often  develops  a  taste  in  water  which  is  tasteless 
when  cold. 

FIREPROOF  WOOD.— Soak  27.5  parts  by  weight  of  sulphate  of  zinc, 
11  of  potash,  22  of  alum,  and  11  of  manganic  oxide  in  luke  warm  water 
in  an  iron  boiler,  and  gradually  add  11  parts  by  weight  of  60  per  cent 
sulphuric  acid.  The  wood  to  be  prepared  is  placed  upon  an  iron  grating 
in  an  apparatus  of  suitable  size,  the  separate  pieces  being  placed  at  least 
an  inch  apart.  The  liquid  is  then  poured  into  the  apparatus,  and  the 
wood  allowed  to  remain  completely  covered  for  three  hours,  and  is  then 
air-dried. 

PROTECTING  L,EAD  WATER  PIPES. — To  protect  lead  waterpipes  from 
the  action  of  water,  which  often  affects  them  chemically,  partially  dis- 
solving them,  and  injuring  the  pipes,  as  well  as  poisoning  the  water,  fill 
the  pipes  with  a  warm  and  concentrated  solution  of  sulphide  of  potas- 
sium or  sodium;  leave  the  solution  in  contact  with  the  lead  for  about 
fifteen  minutes  and  then  blow  it  out.  This  coats  the  inside  of  the  pipes 
with  sulphite  of  lead,  which  is  absolutely  insoluble,  and  cannot  be  acted 
upon  by  water  at  all. 

To  MAKE  CLOTH  WATERPROOF. — There  have  been  various  devices 
for  rendering  cloth  waterproof  without  the  use  of  India  rubber.  The 
most  successful  of  these,  no  doubt,  is  the  Stenhou.se  patent.  This  con- 
sists of  the  application  of  paraffine  combined  with  drying  oil.  Paraffine 
was  first  used  alone,  but  it  was  found  to  harden  and  break  off  from  the 
cloth  after  a  time.  When  drying  oil  was  added,  however,  even  in  a 
very  small  quantity,  it  was  found  that  the  two  substances,  by  the  absorp- 
tion of  oxygen,  became  converted  into  a  tenacious  substance  very  like 
res'in.  To  apply  this  the  paraffine  is  melted  with  drying  oil  and  then 
cast  into  blocks.  The  composition  can  then  be  applied  to  fabrics  by 
rubbing  them  over  with  a  block  of  it,  either  cold  or  gently  warmed.  Or 
the  melted  mixture  may  be  applied  with  a  brush  and  the  cloth  then 
passed  through  hot  rollers  in  order  to  cover  its  entire  substance  perfectly. 
This  application  makes  cloth  very  repellant  to  water,  though  still  per- 
vious to  air. 

PRESERVING  WOOD. — There  have  been  a  number  of  processes  pat- 
ended  for  preserving  wood.  One  of  them,  very  generally  used,  consists 
in  immersing  the  timber  in  a  bath  of  corrosive  sublimate.  Another  pro- 
cess consists  in  first  filling  the  pores  with  a  solution  of  chloride  of  cal- 
cium under  pressure,  and  next  forcing  in  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  iron, 
by  which  an  insoluble  sulphate  of  lime  is  formed  in  the  body  of  the  wood, 
which  is  thus  rendered  nearly  as  hard  as  stone.  Wood  prepared  in  this 
way  is  now  very  largely  used  for  railroad  ties.  Another  process  consists 
in  impregnating  the  wood  with  a  solution  of  chloride  of  zinc.  Yet  an- 
other way  is  to  thoroughly  impregnate  the  timber  with  oil  of  tar  con- 
taining creosote  and  a  crude  solution  of  acetate  of  iron.  The  process 
consists  in  putting  the  wood  in  a  cylindrical  vessel,  connected  with  a 
powerful  air  pump.  The  air  is  withdrawn,  and  the  liquid  subjected  to 
pressure,  so  that  as  much  of  it  as  possible  is  forced  into  the  pores  of  the 
wood.  The  processes  above  given  not  only  season  the  timber,  so  that  it 
U.  I— 11 


162  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

is  not  subject  to  dry  rot,  but  also  keep  it  from  being  injured  by  the 
weather,  or  being  attacked  by  insects  or  worms. 

To  TRANSFER  ENGRAVINGS. — It  is  said  that  engravings  may  be 
transferred  on  to  white  paper  as  follows:  Place  the  engraving  a  few  sec- 
onds over  the  vapor  of  iodine.  Dip  a  slip  of  white  paper  into  a  weak 
solution  of  starch,  and  when  dry,  into  a  weak  solution  of  oil  of  vitriol. 
When  again  dry,  lay  the  slip  upon  the  engraving  and  place  both  for  a 
few  minutes  under  a  press.  The  engraving  will  be  reproduced  in  all  its 
delicacy  and  finish.  Lithographs  and  printed  matter  cannot  be  so  trans- 
ferred with  equal  success. 

LUMINOUS  PAINT. — This  useful  paint  may,  it  is  said,  be  made  by  the 
following  simple  method:  Take  oyster  shells  and  clean  them  with  warm 
water;  put  them  into  the  fire  for  half  an  hour;  at  the  end  of  that  time 
take  them  out  and  let  them  cool.  When  quite  cool  pound  them  fine 
and  take  away  any  gray  parts,  as  they  are  of  no  use.  Put  the  powder  in 
a  crucible  in  alternate  layers  with  flour  and  sulphur.  Put  on  the  lid  ancj 
cement  with  sand  made  into  a  stiff  paste  with  beer.  When  dry,  put  over 
the  fire  and  bake  for  an  hour.  Wait  until  quite  cold  before  opening  the 
lid.  The  product  ought  to  be  white.  You  must  separate  all  gray  parts, 
as  they  are  not  luminous.  Make  a  sifter  in  the  following  manner:  Take 
a  pot,  put  a  piece  of  very  fine  muslin  very  loosely  across  it,  tie  around 
with  a  string,  put  the  powder  into  the  top,  and  rake  about  until  only  the 
coarse  powder  remains;  open  the  pot  and  you  will  find  a  very  small  pow< 
der;  mix  it  into  a  thin  paint  with  gum  water,  as  two  thin  applications 
are  better  than  one  thick  one.  This  will  give  a  paint  that  will  remain 
luminous  far  into  the  night,  provided  it  is  exposed  to  light  during  the 
day. 

MAKING  BLACKBOARDS. — The  following  directions  for  this  work  are 
given  by  an  experienced  superintendent:  The  first  care  must  be  to 
make  the  wall  surface  or  boards  to  be  blacked  perfectly  smooth.  Fill 
all  the  holes  and  cracks  with  plaster  of  Paris  mixed  with  water;  mix  but 
little  at  a  time;  press  in  and  smooth  down  with  a  case-knife.  The  cracks 
between  shrunken  boards  may  be  filled  in  the  same  way.  Afterward  use 
sandpaper.  The  ingredients  needed  for  slating  are  (1)  liquid  gum  shel- 
lac, sometimes  called  shellac  varnish;  (2)  lampblack  or  drop  black.  Gum 
shellac  is  cut  in  alcohol,  and  the  liquid  can  be  obtained  of  any  druggist. 
Pour  some  shellac  into  an  open  dish,  and  stir  in  lampblack  to  make  a 
heavy  paint.  With  a  clean  brush,  spread  on  any  kind  of  surface  but 
glass.  Put  on  a  little  and  test  it.  If  it  is  glossy  and  the  chalk  slips  over 
it,  reduce  the  mixture  with  alcohol.  Alcohol  can  be  bought  of  any  drug- 
gist. If  it  rubs  off,  let  the  druggist  put  in  more  gum  to  make  the  liquid 
thicker.  One  quart  of  the  liquid  and  a  five  cent  paper  of  lampblack  are 
sufficient  to  slate  all  the  blackboards  in  any  country  school  with  two 
coats.  

HARMONY    AND    RELATIONS    OF    COLORS. 

Most  persons  have  observed  that  colors,  when  brought  together, 
mutually  set  each  other  off  to  advantage,  while  others  have  altogether  a 
different  effect.  This  must  be  carefully  attended  to  by  every  painter  who 
would  study  beauty  or  elegance  in  the  appearance  of  his  work. 

Whites  will  set  off  with  any  color  whatever. 

Reds  set  off  best  with  whites,  blacks  or  yellows. 

Blues  set  off  best  with  whites  or  yellows. 


HANDICRAFT  AND  INVENTION.  163 

Greens  set  offbest  with  blacks  and  whites. 

Gold  sets  off  best  with  blacks  or  browns. 

In  lettering  or  edging  with  gold  a  white  ground  has  a  delicate  ap- 
pearance for  a  time,  but  it  soon  becomes  dingy. 

The  best  grounds  for  gold  are  Saxon  blue,  vermilion  and  lake. 

Following  are  the  colors  to  be  derived  by  mixing  two  or  more  pig- 
ments: 

Buff Mix  together— White,  Yellow,  Ochre,  Red. 

Chestnut "  Red,  Black,  Yellow. 

Chocolate "  Raw  Umber,  Red,  Black. 

Claret Red,  Umber,  Black. 

Copper Red,  Yellow,  Black. 

Dove "  White,  Vermilion,  Blue,  Yellow. 

Drab "  White,  Yellow,  Ochre,  Red,  Black. 


Fawn 

Flesh 

Freestone  

French  Gray.. 

Gray 

Gold 

Green  Bronze 

Lemon 

Limestone 

Olive . . . 


White,  Yellow,  Red. 

White,  Yellow,  Ochre,  Vermilion. 

Red,  Black,  Yellow  Ochre,  Vermilion. 

White,  Prussian  Blue,  Lake. 

White  Lead,  Black. 

White,  Stone  Ochre,  Red. 

Chrome  Green,  Black,  Yellow. 

White,  Chrome  Yellow. 

White,  Yellow  Ochre,  Black,  Red. 

Yellow,  Blue,  Black,  White. 


Orange     Yellow  and  Red 

Peach "  White  and  Vermilion. 

Pearl     "  White,  Black,  Blue. 


Purple. 

Rose  

Sandstone. 

Snuff 

Violet... 


Violet,  with  more  Red  and  White. 

White,  Madder  Lake. 

White,  Yellow  Ochre,  Black,  Red. 

Yellow,  Vandyke  Brown. 

Red,  Blue  and  White. 


THE    PHONOGRAPH. 

The  phonograph  was  discovered  accidentally.  Mr.  T.  A.  Edison 
was  at  work  on  an  apparatus  for  recording  a  telegraphic  message,  by 
having  an  armature  (with  a  needle  fastened  in  one  end)  of  the  sounder 
make  indentations  on  a  piece  of  tin  foil  wrapped  around  a  cylinder.  The 
message  would  thus  be  punctured  or  indented  on  this  tin  foil,  then  by 
substituting  a  blunt  needle  for  the  sharp  one  and  turning  the  cylinder, 
the  armature  would  be  vibrated  as  the  needle  entered  into  and  passed  out 
of  the  indentations.  While  experimenting,  he  turned  the  cylinder  very 
rapidly,  and  instead  of  a  succession  of  "clicks,"  a  musical  sound  was 
produced.  He  seized  the  idea,  and  the  Edison  Phonograph  was  the  re- 
sult. The  perfected  phonograph  of  today  consists  of  a  cylinder  of  wax, 
or  other  plastic  material,  which  is  revolved  either  by  hand,  foot  power  or 
an  electric  motor.  This  cylinder,  called  the  phonogram,  is  used  for  re- 
cording the  sound.  This  is  done  by  a  diaphragm— such  as  is  used  in  a 
telephone — into  the  center  of  which  is  fastened  a  sharp  needle,  which 
rests  upon  and  just  touches  the  phonogram.  When  the  words  are  spoken 
the  diaphragm  vibrates,  moving  this  needle  up  and  down,  and  a  series  of 
indentations  are  made  in  a  spiral  line  on  the  phonogram,  which  is  turn- 
ing around  about  eighty-five  times  a  minute.  To  make  the  phonograph 
speak,  or  repeat  the  words,  another  diaphragm,  similar  to  the  first  or  re- 
corder, but  having  a  blunt  instead  of  a  sharp  needle,  is  placed  at  the 
starting  point,  and  the  phonogram  made  to  revolve;  of  course,  as  the 
needle  passes  over  the  indentations  it  vibrates  the  diaphragm,  and  the 
words  are  reproduced — as  in  a  telephone. 


164  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

SYNOPSIS  OF  GREAT  INVENTIONS. 


INVENTION. 

INVENTOR. 

DATE. 

Air  Gun    

Marin                   

1595 

Air  Pump  
Anastatic  Printing.  . 
Anchor 

Otto  von  Guericke  

654 

Baldermus      

1841 

Aiiacharsis                        .... 

594  BC 

Wolfius 

1709 

Balloon  

Montgolfier    

1783 

Barometer  
Bellows  

Evangelista  Torricelli 

1643 

Anacharsis  the  Scythian  

.  .  593  BC 

1688 

Camel  machine  
Camera  Lucida    
Camera  Obscura  

Meuvis  Neindertzoon  Bakker 

Dr   Hooke 

...1635-1703 
1297 
.About    618  BC 
1840 

Roger  Bacon  

Chinese  (Brass  Cannon  to  John  Owen) 

Chronoscope  
Clock    

Wheatstone  

First  one  erected  in  Padua  ... 

..  llth  Century 
1115  BC 

Chinese 

Cotton  Gin  
Dial                    

EH  Whitney  

1793 

Anaximander       .            .... 

550  BC 

Diving  Bell 

1509 

Electric  Clock  
Electric  Light      

Wheatstone  .... 

1840 

Sir  Humphrey  Davy 

1813 
1837 

Electrotype  

Spencer  and  Jacobi  ... 

Engraving     

Chinese 

1000  BC 

1364 

Fire  Engine  
Gas 

Hautsch  .                ... 

1657 

Van  Helmont 

1600-1625 

Gas  Meter  

1815 

Geographical  Maps  . 
Glass 

Anaximander      .  .   . 

550  BO 

Gunpowder  
Hydraulic  Press  
Hydraulic  Ram  

Barthold  Schwarz    

.     1320 

Joseph  Bramah 

1796 

Montgolfier  

1797 

Kaleidoscope    .  .  . 

Davia  Brewster    .          

1814 

Lightning  Conductor 

Benjamin  Franklin 

1752 

1798 

Locomotive 

Watt    

1759 

Matches 

Walker 

1827 

Microscope  

Zacharias  Jansen  

1590 

Organ 

Archimedes  and  Ctesibius 

220-  100  BC 

1877 

Photography  
Piano  Forte  .  .   
Pneumatic  Railway.  . 
Stocking  Frame  
Printing 

Thomas  Wedgwood     

1802 
1714 

Bartolommeo  Christofali  . 

1835 

William  Lee  

1589 

Johann  Gutenburg  

1438 

Railroad 

1672 

Ruling  Machine  

Sewing  Machine  
Steamboat  
Steam  Engine  

j  By  a  Hollander;  subsequently  improved  by  } 

1782 

Elias  Howe 

1841 

Robert  Fulton  

1807 

James  Watt             ...              

1763 

1837 

Torpedo 

David  Bushnell  

..   1777 

Telephone  

j  Elisha  Gray,  A.  Graham  Bell,  A.  C.  Dolbear  \ 
1  and  Thomas  A.  Edison  j 
Hans  Lippersheim  Jacob  Adriansz         

1877 
.     .  .  .  1608 

Telescope 

1609 

Watch  

I  Said  to  have  been  first  invented  at  Nurem-  | 

1  Viprcr    1477*                                                                                           ( 

1477 

*  It  is  affirmed  that  Robert,  King  of  Scotland,  had  a  watch  about  1310.  Spring 
watches  have  been  ascribed  to  Dr.  Hooke,  and  by  some  to  Huyghens,  about  1658;  the 
anchor  escapement,  by  Clement,  1680;  the  horizontal  watch  by  Graham,  1724;  repeating 
watches  by  Barlowe  in  1776. 


MONEY  AND  FINANCE. 


Mammon,  the  least-erected  spirit  that  fell 

From  heaven;  for  e'en  in  heaven  his  looks  and  thoughts 

Were  always  downward  bent,  admiring  more 

The  riches  of  heaven's  pavement,  trodden  gold, 

Than  aught,  divine  or  holy,  else  enjoyed. 

— MILTON. 

FACTS  AND   DEFINITIONS  PECUNIARY. 

Gold  was  first  discovered  in  California  in  1848. 

Exchanges  originated  in  the  commercial  cities  of  Italy. 

Money  simply  means  "  a  common  medium  of  exchange." 

The  first  currency  used  in  this  country  was  the  Indian  wampum. 

National  banks  were  first  established  in  the  United  States  in  1816. 

International  Monetary  Conferences  were  instituted  at  Paris  in  1878. 

The  highest  denomination  of  United  States  legal  tender  notes  is 
|10,000. 

Bills  of  exchange  were  first  used  by  the  Jews  in  1160,  and  in  Eng- 
land in  1307. 

The  term  "Almighty  Dollar"  seems  to  have  been  first  used  by 
Washington  Irving. 

Collateral  security  is  an  additional  and  separate  security  for  the  per- 
formance of  an  obligation. 

Seneca  concluded  that  "  money  is  a  greater  torment  in  the  posses- 
sion than  it  is  in  the  pursuit." 

The  original  English  exchange  at  London  was  called  the  "Burse," 
and  was  opened  by  Queen  Elizabeth  in  1571. 

During  the  complicated  process  of  manufacturing  stamps  they  are 
counted  eleven  times  in  order  to  guard  against  pilfering. 

A  sinking  fund  is  a  fund  formed  by  setting  aside  income  every  year 
to  accumulate  at  interest  for  the  purpose  of  paying  off  debt. 

To  have  your  errands  rightly  done,  says  an  Oriental,  you  must 
employ  a  messenger  who  is  deaf,  dumb  and  blind — and  that  is  money. 

Skins,  cattle,  shells,  corn,  pieces  of  cloth,  mats,  salt  and  many  other 
commodities  have  at  different  times  and  places  been  used  as  "  money." 

The  largest  circulation  of  paper  money  is  that  of  the  United  States, 
being  seven  hundred  millions,  while  Russia  has  six  hundred  and  seventy 
millions. 

165 


166  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

Money  is  a  terrible  blab,  says  Bulwer;  she  will  betray  the  secrets  of 
her  owner,  whatever  he  do  to  gag  her;  she  will  whisper  of  his  virtues 
and  cry  aloud  his  vices. 

Indorsement  is  the  term  generally  used  to  denote  the  writing  of  the 
name  of  the  holder  on  the  back  of  a  bill  of  exchange  or  promissory 
note,  on  transferring  or  assigning  it  to  another. 

Circular  notes  are  bank-notes  specially  adapted  for  the  use  of  trav- 
elers in  foreign  countries.  Being  bills  personal  to  the  bearer,  they  are 
more  safe  as  traveling  money  than  ordinary  notes  or  coin. 

Impartial  writers  say  that  the  gold  contained  in  the  medals,  vessels, 
chains  and  other  objects  preserved  in  the  Vatican  would  make  more  gold 
coins  than  the  whole  of  the  present  European  circulation. 

Pine-tree  money  was  the  name  given  to  silver  money  coined  at 
Boston,  Massachusetts,  in  the  seventeenth  century  (from  1652)  and  so 
called  from  the  coins  bearing  the  rude  figure  of  a  pine-tree  on  one  side. 

Colton  advises  that,  to  cure  us  of  our  immoderate  love  of  money,  we 
should  reflect  how  many  goods  there  are  that  money  will  not  buy,  and 
these  the  best;  and  how  many  evils  it  will  not  remedy,  and  these  the 
worst. 

Debentures  are  deeds  charging  property  with  the  repayment  of  a 
loan  with  a  certain  amount  of  interest.  They  are  also  issued  by  customs 
officers,  and  entitle  a  merchant  to  bounty  or  drawback  on  goods  ex- 
ported. 

Coupon  is  a  term  signifying  any  billet,  check  or  other  slip  of  paper 
cut  off  from  its  counterpart.  It  is,  however,  applied  chiefly  to  a  divi- 
dend or  interest  warrant,  which  is  presented  for  payment  by  holders  of 
bonds  of  indebtedness. 

In  round  numbers,  the  weight  of  $1,000,000  in  standard  gold  coin 
is  one  and  three- fourths  tons;  standard  silver  coin,  twenty-six  and  three- 
fourths  tons;  subsidiary  silver  coin,  twenty-five  tons;  minor  coin,  five- 
cent  nickel,  one  hundred  tons. 

An  annuity  is  a  payment  generally  (but  not  necessarily)  of  uniform 
amount  falling  due  in  each  year  during  a  given  term,  such  as  a  period  of 
years  or  the  life  of  an  individual;  and  payable,  either  in  one  sum  at  the 
end  of  the  year,  or  by  half  yearly  or  other  instalments. 

The  term  Lac,  or  Lakh,  from  a  Sanskrit  word  meaning  "one  hundred 
thousand,"  is  generally  employed  in  India  to  indicate  100,000  rupees, 
the  nominal  value  of  which  is  $48,600;  but  in  consequence  of  the  depre- 
ciation in  the  value  of  silver  the  real  value  is  only  $40,500. 

The  continental  money  consisted  of  bills  of  credit  issued  by  Congress 
during  the  War  of  Independence,  which  were  to  be  redeemed  with  Span- 
ish milled  dollars.  Two  hundred  million  dollars  worth  were  issued, 
but  they  were  never  redeemed,  and  caused  much  suffering. 

The  financial  term  budget  is  cognate  with  the  French  bougette,  a 
small  bag.  In  Great  Britain,  from  long  usage,  it  is  applied  to  that  mis- 
cellaneous collection  of  matters  which  aggregate  into  the  annual  finan- 
cial statement  made  to  parliament  by  the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer. 

Trusts  are  combinations  of  capitalists  for  the  purpose  of  restricting 
production  and  increasing  the  price  of  the  manufactures,  etc. ,  in  which 
the  members  of  the  trusts  are  interested.  Trusts  were  first  introduced  by 
American  capitalists,  and  are  in  principle  similar  to  syndicates,  unions, 


MONE  Y  AND  FINANCE.  167 

etc.  The  operations  of  trusts  in  the  United  States,  where  they  prevail 
extensively,  were  investigated  by  a  committee  of  the  U.  S.  Senate,  which 
issued  an  adverse  report  in  1888.  Among  large  trusts  have  been  the  salt 
trust  in  England,  and  the  Copper  Syndicate  in  France. 

Calculating  machines  were  invented  to  perform  mathematical  opera- 
tions by  a  series  of  toothed  wheels,  etc.  The  first  was  devised  by  Pascal, 
1650.  The  most  celebrated  is  that  constructed  by  the  late  Mr.  Babbage 
(1821-33),  who  received  a  sum  of  $75,000  from  the  Parliament  for  his  in- 
vention. 

The  capital  employed  in  banking  in  the  principal  countries  is  as  fol- 
lows: Great  Britain,  $4, 020, 000, 000;  United  States,  $2,655,000.000; 
Germany,  $1,425,000,000;  France,  $1,025,000,000;  Austria,  $830,000,000; 
Russia,  $775,000,000;  Italy,  $455,000,000;  Australia,  $425,000,000;  Canada, 
$175,000,000. 

Stock  jobbing  is  a  speculative  business  on  the  Stock  Exchange.  It 
includes  all  "time  bargains"  in  which  there  is  no  transference  of  stock, 
but  simply  a  payment  of  the  difference  by  the  buyer  or  the  seller  accord- 
ing as  the  price  of  the  stock  at  the  time  appointed  stands  above  or  below 
the  price  named  in  the  bargain. 

The  Clearing  House  is  an  organized  system  by  which  bankers  effect, 
atone  central  establishment,  the  collection  and  interchange  of  their  bills, 
checks  and  other  obligations;  the  result  is  a  great  diminution  of  labor  and 
of  the  cash  balances  required  for  settlement.  There  are  clearing  houses 
at  all  the  important  financial  centers. 

The  word  '  'boom' '  is  frequently  used  of  late  in  America  and  Britain  and 
the  colonies  for  a  start  or  rapid  development  of  commercial  activity  or 
speculation,  as  when  shares  go  off,  or  prices  go  up  "with  a  boom."  The 
word  is  assumed  to  be  suggested  less  by  boom  in  the  sense  of  noise,  than 
by  the  rushing  progress  which  often  accompanies  the  noise. 

In  round  numbers  the  total  amount  of  life  insurance  written  by  the 
different  insurance  companies  of  the  world  is  $12,000,000,000.  Of  this 
sum  $5,500, 000, 000  is  placed  in  the  United  States.  Between  the  years 
1880  and  1890  there  was  $2, 500, 000, 000  new  life  insurance  written  in  this 
country,  and  but  $1,000,000,000  in  the  whole  of  the  British  empire. 

A  letter  of  credit  is  a  letter  addressed  to  a  correspondent  at  a  distance, 
requesting  him  to  pay  a  sum  therein  specified  to  the  person  named,  or  to 
hold  the  money  at  his  disposal,  and  authorizing  the  correspondent  to  re- 
imburse himself  for  such  payment,  either  by  debiting  it  in  account  be- 
tween the  parties,  or  by  drawing  on  the  first  party  for  the  amount. 

In  1600  the  world  had  in  circulation  ^"29,000,000  gold,  ^"102,000,000 
silver  and  no  paper  ;  in  1890  these  were  ^"840,000,000  and  ^"801, 000,000, 
and  ^"771,000,000  of  paper  money,  a  total  of  ^"2,402,000,000— or  nearly 
$12,000,000,000.  This  includes  the  money  of  Europe,  the  United  States, 
and  the  colonies  of  Great  Britain,  France  and  Spain.  No  account  is 
taken  of  the  worthless  currency  of  the  South  American  states. 

The  employment  of  two  metals,  like  gold  and  silver,  of  fixed  legal 
relative  value,  is  termed  bi-metallism.  Till  1873  this  had  been  the  cus- 
tom for  nearly  two  hundred  years.  One  ounce  of  gold  was  then  equal 
to  fifteen  and  one-half  ounces  of  silver.  Up  to  1873  silver  was  the  stand- 
ard of  Germany,  as  it  is  still  of  India,  China  and  Japan;  but  in  1873 
gold  was  made  the  sole  standard  of  Germany,  and  silver  became  a  mere 
article  of  commerce  and  circulating  counter,  which  varied  in  value 


168  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

according  to  circumstances.  The  relative  value  might  be  one  ounce  of 
gold  worth  twenty  ounces  of  silver,  or  any  other  difference;  and  those 
countries  which  pay  in  silver  pay  more  as  the  relative  value  of  silver 
declines.  Bi-metallists  in  the  United  States  and  elsewhere  want  to 
restore  the  fixed  relative  value  of  these  metals. 

Currency  is  a  term  signifying  originally  the  capacity  of  being  current, 
or,  as  Johnson  defines  it,  "the  power  of  passing  from  hand  to  hand."  It 
is  applied  in  practice  to  the  thing  that  is  so  current,  and  generally  to 
whatever,  by  being  current  among  any  nation  or  class  of  persons,  serves 
as  the  money  with  which  they  buy  commodities  or  pay  their  debts. 

The  term  bankrupt  originated  in  connection  with  the  money-changers 
of  Italy.  They  sat  in  the  market  place  with  their  money  displayed  on  a 
bench  (or  banco,  as  it  was  called)  before  them.  When  one  of  these  financial 
gentlemen  failed  his  banco  (or  bench)  was  said  to  be  broken,  and  he  was 
styled  a  banco-rotto,  or  bankrupt.  The  modern  bank  inherits  its  name 
from  the  unimposing  money  bench  (banco)  of  mediaeval  Italy. 

The  term  bogus,  meaning  sham,  forged,  fraudulent,  as  bogus  cmrency, 
bogus  transactions,  is  said  to  be  a  corruption  of  Borghese,  a  swindler, 
who  supplied  the  North  American  States  with  counterfeit  bills,  bills  on 
fictitious  banks,  and  sham  mortgages.  Some  think  the  word  a  corrupt- 
ion of  Hocus  Pocus,  and  say  that  it  refers  to  the  German  "Hocus  Pocus 
Imperatus,  wer  nicht  sieht  ist  blind."  The  corresponding  French  term 
is  Passe  muscade. 

Tontine  is  a  kind  of  life-annuity,  shared  by  the  subscribers  to  a  loan, 
the  annuity  increasing  to  the  survivors  as  the  subscribers  die.  The  plan 
was  invented  by  Lorenzo  Tonti,  a  Neapolitan  banker,  who  settled  in 
France  about  1650.  The  tontine  was  adopted  by  Louis  XIV.  and  Louis 
XV.,  and  also  in  England,  for  the  purpose  of  raising  government  loans. 
The  "Tontine  Lafarge,"  opened  in  1791,  brought  1,218,000  francs  to  the 
French  government  in  December,  1888.  The  same  idea  has  been  incor- 
porated into  life  insurance  by  several  of  the  leading  companies  in  the 
United  States. 

Insurance  is  a  contract  under  which  one  party,  called  the  insurer  or 
assurer,  agrees,  in  consideration  of  a  sum  of  money  called  the  premium, 
to  pay  a  larger  sum  of  money  to  another  party,  called  the  insured  or 
assured,  on  the  happening  of  a  designated  contingency.  Insurance  has 
sometimes  been  said  to  be  akin  to  gambling,  but  it  is  really  the  converse. 
The  gambler  seeks  excitement  and  gain  by  the  artificial  manufacture  of 
hazardous  speculations.  The  prudent  man  resorts  to  insurance  in  order 
to  secure  peace  of  mind  and  immunity  from  the  loss  which  might  arise 
from  contingencies  beyond  his  control.  The  gambler  creates  or  exagger- 
ates risks;  the  insurance  office  equalizes  them. 

The  Bank  of  England  was  projected  by  a  Scotchman,  William  Pater*- 
son  and  established  1694.  It  started  with  a  Government  loan  of  $6,000,- 
000  at  eight  per  cent,  secured  on  taxes.  The  charter  appointed  a  governor 
and  twenty  four  directors  to  be  annually  elected  from  members  of  the 
company  possessing  not  less  than  $2,000  of  stock.  The  South  Sea  Bubble 
(1720),  the  Jacobite  Rebellion  (1745),  and  the  failure  of  a  number  of 
country  banks  (1792)  seriously  affected  the  bank.  The  Bank  Charter  Act 
of  1844  limited  the  note  circulation  to  $70,000,000  against  a  like  amount 
lent  to  the  Government,  unless  a  similar  value  in  bullion  were  in  hand. 
The  Act  was  suspended  during  the  panics  of  1847,  1857  and  1866. 


MONE  Y  AND  FINANCE.  169 

Sterling  signifies  money  of  the  legalized  standard  of  coinage  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland.  The  term,  according  to  one  theory,  is  a  corruption 
of  Easterling— a  person  from  North  Germany,  on  the  continent  of  Eu- 
rope, and  therefore  from  the  east  in  geographical  relation  to  England. 
The  Easterlings  were  ingenious  artisans  who  came  to  England  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  III.,  to  refine  the  siver  money,  and  the  coin  they  pro- 
duced was  called  moneta  Esterlingorum— the  money  of  the  Esterlings. 

The  Darien  scheme  was  promulgated  by  William  Paterson,  founder 
of  the  Bank  of  England  in  1695,  for  colonizing  the  Isthmus  of  Darien. 
Two  million  dollars  were  raised  in  Scotland  for  the  purpose,  and  in  1698-9 
three  expeditions  set  out.  The  settlements  were  not  recognized  by  the 
English  Government,  and  surrendered  to  the  Spaniards  in  March  1700. 
The  break-up  of  the  scheme,  like  the  South  Sea  scheme,  John  Law's 
Mississippi  bubble,  and  the  failure  of  the  Panama  canal,  caused  a  great 
financial  panic. 

The  "South  Sea  Bubble"  was  a  ruinous  speculation  which  arose  in 
England  at  the  same  time  as  the  Mississippi  Scheme  in  France.  The 
South  Sea  Company  (formed  1710)  offered  to  take  over  the  English 
national  debt  on  consideration  of  5  per  cent,  and  to  advance  $37,835,000 
if  the  company  were  invested  with  the  exclusive  privilege  of  carrying 
on  the  South  Sea  trade;  and  these  terms  were  accepted  by  the  House  of 
Commons.  The  shares,  originally  77^  per  cent,  rose  by  midsummer, 
1720,  to  1,000.  The  crash  quickly  followed;  thousands  were  reduced  to 
beggary.  A  parliamentary  inquiry  took  place,  disclosing  fraudulent 
dealings,  and  Aislabie,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  and  others  were 
expelled  the  House  in  1721. 

Usury  now  means  iniquitous  or  illegal  interest,  but  formerly  meant 
interest  of  any  kind  on  money  lent.  The  Mosaic  law  forbade  a  Jew  to 
tak  usury  from  a  fellow-countryman.  Greek  and  Roman  moralists 
mainly  disapproved  of  any  usury;  the  church  fathers,  the  popes,  the 
canon  law  absolutely  forbade  it;  hence  the  Jews  had  a  kind  of  monopoly 
of  usury  at  the  Reformation.  Luther  condemned  interest,  while  Calvin 
allowed  it.  A  long  series  of  laws  were  passed  on  the  understanding  that 
usury  was  wrong,  but  admitting  many  exceptions,  the  usury  laws  thus 
doing  much  harm  and  multiplying  legal  fictions.  The  moral  question 
is  still  debated,  and  moralists  such  as  Ruskin  wax  fierce  against  the  tak- 
ing of  interest.  But  it  may  broadly  be  said  that  modern  civilization 
fully  recognizes  the  admissibility  of  fair  interest. 

Five  States — Iowa,  Vermont,  Michigan,  Wisconsin  and  Illinois — 
have  no  interest-bearing  debt,  and  there  are  six  or  seven  other  States 
whose  bonded  debts  are  mere  bagatelles.  Among  the  number  are  New 
Jersey,  Nebraska,  Kentucky  and  California.  To  a  foreigner  or  any  one 
else  not  familiar  with  the  facts  this  would  convey  the  impression  that 
the  Americans  bear  an  extremely  light  burden  of  debt.  Such  an  idea 
would  be  somewhat  modified,  however,  by  the  knowledge  that  the  Atchi- 
son,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  pays  interest  on  $500,000,000  or  more,  the 
annual  interest  charge  exceeding  $25,000,000 — almost  as  much  as  the 
entire  interest  charge  of  the  federal  government.  The  southern  States 
have  a  bonded  indebtedness  of  $144,000,000  in  round  numbers.  The 
total  bonded  indebtedness  of  all  the  States  in  1890  was  $224,000,000,  on 
which  the  annual  interest  charge  was  $10,000,000.  The  total  bonded 
debt  of  the  States  is  about  one-third  of  the  national  intesest-bearing 
debt. 


170  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION 

The  Mississippi  Bubble,  or  the  "South  Sea  Scheme,"  of  France,  was 
projected  by  John  Law,  a  Scotchman.  It  was  so  called  because  the  pro- 
jector was  to  have  the  exclusive  trade  of  Louisiana,  on  the  banks  of  the 
Mississippi,  on  condition  of  his  taking  on  himself  the  National  Debt  (in- 
corporated 1717,  failed  1720).  The.debt  was  two  hundred  and  eight  mil- 
lions sterling.  Law  made  himself  sole  creditor  of  the  debt,  and  was 
allowed  to  issue  ten  times  the  amount  in  paper  money,  and  to  open 
"The  Royal  Bank  of  France,"  empowered  to  issue  this  paper  currency. 
So  long  as  a  twenty-franc  note  was  worth  twenty  francs,  the  scheme  was 
a  prodigious  success,  but  immediately  the  paper  money  was  at  a  discount, 
a  run  on  the  bank  set  in,  and  the  whole  scheme  burst. 

Duringthe  civil  war  (1861-1865)  the  immense  expenditure  of  the  United 
States  government  led  to  the  printing  of  an  unprecedented  number  of  bank- 
notes, bonds,  and  currency  papers  of  various  kinds.  These  documents, 
from  the  color  presented  by  them,  or  some  of  them,  obtained  the  name  of 
Greenbacks,  a  designation  which  came  to  be  loosely  used  for  all  United 
States  bank  notes.  The  first  "demand  notes"  were  issued  in  August 
1861;  the  first  greenbacks  proper  were  of  date  March  10,  1862.  Soon 
forged  notes  and  bonds  were  in  circulation,  but  by  degrees  a  large  estab- 
lishment was  organized  at  Washington,  under  the  immediate  control  of 
the  Secretary  to  the  Treasury,  and  the  precautions  used  were  such  as 
almost  completely  to  baffle  forgers.  The  paper  currency,  whose  value 
had  fluctuated  greatly,  was  declared  convertible  into  coin  on  1st  January 
1879,  and  specie  payments  completely  resumed. 

A   LESSON   TO   BORROWERS. 

Peter  Cooper  was  one  of  the  most  successful,  careful  and  prudent 
business  men  of  his  time.  He  was  strongly  opposed  to  the  methods  of 
many  merchants  who  launched  out  into  extravagant  enterprises  on  bor- 
rowed money,  for  which  they  paid  exhorbitant  rates  of  interest.  The 
following  anecdote  illustrates  this  point  very  forcibly: 

Once,  while  talking  about  a  project  with  an  acquaintance,  the  latter 
said  he  would  have  to  borrow  the  money  for  six  months,  paying  interest 
at  the  rate  of  3  per  cent  per  month. 

"Why  do  you  borrow  for  so  short  a  time?"  Mr.  Cooper  asked. 

"Because  the  brokers  will  not  negotiate  bills  for  longer. " 

"Well,  if  you  wish,"  said  Mr.  Cooper,  "I  will  discount  your  note 
at  that  rate  for  three  years." 

' '  Are  you  in  earnest?' '  asked  the  would-be  borrower. 

"Certainly  I  am.  I  will  discount  your  note  for  $10,000  for  three 
years  at  that  rate.  Will  you  do  it?" 

"Of  course  I  will,"  said  the  merchant. 

"Very  well,"  said  Mr.  Cooper;  "just  sign  this  note  for  $10,000, 
payable  in  three  years,  and  give  your  check  for  $800,  and  the  transaction 
will  be  complete." 

"But  where  is  the  money  for  me?"  asked  the  astonished  mer- 
chant. 

"You  don't  get  any  money,"  was  the  reply.  "Your  interest 
for  thirty-six  months  at  3  per  centum  per  month  amounts  to  108 
per  centum,  or  $10,800;  therefore  your  check  for  $800  just  makes  us 
even." 

The  force  of  this  practical  illustration  of  the  folly  of  paying  such 
an  exorbitant  price  for  the  use  of  money  was  such  that  the  merchant 


MONEY  AND  FINANCE. 


171 


determined  never  to  borrow  at  such  ruinous  rates,  and  he  frequently 
used  to  say  that  nothing  could  have  so  fully  convinced  him  as  this 
rather  humorous  proposal  by  Mr.  Cooper. 


NATIONAL  DEBTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


$611  415  880 

Italy 

4  362  8oO  000 

Australian  Colonies  

787  692,605 

Japan    

249  108  517 

Austria-Hungary 

2  322  658  340 

Mexico 

203  244  300 

1  615  190  165 

Netherlands 

452  000  000 

Hungary  

'65?'  468  075 

Norway  

37  596  079 

Belgium.  

422  464  275 

Paraguay 

5  151  891 

6500000 

No  debt 

Brazil  

598  658  310 

Peru  

367  226  890 

Canada      .  .    .  . 

286  112295 

Portugal 

490  493  599 

Chili 

80  568  887 

171  292  560 

China  

38,500000 

Russia     

3  731  103  600 

Colombia 

29  163  480 

62  550  000 

54  369  325 

No  debt 

Kcuador  

13,738  490 

Spain  

1  299  500  000 

Egypt 

518,625  840 

66  412  279 

*6  427  500  000 

7  543  273 

307  500  000 

900  000  COO 

German  States            

1  827  977  750 

United  States      

1  549  296  126 

3  449  720  135 

72  205  722 

91  618  340 

20  556  260 

Hawaii  

1  936  500 

India,  British  

•       928,355',780 

Total  

35,040,265,657 

*  This  is  the  estimate  of  Whitaker.  M.  Tirard,  the  late  Prime  Minister  of  France, 
has  estimated  that  the  engagements  of  the  French  Treasury,  the  redemption  of  which 
is  obligatory  at  a  date  not  later  than  1960,  amounts  to  $7,174,907,310. 

GOLD  AND  SILVER  PRODUCTION  IN  FIVE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 


GOLD. 

SILVER. 

COUNTRIES. 

Tons. 

Value. 

Ratio. 

Tons. 

Value. 

Ratio. 

Africa 

740 

1520000000 

7  1 

Australia  

1,840 

1,290  000  000 

17  8 

Austria  

460 

325  000  000 

4  4 

7930 

$305  000  000 

4  i 

Brazil  

1,040 

725,000,000 

10.0 

8  470 

325  000  000 

4  4 

Mexico  

78600 

3  040  000  000 

407 

Peru  etc    

72000 

2  770  000  000 

37  3 

1  235 

865  000  000 

120 

3  200 

120  000  000 

1  7 

Spanish  Ameiica  

2  220 

1,550  OOO'OOO 

21  5 

Uriited  States 

2042 

1  430  000  000 

197 

11  600 

445  000000 

6  08 

778 

535  000  000 

7  5 

11  200 

430  000  000 

5  8 

The  World  

10,355 

$7,240,000,000 

100.0 

193,000 

$7,435,000,000 

100.0 

The  estimates  in  this  table  of  gold  and  silver  production  for  five  hundred  years 
(1380-1880)  are  made  by  Mulhall.          

THE  STANDARD  SILVER  DOLLAR. 

The  coinage  of  the  standard  silver  dollar  was  first  authorized  by  Act 
of  April  2,  1792.  Its  weight  was  to  be  416  grains  standard  silver;  fineness, 
892.4;  which  was  equivalent  to  37 IX  grains  of  fine  silver,  with  44^  grains 
of  pure  copper  alloy.  This  weight  was  changed  by  act  of  January  18, 
1837,  to  412^  grains,  and  fineness  changed  to  900,  thus  preserving 
the  same  amount  of  pure  silver  as  before.  By  act  of  February  12,  1873, 
the  coinage  was  discontinued.  The  total  number  of  silver  dollars  coined 


172  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

from  1792  to  1873  was  8,045,838.  The  act  of  1873  provided  for  the  coinage 
of  the  "trade  dollar,"  of  weight  420  grains,  and  an  act  passed  in  June, 
1874,  ordered  that  all  silver  coins  should  only  be  "legal  tender  at  their 
nominal  value  for  amounts  not  exceeding  $5. ' '  The  effect  of  these  acts  was 
the  "demonetization"  of  silver,  of  which  so  much  has  been  said.  Feb- 
ruary 28,  1878,  the  coinage  of  the  standard  dollar  of  412)4  grains  was  re- 
vived by  act  of  Congress;  $2,000,000  per  month  was  ordered  coined,  and 
the  coins  were  made  legal  tender  for  all  debts,  public  and  private.  From 
February,  1878  to  November  1,  1885,  213,257,594  of  these  standard  dollars 
were  coined  under  the  above  act. 

GREAT  FINANCIAL  PANICS. 

The  most  remarkable  crises  since  the  beginning  of  the  present  cent- 
ury have  been  as  follows: 

1814.     England,  two  hundred  and  forty  banks  suspended. 

1824.     Manchester,  failures,  two  millions  sterling. 

1831.     Calcutta,  failures,  fifteen  millions. 

1837.     United  States,  "Wild-cat"  crisis,  all  banks  closed. 

1839.     Bank  of  England  saved  by  Bank  of  France.    Severe  also  in  France,  where 
ninety-three  companies  failed  for  six  millions. 

1844.     England.    State  loans  to  merchants.    Bank  of  England  reformed. 

1847.     England,  failures,  twenty  millions,  discount,  thirteen  percent. 

1857.     United  States,  seven  thousand  two  hundred  houses  failed  for  one  hundred  and 
eleven  millions. 

1860.     London,  Overend-Gurney  crisis;  failures  exceeded  one  hundred  millions. 

1869.    Black  Friday  in  New  York  (Wall  street,)  September  24. 

A  "PENNY- WISE"  TABLE. 

The  way  to  accumulate  money  is  to  save  small  sums  with  regularity. 
A  small  sum  saved  daily  for  fifty  years  will  grow  at  the  following  rate: 


DAILY  SAVINGS.  RESULT. 

One  cent |950 

Ten  cents 9,504 

Twenty  cents 19,006 

Thirty  cents 28,512 

Forty  cents 38,015 

Fifty  cents 47,520 


DAILY   SAVINGS.  RESULT. 

Sixty  cents .  $57,024 

Seventy  cents 66,528 

Eighty  cents 76,032 

Ninety  cents 85,537 

One  Dollar  475,208 


MERCHANTS'  COST  AND  PRICE  MARKS. 

All  merchants  use  private  cipher  marks  to  note  cost  or  selling  price 
of  goods.  The  cipher  is  usually  made  up  from  some  short  word  or  sent- 
ence of  nine  or  ten  letters,  as: 

CORNELIUS,  A. 
123456789    0. 

Five  dollars,  according  to  this  key,  would  be  eaa.  But  generally  an 
extra  letter  is  used  to  prevent  repeating  the  mark  for  0.  If  the  sign  lor 
a  second  0  in  this  case  were  y,  we  would  have  eay  instead  of  eaa. 

AVERAGE  IMPORT  DUTIES  IN  VARIOUS  COUNTRIES. 


Great  Britain 
France 


RATIO  TO 

IMPORTS 

PER  CENT. 


Germany  .......................  6 

Russia  ...........................  18 

Austria  ...........................  5 

Italy  .....................    .......  11 

Spain  ........................  24 

Portugal  ........................  26 

Holland....  1 


RATIO  TO 
IMPORTS 
PER  CENT. 


Belgium 

Denmark  ........................  9 

Sweden  and  Norway  .............  12 

Europe  ..........................  7 

United  States  .....................  28 

Canada  ..........................  15 

Australia  ................  *  ......  13 

Brazil  .............................  44 

Argentine  Republic  ............  37 


MONE  Y  AND  FINANCE,  173 

THE  BANKRUPT  LAWS. 

Properly  speaking,  the  Bankrupt  Law  is  a  thing  of  the  past. 

Laws  have  been  enacted,  however,  in  nearly  all  the  States  for  the 
purpose  of  distributing  the  property  of  an  insolvent  debtor  proportion- 
ately among  his  creditors  and  discharging  the  debtor  from  further  liabil- 
ity. Proceedings  may  be  instituted  by  the  debtor  himself  or  by  a 
creditor.  As  a  rule,  proceedings  in  one  State  are  not  binding  on  a  cred- 
itor residing  in  another  State;  but  if  Congress  were  to  pass  a  national 
bankrupt  law,  this  would  annul  all  State  laws  on  the  subject,  and  pro- 
ceedings under  the  national  law  would  bind  creditors  in  all  the  States 
and  Territories. 

Insolvency  proceedings  are  generally  commenced  by  a  petition  to 
the  Judges  of  the  court  of  insolvency,  setting  forth  among  other  things 
the  debtor's  inability  to  pay  all  his  debts  in  full,  and  his  desire  to  sur- 
render all  his  property  for  the  benefit  of  his  creditors. 

If  satisfied  of  the  truth  of  matters  alleged  in  the  petition,  the  judge 
issues  an  order  commanding  the  proper  officer  to  take  the  debtor's  prop- 
erty and  hold  it  until  a  certain  time,  when  the  creditors  meet  and  choose 
an  assignee. 

The  assignee  then  takes  charge  of  the  property,  turns  it  into  money, 
and  declares  a  dividend  for  the  creditors. 

Pending  the  proceedings,  the  debtor  may  be  examined  on  oath  for 
the  purpose  of  making  him  disclose  all  matters  concerning  his  property 
and  the  disposal  thereof. 

If  the  debtor  has  conformed  to  the  insolvent  law  in  all  respects,  he 
is  entitled  to  a  discharge  from  his  debts,  which  is  given  him  by  the 
judge  on  the  debtor's  obtaining  the  requisite  assent  from  the  creditors. 

In  nearly  all  the  States  an  insolvent  debtor  may,  with  the  consent 
of  his  creditors,  and  in  some  States  without  such  consent,  assign  all  his 
property  to  a  trustee  for  the  benefit  of  his  creditors,  who  converts  it  into 
money,  dividing  it  pro  rata  among  the  creditors. 


SHORT  INTEREST  RULES. 

To  find  the  interest  on  a  given  sum  for  any  number  of  days,  at  any 
rate  of  interest,  multiply  the  principal  by  the  number  of  days  and  divide 
as  follows: 

At  3  per  cent,  by 120  |  At   9  per  cent,  by 40 

At  4  per  cent,  by 90  I  At  10  per  cent,  by  , 


At  5  per  cent,  by 72 

At  6  per  cent,  by , •. 60 

At  7  per  cent,  by 52 

At  8  per  cent,  by    45 


At  12  per  cent,  by 30 

At  15  per  cent,  by 24 

At  20  per  cent,  by IS 


ABOUT  TRADE  DISCOUNTS. 

Wholesale  houses  usually  invoice  their  goods  to  retailers  at  '  'list' ' 
prices.  List  prices  were  once  upon  a  time  supposed  to  be  retail  prices, 
but  of  late  a  system  of  ' '  long' '  list  prices  has  come  into  vogue  in  many 
lines  of  trade— that  is,  the  list  price  is  made  exorbitantly  high,  so  that 
wholesalers  can  give  enormous  discounts.  These  discounts,  whether 
large  or  small,  are  called  trade  discounts,  and  are  usually  deducted  at  a 
certain  rate  per  cent  from  the  face  of  invoice. 

The  amount  of  discount  generally  depends  upon  size  of  bill  or  terms 
of  settlement,  or  both.  Sometimes  two  or  more  discounts  are  allowed. 


174 


MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 


Thus  30%  and  5%  is  expressed  30  and  5,  meaning  first  a  discount  of  30% 
and  then  5%  from  the  remainder. 

Thirty  and  5  is  not  35%,  but  33^%.  Ten,  5  and  3  off  means  three 
successive  discounts. 

A  wholesale  house  allowing  10,  5  and  3  off  gets  more  for  its  goods 
than  it  would  at  18  off. 

WONDERS    OF    COMPOUND    INTEREST. 


TIME  IN  WHICH   MONEY  DOUBLES. 


2 
2H 
3 

3H 

Simple  Interest. 

Compound  Int. 

-  I  Per 
O«DOO<JO»UX|  Cent. 

Simple  Interest. 

Compound  Int. 

50  years. 
40  years. 
33  years  4  montns. 
28  years  208  days. 
25  years. 
22  years  81  days. 

35  years. 
28  years  26  days. 
23  years  164  days. 
20  years  54  days. 
17  years  246  days. 
15  years  273  days. 

20  years. 
16  years  8  months. 
14  years  104  days. 
12H  years. 
1  1  years  40  days. 
10  years. 

1  4  years  75  days. 
11  years  327  days. 
10  years  89  days. 
9  years  2  days. 
8  years  16  days. 
7  years  100da>s. 

DAILY  SAVINGS  AT  COMPOUND  INTEREST. 


Daily  Savings. 

Yearly. 

Ten  Years. 

Fitty  Years. 

22£  cents  

$     10 

$     130 

$    2  900 

514                                    

20 

260 

5  800 

8^ 

30 

390 

8  700 

11                         

40 

520 

11  600 

13% 

50 

650 

14  500 

27  Va 

100 

1.300 

29  000 

55 

200 

2  600 

58000 

$1  10 

400 

5  200 

116  000 

1  37                          

500 

6  500 

•145000 

2.74              

1,000 

13,000 

290,000 

HOW  COMPOUND    INTEREST  ACCUMULATES. 

If  one  dollar  be  invested  and  the  interest  added  to  the  principal,  annually,  at  th« 
rates  named,  we  shall  have  the  following  result  as  the  accumulation  of  one  hundred 
years: 

One  dollar  100  years,  at  1  per  cent. 
2 


r- 

31/* 

4l/3 
5 
6 
7 


$2.75 
7.25 
11.75 
19.25 
31.25 
P0.50 
81.50 
131.50 
340.00 


2,203.00 

5,543.00 

13,809.00 

34,675.00 

1,174,405.00 

.      15,145,007.00 

.2,551,799,404.00 


TERMS  OF  THE  STOCK  BROKER. 

ACCOMMODATION  PAPER. — Notes  or  bills  not  representing  an  actual  sale  or  trade 
transaction,  but  merely  drawn  to  be  discounted  for  the  benefit  of  drawer,  acceptor  or 
indorser,  or  all  combined. 

BALANCE  OF  TRADE. — Difference  in  value  between  total  imports  and  exports  of  a 
country. 

BALLOONING.— To  work  up  a  stock  far  beyond  its  intrinsic  worth  by  favorable  stories 
or  fictitious  sales. 

BUYING  LONG. — Buying  in  expectation  of  a  rise. 


MONEY  AND  FINANCE.  175 

BREADSTUFFS. — Any  kind  of  grain,  corn  or  meal. 

BROKER.— An  agent  or  factor;  a  middleman  paid  by  commission. 

BROKERAGE.— A  percentage  for  the  purchase  or  sale  of  money  and  stocks. 

BULL  AND  BEAR.— The  "bull"  is  a  stock  exchange  speculator  who  "goes  long"  on 
stocks,  trusting  to  a  rising  market;  while  the  "bear"  is  one  who  sells  stock  "short," 
which  he  does  not  possess,  and  who  speculates  for  a  decline.  "Bulls  and  bears"  is  a 
colloquialism  for  the  whole  fraternity  of  stock  speculators. 

CALL.— Demand  for  payment  of  installments  due  on  stocks. 

CALL.— A  privilege  given  to  another  to  "call"  for  delivery  at  a  time  and  pnce 
fixed. 

CLIQUE.— A  combination  of  operators  controlling  large  capital  in  order  to  unduly 
expand  or  break  down  the  market.  . 

COLLATERALS. — Any  kind  of  values  given  in  pawn  when  money  is  borrowed. 

CORNERS. — The  buying  up  of  a  large  quantity  of  stocks  or  grain  to  raise  the  price 
When  the  market  is  oversold,  the  shorts,  if  compelled  to  deliver,  find  themselves  in  a 
"corner." 

CURBSTONE  BROKERS. -Brokers  or  agents  who  are  not  members  of  any  regular 
organization,  and  do  business  mainly  on  the  sidewalk. 

DELIVERY.— When  stock  or  grain  is  brought  to  the  buyer  in  exact  accordance  with 
the  rules  of  the  Exchange,  it  is  called  a  good  delivery.  When  there  are  irregularities, 
the  delivery  is  pronounced  bad,  and  the  buyer  can  appeal  to  the  Exchange. 

DIFFERENCES. — The  price  at  which  a  stock  is  bargained  for  and  the  rate  or  day  of 
delivery  are  not  usually  the  same,  the  variation  being  termed  the  difference. 

FACTOR.— An  agent  appointed  to  sell  goods  on  commission. 

FACTORAGE.— Commissions  allowed  factors. 

FLAT. — Inactive,  depressed,  dull.  The^fa/  value  of  bonds  and  stocks  is  the  value 
without  interest. 

FLYER. — A  small  side  operation,  not  employing  one's  whole  capital. 

FORCING  QUOTATIONS  is  where  brokers  wish  to  keep  up  the  pnce  of  a  stock  and  to 
prevent  its  falling  out  of  sight.  This  is  generally  accomplished  by  a  small  sale. 

GUNNING  a  stock  is  to  use  every  art  to  produce  a  break  when  it  is  known  that  a 
certain  house  is  heavily  supplied  and  would  be  unable  to  resist  an  attack. 

KITE-FLYING.— Expanding  one's  credit  beyond  wholesome  limits. 

L,AME  DUCK. — Stock -brokers'  slang  for  one  unable  to  meet  his  liabilities. 

L,ONG. — One  is  long  when  he  carries  stock  or  grain  for  a  rise. 

POINTER.— A  theory  or  fact  regarding  the  market  on  which  one  bases  a  specu- 
tion. 

POOL. — The  stock  or  money  contributed  by  a  clique  to  carry  through  a  corner. 

PRICE  CURRENT. — The  prevailing  price  of  merchandise,  stock  or  securities. 

SELLING  SHORT. — To  "sell  short"  is  to  sell  for  future  delivery  what  one  has  not  got, 
in  hopes  that  prices  will  fall. 

WATERING  a  stock  is  the  art  of  inflating  a  quantity  of  stock  without  improving 
its  quality. 

OUR   BANKING  SYSTEM   EXPLAINED. 

The  present  system,  known  as  the  National  Bank-note  System  of  the 
United  States,  was  devised — first,  to  secure  in  the  most  effective  way  a 
sure  market  for  United  States  bonds,  whose  issue  was  rendered  impera- 
tive by  the  continuance  of  the  civil  war;  and,  second,  to  provide  a  uni- 
form, safe  and  convenient  monetary  system  for  the  promotion  of  busi- 
ness transactions  and  the  development  of  trade  and  industries  among  the 
people. 

The  first  act  of  the  National  Congress,  under  which  the  system  was 
organized,  was  approved  February  25,  1863.  The  law  was  extensively 
revised  and  re-enacted  June  3,  1864.  Previous  to  these  dates  the  system 
of  State  banks  universally  prevailed,  of  which  there  were,  in  the  thirty- 
four  States  then  existing,  1,601,  with  an  aggregate  capital  of  $429,000,000. 
More  than  10,000  different  kinds  of  bank-notes  were  in  use  in  a  total 
circulation  of  about  $202,000,000. 

The  act  of  1864  provided  for  the  establishment,  in  the  Government 
Treasury  Department  at  Washington,  of  a  national  bank  bureau,  with  a 
chief  officer,  to  be  known  as  comptroller  of  the  currency.  Under  the 
provisions  of  the  law  any  number  of  persons,  not  less  than  five,  might  be 
organized  into  a  national  banking  association,  the  capital  in  no  case  to 


176  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

be  less  than  $100,000,  except  that  in  cities  containing  a  population  of 
not  more  than  6,000  the  capital  should  not  be  less  than  $50,000;  and  in 
cities  having  a  population  of  not  less  than  50,000  the  capital  must  not 
be  less  than  $200,000.  Not  less  than  one-third  of  the  capital  was  re- 
quired to  be  invested  in  United  States  bonds,  upon  which  circulating 
notes  could  be  issued  equal  to  90  per  cent  of  the  current  market  value, 
but  not  exceeding  9  per  cent  of  the  par  value  of  the  bonds  deposited. 
These  were  to  be  received  at  par  in  the  United  States  in  all  payments  to 
and  from  the  Government,  except  for  duties  on  imports,  interest  on  the 
public  debt,  and  in  redemption  of  national  currency.  As  early  as  March  3, 
1865,  an  important  additional  act  was  passed  requiring  that  every  bank- 
ing association  should  pay  a  tax  of  10  per  cent  on  the  notes  of  any  person 
or  State  bank  used  for  circulation  or  paid  out  by  them.  This  act  virtu- 
ally resulted  in  taxing  State  bank  circulation  out  of  existence. 

A  total  issue  of  $300,000,000  of  circulation  was  authorized  by  the  act 
of  1864;  but  an  act  of  May  12,  1870,  authorized  an  increase  of  circulation 
to  $354,000,000.  Another  act,  that  of  June  20,  1874,  provided  that  any 
bank  by  depositing  with  the  United  States  Treasury  in  sums  not  less 
than  $9,000  at  a  time,  might  withdraw  a  proportionate  amount  of  the 
bonds  on  deposit  as  security  for  its  circulating  notes.  An  act  passed 
January  14,  1875,  removed  all  limitations  as  to  the  amount  of  the  circulat- 
ing notes  of  the  banks,  except  the  restrictions  in  the  provisions  in  the  law 
then  existing,  but  required  the  Treasurer  to  retire  legal  tender  notes  to 
the  amount  of  80  per  cent  of  the  additional  bank-notes  issued,  and  to 
continue  such  retirement  until  there  should  be  a  reduction  of  the  legal 
tender  notes  to  the  amount  of  $300,000,000.  The  provision  of  the  law  re- 
quiring a  reduction  of  legal  tender  notes  was  repealed  May  31,  1878. 

The  National  Bank  act  also  required  that  the  national  banks  in  the 
city  of  New  York,  and  certain  other  ' '  redeeming ' '  cities,  should  hold 
in  lawful  money  25  per  cent  of  their  deposits  and  circulation  as  a  reserve 
fund.  Banks  in  other  cities  were  required  to  hold  a  reserve  of  15  per 
cent. 

With  regard  to  interest  on  loans,  the  national  banks  were  allowed 
to  charge  at  the  rate  allowed  by  the  States  in  which  they  were  located, 
and  in  case  the  State  had  fixed  no  rate,  the  banks  were  allowed  to  charge 
7  per  cent. 

Under  the  national  banking  law,  shareholders  are  held  individually, 
equally  and  ratably  liable  for  all  the  debts  of  the  association  to  the  extent 
of  their  amount  of  stock  in  addition  to  the  amount  invested  therein. 
Also  the  law  required  that  before  declaring  a  dividend,  the  bank  should 
carry  one-tenth  of  their  net  profits  of  the  preceding  half  year  to  a  surplus 
fund  until  the  same  should  amount  to  20  per  cent  of  the  capital. 

Originally  the  national  banks  realized  a  considerable  profit  from 
their  circulating  notes,  but  the  high  rate  of  premium  commanded  in  the 
market  in  later  years  by  the  interest-bearing  bonds  of  the  United  States, 
which  the  law  requires  the  banks  to  deposit  as  security  for  their  circu- 
lation, has  rendered  the  issue  of  circulating  notes  in  most  localities  un- 
profitable. Hence  the  banks  rely  chiefly  on  their  deposits  as  their 
principal  source  of  profit;  these  deposits  are  returned  to  the  business 
public  in  the  shape  of  loans  properly  secured,  and  thus  the  money  is 
continually  kept  in  circulation  among  the  people. 


COINS,  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 


I  praise  not  those 

Who  in  their  petty  dealings  pilfer  not, 
But  him  whose  conscience  spurns  at  secret  fraud, 
When  he  might  plunder  and  defy  surprise. 

—CUMBERLAND. 

HOME   AND   FOREIGN   STANDARDS. 

A  ' '  stone' '  weight  in  England  is  fourteen  pounds. 

Counterfeiting  was  formerly  treason  under  British  law. 

Abraham  was  "very  rich  in  cattle,  in  silver  and  in  gold." 

Ninety  coins  per  minute  is  fair  working  speed  at  the  mint. 

The  double  eagle,  516  grains,  is  the  heaviest  American  coin. 

A  stiver  was  an  ancient  Dutch  coin  of  about  two  cents  value. 

The  so-called  "coppers"  of  British  money  are  now  all  bronze. 

Five  courses  of  brick  will  lay  one  foot  in  height  on  a  chimney! 

The  standard  gallon  contains  just  ten  pounds'  weight  of  pure  water. 

The  carat,  which  is  used  to  weigh  diamonds,  is  equal  to  3.17  Troy 
grains. 

Silver  is  only  a  legal  tender  in  England  to  the  amount  of  forty 
shillings. 

The  Saxons  used  an  ell,  or  yard  of  thirty-six  inches,  based  on  the 
Roman  foot. 

The  L,ydians,  according  to  Herodotus,  were  the  first  nation  to  use  gold 
and  silver  coin. 

The  coins  of  the  Cromwellian  period  had  the  inscription  in  English 
instead  of  Latin. 

The  moidore  is  a  Portuguese  gold  coin,  now  almost  extinct,  worth 
about  seven  dollars. 

The  first  gold  coin  struck  at  Rome,  207  B.C.,  was  the  aureus,  of  the 
value  of  about  six  dollars. 

Modern  Japanese  coinage  includes  oblong  pieces  of  gold  and  silver, 
as  well  as  large  oval  plates. 

A  cord  of  stone,  three  bushels  of  lime  and  a  cubic  yard  of  sand  will 
lay  100  cubic   feet  of  wall. 

The  palm,  or  hand-breadth,  was  the  original  standard  of  measure, 
then  the  foot  and  cubit  successively. 
U.  I.-12  177 


178  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

The  so-called  "Latin"  Union  was  an  agreement  between  France, 
Italy,  Belgium  and  Switzerland  (1865-80)  to  maintain  a  uniform  coinage. 

One  thousand  shingles,  laid  four  inches  to  the  weather,  will  cover 
100  square  feet  of  surface,  and  five  pounds  of  shingle  nails  will  fasten 
them  on. 

One-fifth  more  siding  and  flooring  is  needed  than  the  number  of 
square  feet  of  surface  to  be  covered,  because  of  the  lap  in  the  siding  and 
matching. 

A  denarius  was  a  Roman  silver  coin,  value  about  sixteen  cents.  It 
was  used  in  France  and  England  for  ready  money  generally.  It  was 
also  a  weight  (three  scruples). 

A  cubic  foot  of  cork  weighs  1.5  Ibs. ;  of  bees,  65  Ibs. ;  of  blood,  66  Ibs. ; 
of  coal,  56  Ibs.;  of  earth,  94  Ibs.;  of  hay,  9  Ibs.;  of  ice,  57^  Ibs.;  of 
copper,  547  Ibs.;  of  cast  iron,  450  Ibs.;  of  gold,  1,203^  Ibs.;  of  platina, 
1,219  Ibs. 

To  find  the  quantity  of  shelled  corn  in  a  crib  of  corn  in  the  ear, 
measure  the  length,  breadth  and  height  of  the  crib,  inside  of  the  crib, 
multiply  them  together  and  divide  them  by  two  and  you  have  the  num- 
ber of  bushels  in  the  crib. 

One  thousand  laths  will  cover  seventy  yards  of  surface,  and  eleven 
pounds  of  lath  nails  will  nail  them  on.  Eight  bushels  of  good  lime, 
sixteen  bushels  of  sand  and  one  bushel  of  hair^will  make  enough  good 
mortar  to  plaster  100  square  yards. 

Very  large  amounts  of  private  gold  coins  were  formerly  minted  in 
this  country  by  individuals.  Reid  of  Georgia,  the  Bechtlers  of  North 
Carolina,  the  Mormons  in  Utah,  and  several  banking  firms  in  California, 
all  once  did  a  large  business  in  this  line. 

A  rupee  is  a  silver  coin,  the  standard  or  unit  of  the  money  system 
of  India;  value  at  par,  fifty  cents;  100,000  rupees  =  a  lac;  100  lacs  =  a 
crore.  Owing  to  the  falling-off  in  the  value  of  silver,  a  rupee  is  at  pres- 
ent not  worth  more  than  thirty  cents  in  gold. 

The  picayune  is  a  name  derived  from  the  Carib  language,  and  used 
in  Louisiana  for  a  small  coin  worth  six  and  one-fourth  cents,  current  in 
the  United  States  before  1857,  and  known  in  different  states  by  various 
names  (fourpence,  fippence,  fip,  sixpence,  etc.). 

The  name  of  Bezants,  or  Byzantines,  is  given  to  the  coins,  either 
gold  or  silver,  of  the  Byzantine  empire.  They  varied  in  value  from  five 
dollars  to  two  and  a  half  dollars.  As  bezants  were  brought  to  England 
by  the  crusaders,  they  frequently  occur  as  English  heraldic  charges. 

Goldsmiths  and  assayers  divide  the  troy  pound,  ounce,  or  any  other 
weight  into  twenty-four  parts,  and  call  each  a  carat,  as  a  means  of  stating 
the  proportion  of  pure  gold  contained  in  any  alloy  of  gold  with  other 
metals.  Thus  the  gold  of  our  coinage  and  of  wedding  rings,  which  con- 
tains \\  of  pure  gold,  is  called  ' '22-carats  fine, "  or  22-carat  gold. 

A  guinea  was  an  English  gold  coin,  so  called  from  having  been 
originally  coined  of  gold  brought  from  the  Guinea  cost  in  1663.  Its 
value  has  varied  at  different  periods.  At  first  it  equalled  twenty  shil- 
lings, it  was  in  1685  worth  thirty  shillings,  and  in  1717  twenty-one  shil- 
lings, beyond  which  price  it  was  by  an  Act  of  Parliament  in  1811  for- 
bidden to  be  sold,  or  exported.  The  issue  of  the  sovereign  (1817)  virtually 
abolished  the  coinage  of  the  guinea. 


COINS,   WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES.  179 

A  cubit  was  a  Roman  measure  of  length,  supposed  to  equal  the 
length  of  the  fore-arm  from  the  elbow  to  the  tip  of  the  middle  finger. 
It  was  \yz  Roman  feet  (17)4  English  inches).  The  English  cubit  is  l*/2 
English  feet.  The  cubit  of  Scripture  is  generally  estimated  at  twenty- 
two  inches. 

It  is  a  big  job  to  count  a  trillion.  Had  Adam  counted  continuously 
from  his  creation  to  the  present  day,  he  would  not  have  reached  that 
number,  for  it  would  take  him  over  9,512  years.  At  the  rate  of  200  a 
minute,  there  could  be  counted  12,000  an  hour,  288,000  a  day,  and  105,- 
120,000  a  year. 

The  scudo  (Ital.,  "shield"),  is  an  Italian  silver  coin  corresponding 
to  the  Spanish  piastre,  the  American  dollar  and  the  English  crown.  It 
was  so  called  from  its  bearing  the  heraldic  shield  of  the  prince  by  whose 
authority  it  was  struck,  and  differed  slightly  in  value  in  the  different 
states  of  Italy,  the  usual  value  being  about  one  dollar. 

The  tael  is  a  money  of  account  in  China,  and  is  equivalent  to  i  tael 
weight  of  pure  silver,  or  to  about  twelve  hundred  and  fifty  of  the  copper 
coin  known  as  "cash."  The  value  of  the  Haikwan  tael  or  customs  tael 
is  4s.  9d.,  about  $1.14,  varying  with  the  price  of  silver.  In  1890  it  was 
superseded  by  the  new  dollar,  equal  in  value  to  our  dollar. 

Gunter's  chain  is  a  chain  used  for  land  measuring.  It  is  twenty-two 
yards  long,  the  square  of  which  is  484.  Now  an  acre  is  4,840  square 
yards,  and  therefore  a  square  chain  is  a  tenth  of  an  acre,  or  10=1  acre. 
Again  a  chain  contains  10,000  square  links,  and  as  10  chains  =  an  acre, 
it  follows  that  100,000  square  links  =  an  acre.  So  that,  in  measuring  a 
field  by  a  Gunter's  chain,  all  that  is  required  is  to  divide  the  result  by 
100,000,  or  (which  is  the  same  thing)  to  cut  off  the  last  five  figures,  to  ob- 
tain the  area  in  acres. 

The  real  is  a  silver  coin  and  money  of  account  in  Spain,  Mexico  and 
other  old  Spanish  possessions,  and  is  the  ^th  part  of  the  piastre,  or  X*h 
of  the  peseta,  the  franc  of  the  new  Spanish  decimal  system,  and  has  a 
value,  varying  with  the  exchange,  of  about  five  cents.  The  real  was 
first  coined  in  Spain  in  1497.  It  is  also  a  money  of  account  in  Portugal, 
being  the  equivalent  of  forty  reis.  In  Java  it  is  the  name  of  a  weight  for 
gold  and  silver  articles,  corresponding  to  seventeen  penny  weights  and 
fourteen  grains  troy  weight. 

The  "foot"  is  named  from  the  length  of  that  member  in  a  full- 
grown  man.  Some  say  that  it  was  so  called  from  the  length  of  the  foot 
of  a  certain  English  king,  but  it  is  believed  to  have  been  a  standard  of 
measurement  among  the  ancient  Egyptians.  The  cubit  is  from  the 
Latin  cubitus,  an  elbow,  and  is  the  distance  from  the  elbow  to  the  end 
of  the  middle  finger.  Fathom  is  from  the  Aryan  fat,  to  extend,  and  de- 
notes the  distance  from  tip  to  tip  of  the  fingers  when  the  arms  of  an 
average-sized  man  are  fully  extended. 

The  decimal  system  is  that  by  which  weights  and  measures  are  cal- 
culated by  tens  and  multiples  of  ten.  The  basis  of  this  system  is  the 
metre  =  39.37  in.;  of  liquid  capacity  the  litre,  one-tenth  of  the  metre;  of 
solid  measure  the  stere,  the  cube  of  the  metre;  of  weight  the  gramme  = 
one  cubic  centimetre  of  distilled  water  at  39.2°  Fahr.  The  decimal  sys- 
tem for  monej7  is  used  in  France,  where  the  franc  (twenty  cents)  is  the 
unit  of  value.  The  system  also  obtains  in  the  United  States,  Italy,  Spain, 
and  other  countries  in  Europe  and  elsewhere. 


180 


MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 


Counterfeiting  is  the  making  of  false  money.  In  the  United  States 
the  crime  of  counterfeiting  coin  or  money  is  punishable  with  fine  and 
imprisonment  at  hard  labor  for  a  term  of  from  two  to  ten  years;  and  in- 
cludes falsely  making,  forging  or  counterfeiting  coins  or  notes,  postal 
money  orders,  postal  cards,  government  stamps  of  all  kinds,  and  govern- 
ment securities,  as  also  importing,  possessing,  uttering,  or  passing  false 
coins  or  notes  with  fraudulent  intent.  Mutilating  and  debasing  the  coin 
is  also  counterfeiting,  but  is  not  so  severely  punished. 

The  talent  was  the  heaviest  unit  of  weight  among  the  Greeks.  The 
word  is  used  by  Homer  to  signify  indifferently  a  balance  and  a  definite 
weight  of  some  monetary  currency.  Silver  coin  was  first  struck  in 
Hellas  proper  in  the  island  of  ^Bgina,  and  the  ^Eginetan  standard  was 
apparently  adapted  to  the  Babylonian  gold  standard.  The  Babylonian 
commercial  talent  seems  to  have  been  either  65  pound,  5  ounces,  or  66 
pound,  5l/2  ounces,  and  its  value  in  silver  from  $1,700  to  $2,000.  Deriva- 
tives of  this  (containing  3,000  shekels)  were  in  use  in  Phoenicia  and 
Palestine;  but  there  was  another  silver  talent,  and  a  gold  talent  worth 
|ths  of  the  commercial  talent.  The  Euboic  talent  was  of  smaller  mone- 
tary measure  and  weight  than  the  ^ginetan. 

ALL  ABOUT  AN  ACRE. 

An  acre  is  a  measure  of  ground  approximately  adopted  by  most 
nations,  which  in  America  and  England  is  4,840  square  yards.  The 
chain  with  which  land  is  measured  is  22  yards  long,  and  a  square  chain 
will  contain  22x22,  or  484  yards;  so  that  10  square  chains  make  an  acre. 
The  acre  is  divided  into  4  roods,  a  rood  into  40  perches,  and  a  perch  con- 
tains 30X  square  yards.  The  old  Scotch  acre  is  larger  than  the  English, 
and  the  Irish  than  the  Scotch.  Twenty-three  Scotch  acres  =  29  imperial 
acres;  30  ^  Irish  acres  =  49  imperial  acres.  The  hectare  of  the  French 
metric  system  has  on  the  Continent  superseded  almost  all  the  ancient 
local  measures  corresponding  to  the  acre — such  as  the  Prussian  morgen. 

English  acre 1 .00 

Scotch  "  1.27 

Irish  "  1.62 

j  Hectare  (  =  100  ares) 2.47 

France  |  Arpent  (old  system) 0.99 

]  Little  Morgen 0.63 

Prussia  |  Great  Morgen 1.40 

United  States,  English  acre 1.00 


CAPACITY  OF  A  TEN-TON    FREIGHT  CAR. 


Whisky 60  barrels. 

Salt 70 

Lime 70 

Flour 90 

Eggs 130  to  160 

Flour 200  sacks. 

Cattle 18  to  20  head. 

Hogs 50  to  60 

Sheep 80  to  100 


Lumber,  green 6,000  feet. 

Lumber,  dry 10,000 

Barley 

Wheat 

Apples 

Corn 

Potatoes 

Oats 

Bran.  1,000 


300  bush. 

340 

370 

400 

430 

680 


MONEY  OF  THE  WORLD. 

Brass  money  is  spoken  of  by  Homer  as  early  as  1184  B.  c.  Gold 
and  silver  were  coined  by  Pheidon,  of  Argos,  862  B.  c.  Coins  were  made 
sterling  in  1216.  New  silver  coinage  struck,  1816;  Jubilee  coins  struck, 
1887;  first  gold  coin  on  record  struck,  1257;  sovereigns  first  coined,  1489; 


COINS,   WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 


181 


shillings  first  coined,  1503;  crowns  and  half-crowns  struck,  1553;  copper 
coined  by  Government,  1672;  guineas,  1663;  fourpenny-pieces,  1836; 
threepenny-pieces,  1843;  silver  florins,  1849;  bronze  coinage,  1860.  In 
the  reign  of  Elizabeth  the  amount  of  money  coined  was  ^5,832,000.  In 
1890  (Victoria)  it  reached  a  total  of  .£9,465,129.  In  the  United  States 
the  first  coinage  was  made  for  Virginia  Company,  1612;  first  colonial 
coinage,  1652  (Mass);  copper  coined  in  Vermont  and  Connecticut,  1785; 
New  Jersey  and  Massachusetts,  1786.  Decimal  coinage  adopted  by 
Congress,  1786,  when  following  coins  were  issued:  gold,  eagle  ($10),  and 
half-eagle;  silver,  dollar  and  divisions  of  dollar;  copper,  cent  and  half- 
cent.  The  appended  table  shows  the 

THE  VAUJE  OF  FOREIGN  COINS. 


COUNTRY. 

MONETARY  UNIT. 

STANDARD. 

VALUE 
IN  U.  S. 
MONEY. 

STANDARD  COIN. 

Austria  
Belgium  
Brazil  
Chili 

Florin 

Silver  
Gold  and  silver 
Gold  
Gold  and  silver 
Gold  and  silver 
Silver  

.40,1 
.19,3 
.54,6 
.91,2 
.93,2 
.26,8 
.04,9 
.19,3 
4.86.6K 
.19,3 

.23,8 

1.00 

.38,6 
.19,3 
.87,6 

.88,2 

.40,2 
.26,8 
1.08 

.65 

.19,3 

.26,8 
.19,3 
.04,4 

5,  10  and  20  francs. 

Condor,  doubloon  and  escudo. 
I'B.  y&i%,l/z  and  1  doubloon. 
Krone  =100  ore. 
5,  10,  25,  50  and  100  piasters. 
5,  10  and  20  francs. 
Yz  sovereign  and  sovereign. 
5,  10,  20,  50  and  100  drachmas. 

5,  10  and  20  marks. 

5,  10,  20,  50  and  100  lire. 
1,  2,  5,  10  and  20  yen,  gold  and 
silver  yen. 
Peso  or  dollar,  5,  10,  25  and  60 
centavo. 

Krone  =100  ore. 
2,  5  and  10  milreis. 

*4,  y<i  and  1  rouble 

5,  10,  20,  50  and  100  pesetas. 
Krone  =100  ore. 
5,  10  and  20  francs. 
25,  50,  ICO,  250  and  500  pias- 
ters. 

Franc  
Milreisofl.OOOreis 
Peso 

Cuba  
Denmark  
Egypt  
France    ... 
Great  Britain 
Greece  
German  Em- 
pire   
Hawaiian  Isl- 
ands .... 
India  
Italy 

Peso  
Krone  

Piaster  
Franc  
Pound  sterling  
Drachma  

Mark  

Dollar  
Rupee  of  16  annas  . 
Lira                   

Gold  
Gold  and  silver 
Gold  
Gold  and  silver 

Gold  

Gold  
Silver  
Gold  and  silver 
Silver  

Silver  

Gold  and  silver 
Silver  
Gold  

Silver  

Japan  
Mexico  

Netherlands  . 
Norway    .... 
Portugal  
Russia  

Spain  

Yen  
Dollar  

Florin  ,  

Krone  
Milreis  of  1,000  reis 
Rouble  of  100   co- 
pecks    ... 

Peseta  of  100  cen- 
times   

Gold  and  silver 
Silver  
Gold  and  silver 
Gold  

Sweden  
Switzerland.. 
Turkey  

Krone  
Franc  
Piaster  

WEIGHTS  OF  METALS  WITHOUT  WEIGHING. 
Wrought  Iron. — Find  the  number  of  cubic  inches  in  the  piece;  mul- 
tiply them  by  .2816.     The  product  will  be  in  pounds. 

Cast  Iron. — Multiply  the  number  of  cubic  inches  by  .2607. 
Copper. — Multiply  the  number  of  cubic  inches  by  .3242. 
Lead. — Multiply  the  number  of  cubic  inches  by  .41015. 
Brass. — Multiply  the  number  of  cubic  inches  by  .3112. 

DOMESTIC  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 

One  quart  of  wheat  flour  is  one  pound.  One  quart  of  corn  meal 
weighs  eighteen  ounces.  One  quart  of  butter,  soft,  weights  fourteen  to  six- 
teen ounces.  One  quart  of  brown  sugar  weighs  from  a  pound  to  a  pound 
and  a  quarter,  according  to  dampness.  One  quart  of  white  sugar  weighs 


182  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

two  pounds.  Ten  medium  sized  eggs  weigh  one  pound.  A  tablespoonful 
of  salt  is  one  ounce.  Eight  tablespoonfuls  make  a  gill.  Two  gills  or 
sixteen  tablespoonfuls  are  half  a  pint.  Sixty  drops  are  one  teaspoonful. 
Four  tablespoonfuls  are  one  wineglassful.  Twelve  tablespoonfuls  are  one 
teacupful.  Sixteen  tablespoonfuls,  or  half  a  pint,  are  one  tumblerful. 

THE  MEANING  OF  MEASURES. — A  square  mile  is  equal  to  640  acres. 
A  square  acre  is  208.71  feet  on  one  side.  An  acre  is  43,560  square  feet.  A 
league,  3  miles.  A  span,  10^  inches.  A  hand,  4  inches.  A  palm,  3 
inches.  A  great  cubit,  11  inches.  A  fathom,  6  feet.  A  mile,  5,280  feet. 

DOMESTIC  AND  DROP  MEASURES  APPROXIMATED — A  teaspoonful, 
one  fluid  dram,  4  grams;  a  dessertspoonful,  two  fluid  drams,  3  grams;  a 
tablespoonful,  half  fluid  ounce,  16  grams;  a  wineglassful,  two  fluid  ounces, 
64  grams;  a  tumblerful,  half  pint,  256  grams. 

WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 

TROY  WEIGHT — 24  grains  make  1  pennyweight,  20  pennyweights  make  1  ounce. 
By  this  weight,  gold,  silver  and  jewels  only  are  weighed.  The  ounce  and  pound  in  this 
are  same  as  in  Apothecaries'  weight. 

APOTHECARIES'  WEIGHT— 20  grains  make  1  scruple,  3  scruples  make  1  dram,  8 
drams  make  1  ounce,  12  ounces  make  1  pound. 

AVOIRDUPOIS  WEIGHT — 16  drams  make  1  ounce,  16  ounces  make  1  pound,  25  pounds 
make  1  quarter,  4  quarters  make  1  hundredweight,  2000  pounds  make  1  ton. 

DRY  MEASURE — 2  pints  make  1  quart,  8  quarts  make  1  peck,  4  pecks  make  1  bushel, 
36  bushels  make  1  chaldron. 

LIQUID  OR  WINE  MEASURE— 4  gills  make  1  pint,  2  pints  make  I  quart,  4  quarts 
make  1  gallon,  31%  gallons  make  1  barrel,  2  barrels  make  1  hogshead. 

TIME  MEASURE — 60  seconds  make  1  minute,  60  minutes  make  1  hour,  24  hours 
make  1  day,  7  days  make  1  week,  4  weeks  make  1  lunar  month,  28,.  29,  30  or  31  days 
make  1  calendar  month  (30  days  make  1  month  in  computing  interest,)  52  weeks  and 
1  day,  or  12  calendar  months  make  1  year;  365  days,  5  hours,  48  minutes  and  49  seconds 
make  1  solar  year. 

CIRCULAB  MEASURE— 60  seconds  make  1  minute,  60  minutes  make  1  degree,  30 
degrees  make  1  sign,  90  degrees  make  1  quadrant,  4  quadrants  or  360  degrees  make  1 
circle. 

LONG  MEASURE — DISTANCE — 3  barleycorns  1  inch,  12  inches  1  foot,  3  feet  lyard,  5^4 
yards  1  rod,  40  rods  1  furlong,  8  furlongs  1  mile. 

CLOTH  MEASURE— 2^  inches  1  nail,  4  nails  1  quarter,  4  quarters  1  yard. 

MISCELLANEOUS — 3  inches  1  palm,  4  inches  1  hand,  6  inches  1  span,  18  inches  1  cubit, 
21.8  inches  1  Bible  cubit,  2%  feetx  1  military  pace. 

SQUARE  MEASURE— 144  square  inches  1  square  foot,  9  square  feet  1  square  yard, 
30}4  square  yards  1  square  rod,  40  square  rods,  1  rood,  4  roods  1  acre. 

SURVEYOR'S  MEASURE— 7.92  inches  1  link,  25  links  1  rod,  4  rods  1  chain,  10  square 
chains  or  160  square  rods  1  acre,  640  acres  1  square  mile. 

CUBIC  MEASURE— 1,728  cubic  inches  1  cubic  foot,  27  cubic  feet  1  cubic  yard,  128  cubic 
feet  1  cord  (wood)  40  cubic  feet  1  ton  (shipping),  2,150.42  cubic  inches  1  standard  bushel, 
268.8  cubic  inches  1  standard  gallon,  1  cubic  foot  four  fifths  of  a  bushel. 

METRIC  WEIGHTS— 10  milligrams  1  centigram,  10  centigrams  1  decigram,  10  deci- 
grams 1  gram,  10  grams  1  dekagram,  10  dekagrams  1  hektogram,  10  hektograms  1  kilo- 
gram. 

METRIC  MEASURES — (One  milliliter — Cubic  centimeter.)  — 10  milliliters  1  centiliter. 
10  centiliters  1  deciliter,  10  deciliters  1  liter,  10  liters  1  dekaliter,  10  dekaliters  1  hektoli- 
ter,  10  hektoliters  1  kiloliter. 

METRIC  LENGTHS— 10  millimeters  1  centimeter,  10  centimeters  1  decimeter,  10  deci- 
meters 1  meter,  10  meters  1  dekameter,  10  dekameters  1  hektometer,  10  hektometers  1 
kilometer. 

RATIp  OF  APOTHECARIES'  AND  IMPERIAL.  MEASURE. 
Apothecaries.  Imperial. 

1  gallon  equals 6  pints,  13  ounces,  2  drams,  23     minims. 

Ipint         "        16  5  18 

1  fluid  ounce  equals 1        "        0        "      20 

Ifluiddram       "      1        "        V/* 


COINS,  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES.  183 

HANDY  METRIC  TABLES. 

The  following  tables  give  the  equivalents  of  both  the  metric  and 
common  systems,  and  will  be  found  convenient  for  reference: 

APPROXIMATE  ACCURATE 

EQUIVALENT.  EQUIVALENT. 

1  inch [length] Zy2  cubic  centimeters 2.539 

1  centimeter, 0.4  inch 0.393 

lyard 1  meter 0.914 

1  meter  (39.37  inches) 1  yard 1.093 

1  foot 30  centimeters 30.479 

1  kilometer  (1,000  meters) %  mile  0.681 

1  mile \l/z kilometers 1.600 

1  gramme [weight]  — 15%  grains 15.432 

1  grain 0.064  gramme 0.064 

1  kilogramme  (1,000  grammes) 2.2  pounds  avoirdupois 2.204 

1  pound  avoirdupois yz  kilogramme 0.453 

1  ounce  avoirdupois  (437^  grains) 28^  grammes 28.349 

1  ounce  troy,  or  apothecary  (480  grains) 31  grammes 31.103 

1  cubic  centimeter [bulk] 1.06  cubic  inch 0.060 

1  cubic  inch 16%  cubic  centimeters 16.386 

1  liter  (1,000  cubic  centimeters) 1  United  States  standard  quart 0.946 

1  United  States  quart 1  liter 1.057 

1  fluid  ounce 29^  cubic  centimeters 29.570 

1  hectare  (10,000  square  meters)  [surface] . .  2%  acres  2.471 

1  acre  0.4  hectare 0.40 

It  may  not  be  generally  known  that  we  have  in  the  nickel  five-cent 
piece  of  our  coinage  a  key  to  the  tables  of  linear  measures  and  weights. 
The  diameter  of  this  coin  is  two  centimeters,  and  its  weight  is  five  gram- 
mes. Five  of  them  placed  in  a  row  will,  of  course,  give  the  length  of 
the  decimeter;  and  two  of  them  will  weigh  a  decagram.  As  the  kiloliter 
is  a  cubic  meter,  the  key  to  the  measure  of  length  is  also  the  key  to  the 
measure  of  capacity.  Any  person,  therefore,  who  is  fortunate  enough  to 
own  a  five-cent  nickle,  may  carry  in  his  pocket  the  entire  metric  system 
of  weights  and  measures.  

SUNDRY  WEIGHTS  AND   MEASURES. 

To  find  the  number  of  bushels  of  apples,  potatoes,  etc.,  in  a  bin, 
multiply  the  length,  breadth  and  thickness  together;  then  multiply  by 
eight  and  point  off  one  figure  in  the  answer  for  decimals. 

Three  and  one-half  barrels  of  lime  will  do  one  hundred  yards  of 
plastering,  two  coats.  Two  barrels  will  do  one  coat.  One  barrel  will 
lay  one  thousand  bricks.  To  every  barrel  of  lime  estimate  about  five- 
eighths  yards  of  good  sand  for  plastering  and  brick  work. 

Wheat  from  the  time  it  is  threshed  will  shrink  two  quarts  to  the 
bushel,  or  six  per  ce,nt  in  six  months.  One  hundred  bushels  of  corn 
husked  in  November  will  shrink  to  eighty  by  March.  Potatoes  will  rot 
and  shrink  thirty-three  per  cent  of  value  from  October  to  June. 

Shekel  (Heb.,  from  shakal,  "to  weigh"),  was  originally  a  certain  stand- 
ard weight  in  use  among  the  ancient  Hebrews,  by  which  the  value  of 
metals,  metal  vessels  and  other  things  was  fixed.  Gradually  it  became  a 
normal  piece  of  money,  both  in  gold  and  silver,  marked  in  some  way  or 
other  as  a  coin,  although  not  stamped.  The  gifts  to  the  sanctuary,  the 
fines,  the  taxes,  the  prices  of  merchandise  are  all  reckoned  in  the  Old 
Testament  by  the  shekel,  not  counted,  but  weighed. 

Troy-weight  seems  to  have  taken  its  name  from  a  weight  used  at  the 
fair  of  Troyes,  an  important  center  of  commerce  during  the  middle  ages. 
I/ike  Cologne,  Toulouse  and  other  towns,  Troyes  may  have  had  its  own 


184  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

special  system  of  weights.  A  troy  pound  (of  what  value  is  unknown)  is 
first  mentioned  in  Britain  in  1414,  long  before  which  period  the  stand- 
ard pound  of  twelve  ounces,  as  well  as  another  pound  of  twelve  ounces 
(the  Tower  pound),  was  in  use.  The  term  "troy"  was  first  applied  to 
the  standard  pound  in  1495,  but  at  the  same  time  no  change  seems  to 
have  been  made  in  its  value,  and  it  continued,  as  before,  to  be  exclusively 
employed  by  the  dealers  in  the  precious  metals,  gems  and  drugs.  The 
troy  pound  contains  twelve  ounces,  each  ounce  twenty  pennyweights, 
and  each  pennyweight  twenty-four  grains;  thus  the  pound  contains 
5, 760  grains,  and  is  to  the  avoirdupois  pound  as  144  to  175,  while  the 
troy  ounce  is  to  the  avoirdupois  ounce  as  192  to  175.  (The  apothecaries' 
ounce  and  pound  are  now  practically  obsolete;  drugs  are  bought  and 
sold  by  avoirdupois,  though  compounded  by  apothecaries'  weight.)  The 
old  English  pound,  to  which  the  term  troy  was  afterwards  applied,  was 
doubtless  the  pound  of  silver;  and  the  Tower  pound  -of  twelve  ounces 
differed  from  it  only  by  three-fourths  of  an  ounce. 

THE    AREA   OF  A    CIRCLE. 

Of  all  plane  figures  the  circle  is  the  most  capacious,  or  has  the  great- 
est area  within  the  same  limits.  It  is  geometrically  demonstrable  that  it 
has  the  same  area  as  a  right-angled  triangle  with  a  base  equal  to  its  cir- 
cumference, and  a  perpendicular  equal  to  its  radius,  that  is,  half  the  pro- 
duct of  the  radius  and  circumference.  It  is  obviously  larger  than  any 
figure,  of  however  many  sides,  inscribed  within  its  perimeter,  and  smaller 
than  any  circumscribed  polygon.  As  a  result  of  laborious  calculations 
on  this  basis  (pushed  in  one  instance  to  600  places  of  decimals  without 
reaching  the  end),  it  has  been  ascertained  that  the  ratio  of  the  diameter 
to  the  circumference  of  any  circle  (sufficiently  exact  for  all  practical  pur- 
poses), is  as  1  :  3.1416  (3.141592653-J-)  or  in  whole  numbers,  approxi- 
mately, as  7  :  22,  or  more  nearly  as  113  :  355.  Hence,  to  find  the  circum- 
ference or  diameter,  the  other  quantity  being  known,  multiply  or  divide 
by  3.1416;  and  to  find  the  area,  multiply  half  the  diameter  by  half  the 
circumference,  or  the  square  of  the  diameter  by  .7854  (3.1416-4-4). 

To  FIND  THE  SURFACE  OF  A  GLOBE,  multiply  the  square  of  the  diam- 
eter by  3.1416. 

To  FIND  THE  SOLIDITY  OF  A  GLOBE,  multiply  the  cube  of  the  diam- 
eter by  .5236.  

COAL    WEIGHED    BY    MEASURE. 

There  is  a  difference  between  a  ton  of  hard  coal  and  one  of  soft  coal. 
For  that  matter,  coal  from  different  mines  whether  hard  or  soft,  differs  in 
weight,  and  consequently  in  cubic  measure,  according  to  quality.  Then 
there  is  a  difference  according  to  size.  To  illustrate:  careful  measure- 
ments have  been  made  of  Wilkesbarre  anthracite,  a  fine  quality  of  hard 
coal,  with  the  following  results: 

Cubic  feet       Cubic  feet  in 

Size  in  ton  of          ton  of 

of  coal.  2,240  Ibs.         2,000  Ibs. 

Lump 33.2  22.8 

Broken 33.9  30.3 

Egg 34.5  30.8 

Stone 34.8  31.1 

Chestnut 35.7  31.9 

Pea 36.7  32.8 

For  soft  coal  the  following  measures  may  be  taken  as  nearly  correct; 
it  is  simply  impossible  to  determine  any  exact  rule,  even  for  bituminous 


COINS,  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 


185 


coal  of  the  same  district:  Briar  Hill  coal,  44.8  cubic  feet  per  ton  of  2,240 
pounds;  Pittsburgh,  47.8;  Wilmington,  111.,  47;  Indiana  block  coal,  42  to 
43  cubic  feet. 


MEASURE    OF    EARTH,  ETC. 
One  ton  of  soil  =  18  feet  cube. 
45  cubic  feet  of  soil  =  2H  tons. 

A  cubic  foot  contains  6  gallons  and  1  quart  of  water,  weighing  62V£  Ibs. 
15H  cubic  feet  of  chalk  weighs  ............................................  1  ton. 

18  "        "         clay  "      ..............................................  1     " 

21         "        "        earth        "      ..............................................  1     " 

19  gravel      "      ..............................................  1     " 

21         "        "         sand         "      .............................  ..  1    " 


TRADE    SIZES   OF    BOOKS. 

The  name  indicates  the  number  of  pages  in  the  sheet,  thus:  in  folio 
book,  4  pages  or  2  leaves  =  1  sheet;  a  quarto,  or  4to.,  has  8  pages  or  4 
leaves  to  a  sheet;  an  octavo,  or  8vo.,  16  pages  or  8  leaves  to  a  sheet.  In 
a  12mo.,  24  pages  or  12  leaves  =  1  sheet,  and  the  18mo.,  36  pages,  or  18 
leaves  =  1  sheet,  and  so  on.  The  following  are  the  approximate  sizes  of 
books: 

Royal  Folio 19  inches  X  12 


Demy 18 

Super  Imp.  Quarto  (4to) 15V£ 

Royal  4to 1 2Y2 

Demy4to 11% 

Crown  4to 11 

Royal  Octavo 10V£ 

Medium  8vo 9J4 

Demy  8vo 9 

Crown  8vo.. .  Tl/2 

Foolscap  8vo 7 

12mo 7 

16mo 6H 

Square  16mo 4l/2 

Royal  24mo 5H 

Demy  24mo 5 

Royal  32mo 5 

Post32mo 4 

Demy  48mo 3% 

VALUE    OF    DIAMONDS, 


x  11 

X  13 
X  10 


8H 


5/2 


Diamonds  averaging  one-half  carat  each,  $60  per  carat. 

Diamonds  averaging  three-quarters  carat  each,  $80  per  carat. 

Diamonds  averaging  one  carat  each,  $100  per  carat. 

Diamonds  averaging  one  and  one-quarter  carats  each,  $110  per  carat. 

Diamonds  averaging  one  and  one-half  carats  each,  $120  per  carat. 

Diamonds  averaging  one  and  three-quarters  carats  each,  $145  per  carat. 

Diamonds  averaging  two  carats  each,  $175  per  carat. 

In  other  words,  the  value  of  the  gem  increases  in  the  geometrical  ratio  of  its  weight. 
Four  diamonds  weighing  together  two  carats  are  worth  $120;  but  one  diamond  weighing 
just  as  much  is  worth  $350.  Stones  weighing  over  two  carats  are  about  the  same  price 
per  carat  as  two-carat  stones;  they  should  be  dearer,  but  they  are  not,  simply  because 
the  demand  for  them  is  limited.  If  the  demand  for  diamonds  were  as  imperative  as  the 
demand  for  flour  or  beef,  the  geometrical  ratio  would  again  come  into  play,  and  five- 
carat  stones  would  be  valued  in  the  thousands. 


VALUABLE  CALCULATIONS. 

To  MEASURE  BULK  WOOD. — To  measure  a  pile  of  wood,  multiply 
the  length  by  the  width,  and  that  product  by  the  height,  which  will  give 
the  number  of  cubic  feet.  Divide  that  product  by  128,  and  the  quotient 
will  be  the  number  of  cords.  A  standard  cord  of  wood,  it  must  be  re- 


186  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

membered,  is  four  feet  thick;  that  is,  the  wood  must  be  four  feet  long. 
Farmers  usually  go  by  surface  measure,  calling  a  pile  of  stove  wood 
eight  feet  long  and  four  feet  high  a  cord.  Under  such  circumstances 
thirty-two  feet  would  be  the  divisor. 

GRAIN  MEASURE  —  To  find  the  capacity  of  a  bin  or  wagon-bed,  mul- 
tiply the  cubic  feet  by  .8  (tenths).  For  great  accuracy  add  one-third  of 
a  bushel  for  every  100  cubic  feet.  To  find  the  cubic  feet,  multiply  the 
length,  width  and  depth  together. 

LAND  MEASURE  —  To  find  the  number  of  acres  in  a  body  of  land, 
multiply  the  length  by  the  width  (in  rods),  and  divide  the  product  by 
160.  When  the  opposite  sides  are  unequal,  add  them,  and  take  half  the 
sum  for  the  mean  length  or  width. 

CISTERN  MEASURE  —  To  find  the  capacity  of  a  round  cistern  or  tank, 
multiply  the  square  of  the  average  diameter  by  the  depth,  and  take 
three-sixteenths  of  the  product.  For  great  accuracy,  multiply  by  .1865. 
For  square  cisterns  or  tanks,  multiply  the  cubic  feet  by  .2^.  The  re- 
sult is  the  contents  in  barrels. 

To  MEASURE  CASKS  OR  BARRELS—  Find  mean  diameter  by  adding 
to  head  diameter  two-thirds  (if  staves  are  but  slightly  curved,  three- 
fifths)  of  difference  between  head  and  bung  diameters,  and  dividing  by 
two.  Multiply  square  of  mean  diameter  in  inches  by  .7854,  and  the  prod- 
uct by  the  height  of  the  cask  in  inches.  The  result  will  be  the  number 
of  cubic  inches.  Divide  by  231  for  standard  or  wine  gallons  and  by  282 
for  beer  gallons. 

To  ASCERTAIN  THE  WEIGHT  OF  CATTLE  —  Measure  the  girt  close 
behind  the  shoulder,  and  the  length  from  the  forepart  of  the  shoulder- 
blade  along  the  back  to  the  bone  at  the  tail,  which  is  in  a  vertical  line 
with  the  buttock,  both  in  feet.  Multiply  the  square  of  the  girt,  ex- 
pressed in  feet  by  ten  times  the  length,  and  divide  the  product  by  three; 
the  quotient  is  the  weight,  nearly,  of  the  fore  quarters,  in  pounds  avoir- 
dupois. It  is  to  be  observed,  however,  that  in  very  fat  cattle,  the  fore 
quarters  will  be  about  one-twentieth  more,  while  in  those  in  a  very  lean 
state  they  will  be  one-twentieth  less  than  the  weight  obtained  by  the 
rule. 

MEASURES  OP  CAPACITY  —  The  following  table,  showing  contents  of 
boxes,  will  often  be  found  convenient,  taking  inside  dimensions: 
24  in.  x  24  in.  x  14.7  will  contain  a  barrel  of  31*4  gallons. 

15  in.  x  14  in.  x  11  in.  will  contain  10  gallons. 
8J4  in  x  7  in.  x  4  in.  will  contain  a  gallon. 

4  in.  x  4  in  x  3.6  in.  will  contain  a  quart.  . 
24  in.  x  28  in.  x  16  in.  will  contain  5  bushels. 

16  in.  x  12  in.  x  11.2  in.  will  contain  a  bushel. 

12  in.  x  11.2  in.  x  8  in.  will  contain  a  half  bushel. 

7  in.  x  6.4  in.  x  12  in.  will  contain  a  peck. 

8.4  in.  x  8  in.  x  4  in.  will  contain  a  half  peck,  or  4  dry  quarts! 

6  in.  x  5f  in.,  and  4  in.  deep,  will  contain  a  half  gallon. 

4  in.  x  4  in.,  and  2Jn  in.  deep,  will  contain  a  pint. 


How  TO  MEASURE  A  TREE.  —  Very  many  persons,  when  looking  for 
a  stick  of  timber,  are  at  a  loss  to  estimate  either  the  height  of  the  tree 
or  the  length  of  timber  it  will  cut.  The  following  rule  will  enable  any 
one  to  approximate  nearly  to  the  length  from  the  ground  to  any  position 
desired  on  the  tree:  Take  a  stake,  say  six  feet  in  length,  and  place  it 
against  the  tree  you  wish  to  measure.  Then  step  back  some  rods,  twenty 
or  more  if  you  can,  from  which  to  do  the  measuring.  At  this  point  a 
light  pole  and  a  measuring  rule  are  required.  The  pole  is  raised  between 
the  eyes  and  the  tree,  and  the  rule  is  brought  into  position  against  the 


COINS,    WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES.  187 

pole.  Then  by  sighting  and  observing  what  length  of  the  rule  is  required 
to  cover  the  stake  of  the  tree,  and  what  the  entire  tree,  dividing  the  lat- 
ter length  by  the  former  and  multiplying  by  the  number  of  feet  the  stake 
is  long,  you  reach  the  approximate  height  of  the  tree.  For  example,  if 
the  stake  at  the  tree  be  six  feet  above  ground  and  one  inch  on  your 
rule  corresponds  exactly  with  this,  and  if  then  the  entire  height  of  the 
tree  corresponds  exactly  with  say  nine  inches  on  the  rule,  this  would 
show  the  tree  to  possess  a  full  height  of  fifty-four  feet.  In  practice  it 
will  thus  be  found  an  easy  matter  to  learn  the  approximate  height  of 
any  tree,  building,  or  other  such  object. 

RUIZES  FOR  MEASURING  CORN  IN  CRIB,  VEGETABLES,  ETC.,  AND  HAY 
IN  Mow — This  rule  will  apply  to  a  crib  of  any  size  or  kind.  Two  cubic 
feet  of  good,  sound,  dry  corn  in  the  ear  will  make  a  bushel  of  shelled 
corn;  to  get,  then,  the  quantity  of  shelled  corn  in  a  crib  of  corn  in  the 
ear,  measure  the  length,  breadth  and  height  of  the  crib,  inside  the  rail; 
multiply  the  length  by  the  breadth  and  the  product  by  the  height,  then 
divide  the  product  by  two,  and  you  have  the  number  of  bushels  of  shelled 
corn  in  the  crib. 

To  find  the  number  of  bushels  of  apples,  potatoes,  etc.,  in  a  bin, 
multiply  the  length,  breadth  and  thickness  together,  and  this  product  by 
eight,  and  point  off  one  figure  in  the  product  for  decimals. 

To  find  the  amount  of  hay  in  a  mow,  allow  512  cubic  feet  for  a  ton, 
and  it  will  come  out  very  generally  correct. 


THE  STORY  OF  OUR  COINAGE. 

Among  the  North  American  Indians .  strings  of  beads  made  from 
shells  were  used  as  currency.  They  were  called  wampum.  In  Colonial 
times  the  general  court  of  Massachusetts  soon  recognized  this  money 
and  fixed  an  arbitrary  rate  of  exchange.  Six  white  beads  made  from  the 
sea-conch,  or  three  purple  beads  made  from  the  muscle-shell,  were  taken 
as  equivalent  to  an  English  penny.  Later  four  white  and  two  purple 
ones  were  declared  to  have  the  same  value.  Musket  balls  were  made 
legal  tender  for  small  amounts  and  furs  and  peltry  for  large  sums.  The 
coins  brought  from  England  and  Holland  tended  to  flow  back  to 
Europe,  and  the  remaining  ones  were  insufficient  for  the  needs  of  the 
colonists. 

In  1652,  therefore,  the  general  court  of  Massachusetts  established  a 
mint  in  Boston,  and  John  Hull,  mint-master,  struck  silver  shillings,  six- 
pences and  threepences.  All  of  these  coins  bore  the  device  of  the  pine- 
tree.  They  were  of  the  same  fineness  as  the  English  coins  of  like 
denomination,  but  of  less  weight.  This  mint  continued  in  operation 
for  thirty-six  years.  After  a  while  the  ' '  royal  oak' '  was  substituted  for 
the  pine-tree  in  order  to  conciliate  King  Charles  II.,  who  disliked  this 
minting  by  a  colony.  All  the  above  named  coins  bore  the  date  of  1652; 
but  two-penny  pieces  were  added  with  the  date  of  1662.  No  other  col- 
ony had  a  mint  until  1659,  when  Lord  Baltimore  caused  shillings,  six- 
pences and  groats  to  be  coined  for  use  in  Maryland.  James  II.  issued 
ten  coins  for  circulation  in  America,  though  few  of  these  have  found 
their  way  hither.  In  1722,  1723  and  1733  copper  coins  were  minted  in 
England  with  the  legend  "  Rosa  Americana."  There  were  also  copper 
half-pence  issued  in  1773  for  circulation  in  Virginia,  and  in  1774  silver 
shillings  were  added.  Florida  and  Louisiana  had  colonial  coins  of  their 
own  before  they  became  parts  of  the  United  States. 


188  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

After  the  Revolutionary  war  the  Continental  Congress  passed  an  act 
in  1786  which  established  a  mint  and  regulated  the  value  and  alloy  of 
the  national  coin.  The  government  prescribed  the  device  for  copper 
coin  the  next  year.  Under  this  authority  the  so-called  "Franklin 
Penny,"  with  the  legend  "Mind  Your  Business,"  was  made  by  contract. 
By  the  Federal  Constitution,  ratified  in  1789,  the  right  of  coining  money 
was  transferred  from  the  States  to  the  United  States.  Under  this  consti- 
tution the  United  States  mint  was  established  at  Philadelphia  in  1792, 
and  the  regular  coinage  began  in  the  following  year.  Four  have  since 
been  added:  New  Orleans  (1835),  San  Francisco  (1854),  Carson  City  and 
Denver— all  under  the  charge  of  the  Bureau  of  the  Mint  of  the  United 
States  Treasury  Department. 

By  the  act  of  Congress  establishing  the  United  States  Mint  the  fol- 
lowing coins  were  authorized,  Gold,  eagle,  half-eagle,  quarter-eagle; 
silver,  dollar,  half-dollar,  quarter-dollar,  dime,  half-dime;  copper,  cent, 
half-cent.  Changes  have  been  made  at  various  times,  not  only  in  weight 
and  fineness,  but  also  in  the  metals  used  for  the  minor  coins.  At  present 
the  following  coins  are  struck:  Gold,  double-eagle,  eagle,  half-eagle, 
three-dollar,  quarter-eagle,  dollar;  silver,  dollar,  half-dollar,  quarter-dol- 
lar, dime;  minor  coins,  of  nickel  and  bronze,  five-cent,  three-cent  and 
cent. 

By  the  act  of  February  12,  1873,  the  metric  system  was  to  a  certain 
extent  used  in  determining  the  weight  of  the  silver  coins.  Thus,  the 
half-dollar  was  to  weigh  12^  grams,  the  quarter-dollar  6)4  grams,  the 
dime  2^  grams. 

Till  1837  the  obverse  of  our  coins  had  generally  a  female  head,  either 
with  a  liberty  cap,  or  with  a  fillet  bearing  the  word  "Liberty."  After- 
wards it  was  replaced  by  a  full-length  seated  figure  with  a  liberty-cap 
on  a  pole,  and  a  shield  with  a  band  inscribed  "Liberty."  The  reverse  of 
the  principal  coins  has  the  eagle,  often  with  a  shield,  arrows  and  olive 
branch.  But  in  the  minor  coins  the  denomination  of  the  piece  is  encir- 
cled by  a  wreath. 

Up  to  1849  eagles  or  ten-dollar  gold  pieces  were  the  highest  denomi- 
nation authorized.  But  the  discovery  of  gold  in  large  quantity  in  Cali- 
fornia caused  the  demand  for  a  larger  coin,  and  the  double-eagle  was 
authorized  by  act  of  March  3,  1849,  and  issued  in  1850.  By  the  same  act 
gold  dollars  were  also  authorized.  Beside  the  govermental  issues  there 
were  octagonal  and  ring  dollars  and  even  gold  half-dollars  and  quarters 
issued  in  California.  The  Mormans  in  Utah  also  had  gold  coins  of  their 
own.  These  had  peculiar  devices,  and  their  favorite  inscription,  "Holi- 
ness to  the  Lord."  

NUMISMATICS  AS  A  STUDY. 

Besides  its  bearing  upon  the  history,  the  religion,  the  manners,  and 
the  arts  of  the  nations  which  have  used  money,  the  science  of  numismat- 
ics has  a  special  modern  use  in  relation  to  art.  Displaying  the  various 
styles  of  art  prevalent  in  different  ages,  coins  supply  us  with  abundant 
means  for  promoting  the  advancement  of  art  among  ourselves.  If  the 
study  of  many  schools  be  at  all  times  of  advantage,  it  is  especially  so 
when  there  is  little  originality  in  the  world.  Its  least  value  is  to  point 
out  the  want  of  artistic  merit"  and  historical  commemoration  in  modern 
coins,  and  to  suggest  that  modern  types  should  be  executed  after  some 
study  of  the  rules  which  controlled  the  great  works  of  former  times. 


WAR  AND  ITS  APPLIANCES. 


Is  it,  O  man,  with  such  discordant  noises, 

With  such  accursed  instruments  as  these, 
Thou  drownest  nature's  sweet  and  kindly  voices, 

Andjarrest  the  celestial  harmonies  ? 

— LONGFKLLOW. 

ARMIES,  ARMS  AND  ARMOR. 

Julius  Caesar  invaded  Britain,  55  B.  c. 

French  Revolution,  1789;  Reign  of  Terror,  1793. 

Bunker  Hill  and  Lexington  were  fought  in  1775. 

A  rifle  ball  moves  at  one  thousand  miles  per  hour. 

War  was  declared  with  Great  Britain  June  19,  1812. 

War  has  cost  France  six  million  lives  in  this  century. 

The  mercantile  and  armed  navies  of  the  world  have  1,693,000  seamen. 

Flint-lock  muskets  came  into  use  about  1692;  percussion  caps  in 
1820. 

The  first  fire-arms  were  rude  hand  cannon,  made  at  Perugia,  Italy, 
in  1346. 

Franc-tireurs  was  the  name  of  the  French  sharp-shooters  in  the  war 
of  1870-71. 

"Bravest  of  the  Brave,"  was  the  title  given  to  Marshal  Ney  at  Fried- 
land,  1807. 

A  battalion  is  the  unit  of  command  in  infantry;  a  regiment  is  the 
administration  unit. 

Juvenal  says  that  even  those  who  do  not  wish  to  kill  a  man  are  will- 
ing to  have  that  power. 

Crecy,  Poictiers,  and  Agincourt  were  won  with  the  long-bow,  then 
England's  favorite  war  weapon. 

Ishmael  is  mentioned  as  an  archer,  Gen.  xxi,  20,  and  probably 
among  the  first  known  warriors. 

The  proportion  of  men  capable  of  bearing  arms  is  estimated  at 
twenty-five  per  cent  of  the  population. 

The  officers  of  the  Swedish  navy  are  considered  as  military  officers, 
and  in  full  dress  are  obliged  to  wear  spurs. 

The  first  steam  vessel  to  engage  in  a  naval  battle  was  operated  by  the 
Spanish  in  the  Don  Carlos  civil  war  of  1836. 

It  was  Washington  who  said  that  to  be  prepared  for  war  is  one  of 
the  most  effectual  means  of  preserving  peace. 


190  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION, 

Hetman  was  a  title  formerly  borne  by  a  general  of  Cossack  troops;  if 
was  an  elective  rank,  but  gave  absolute  authority. 

The  military  chest  is  a  technical  name  for  the  money  and  negotiable 
securities  carried  with  an  army,  and  intended  to  defray  the  current  ex- 
penses. 

The  Seven  Weeks'  War  is  the  term  sometimes  applied  to  the  Austro- 
Prussian  war  of  1866,  which  lasted  from  the  middle  of  June  till  the  end 
of  July. 

The  form  of  breech-loading  needle  gun,  adopted  by  the  French  army 
in  1866,  was  the  invention  of  one  Alphonse  Chassepot,  and  was  named  in 
his  honor. 

When  L/ouis  XI.  asked  Marshal  de  Trivulce  what  was  needed  to 
make  war,  the  answer  came:  "Three  things,  Sire;  money,  more  money, 
always  money." 

The  victors'  share  in  property  captured  from  the  vanquished  is  called 
booty.  It  is  generally  a  military  term,  the  word  prize  being  more  com- 
monly used  in  the  navy. 

In  1040  the  Church  forbid  warriors  from  all  combat  between  Wednes- 
day of  Passion  Week  and  the  following  Monday—  this  interval  hence 
being  called  the  "Truce  of  God." 

When  a  power  maintains  an  armed  force,  and  prepares  itself  for  war 
on  the  outbreak  of  hostilities  between  other  powers,  it  is  said  to  assume 
an  attitude  of  "armed  neutrality." 

According  to  Napoleon,  the  proportions  of  an  army  should  be  seventy 
per  cent  infantry,  seventeen  per  cent  cavalry,  and  thirteen  per  cent  be- 
tween artillery,  engineers  and  train. 

Spahi  is  the  Turkish  form  of  the  Persian  word  Sipahi  (from  which 
we  get  Sepoy),  and  was  the  term  for  the  irregular  cavalry  of  the  Turkish 
armies  before  the  reorganization  of  1836. 

A  sabretache  is  a  leather  case  for  carrying  letters,  etc.  It  is  usually 
attached  to  the  sword-belt  of  hussars  and  of  most  mounted  officers.  In 
the  latter  case  it  is  often  highly  ornamented. 

In  the  military  language  of  the  middle  ages  the  term  cap-a-pie"  was 
applied  to  a  knight  or  soldier  armed  at  all  points,  or  from  head  to  foot, 
with  armor  for  defence  and  weapons  for  attack. 

The  word  cartel  means  variously  a  challenge  and  a  written  agreement 
between  belligerents  for  an  exchange  of  prisoners.  Cartel  ship  is  a  ves- 
sel commissioned  to  convey  exchanged  prisoners. 

Belgium  is  called  the  "cock  pit"  of  Europe  because  it  has  been  the 
site  of  more  European  battles  than  any  other  country,  e.  g. :  Oudenarde, 
Ramillies,  Fontenoy,  Fleurus,  Jemappes,  Ligny,  Quatre  Bras,  Waterloo, 
etc. 

A  countersign  is  a  watchword  used  in  military  affairs  to  prevent  un- 
authorized persons  passing  a  line  of  sentries  whose  orders  are  to  stop  any 
one  unable  to  give  it.  It  is  changed  by  the  commanding  officer  every 
day. 

The  greatest  number  of  war  prisoners  at  one  time  at  Andersonville 
was  33,006.  The  number  of  escapes  was  328.  The  total  number  of  deaths 
was  12,462,  about  one-third  of  which  took  place  in  the  stockade  and  two- 
thirds  in  the  hospital. 


WAR  AND  ITS  APPLIANCES.  191 

The  " Victoria  Cross,"  which  we  often  read  of  having  been  conferred 
upon  some  British  soldier  for  conspicuous  bravery,  is  of  the  Maltese 
form,  made  from  Russian  cannon  captured  at  Sebastopol. 

A  court-martial  is  a  court  for  the  trial  of  all  persons  subject  to  mili- 
tary law  or  to  the  regulations  of  the  navy.  It  is  composed,  according  to 
circumstances,  of  a  certain  number  of  officers  of  the  service  involved. 

Sealed  orders  in  the  navy  are  orders  which  are  delivered  to  the  com- 
manding officer  of  a  ship  or  squadron  sealed  up,  and  only  to  be  opened 
after  the  ship  or  squadron  has  put  to  sea  and  proceeded  to  a  certain  point 
previously  designated. 

Suits  of  a  uniform  color  and  pattern  for  soldiers  in  the  British  army 
date  from  1674,  when  the  foot  guards  were  clad  in  gray.  The  intro- 
duction of  a  regular  uniform  for  sailors  dates  from  1748,  when  the  "blue 
iacket"  become  customary. 

The  cockpit  in  the  ship  of  war  is  the  compartment  in  the  lower  part 
of  the  ship  where  the  wounded  are  attended  to  during  action.  The  sur- 
gery and  the  dispensary  which  contains  the  medicine  chests  for  the  ship's 
company  adjoin  the  cockpit. 

What  we  call  the  Mexican  war  (June  4,  1845  to  February  2,  1848), 
was  between  the  United  States  and  Mexico.  The  Americans  captured 
the  city  of  Mexico  September  14,  1847.  The  treaty  of  peace  was  signed 
Feburary  2,  and  ratified  May  19,  1848. 

At  the  close  of  the  Franco-German  war  the  Germans  took  from  the 
French  7,234  pieces  of  cannon,  including  3,485  field  pieces  and  3,300 
fortress  guns.  At  the  battle  of  Waterloo  the  British  artillery  fired  9,467 
rounds,  or  one  for  every  Frenchman  killed. 

The  temporary  suspension  of  hostilities  between  two  armies  or  two 
nations  at  war,  by  mutual  agreement,  constitutes  an  armistice.  It  takes 
place  sometimes  when  both  are  exhausted,  and  at  other  times  when  an 
endeavor  to  form  a  treaty  of  peace  is  being  made. 

While  the  nominal  pay  of  a  British  private  is  one  shilling  a  day,  or 
twenty-four  cents,  he  really  does  not  receive  much  more  than  half  that 
in  actual  cash.  Deductions  are  charged  to  his  account  for  extra  supplies 
of  rations  and  for  washing,  which  bring  the  net  amount  down  to  about  $1 
a  week. 

There  is  a  gun  in  the  British  navy,  a  twenty-two-ton  Armstrong, 
which  hurls  a  solid  shot  a  distance  of  twelve  miles,  the  highest  point  in 
the  arc  described  by  the  shot  being  seventeen  thousand  feet  above  the 
earth's  surface.  The  discharge  of  the  gun  cannot  be  heard  at  the  place 
where  the  ball  strikes. 

Armed  bands  of  peasants  are  called  guerrillas  in  Spain.  The  insur- 
rections of  Jack  Cade,  Wat  Tyler,  and  Robert  Kett  would  be  so  called  in 
Spain.  From  1808  to  1814  guerrillas  were  regularly  organized  against  the 
French,  and  the  names  of  Empecinado,  the  Pastor  Merino,  and  Mina,  as 
leaders,  are  well  known. 

Antietam  is  a  narrow  but  deep  river  in  Maryland,  United  States,  fall- 
ing into  the  Potomac,  seven  miles  above  Harper's  Ferry.  On  its  banks, 
near  Sharpsburg,  was  fought  a  bloody  battle  between  the  Union  troops 
under  McClellan,  and  the  Confederate  army  under  Lee,  in  which  the 
former  remained  master  of  the  field,  though  at  a  loss  of  nearly  thirteen 
thousand  men. 


192  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

The  Gaelic  word  claymore,  meaning  "the  great  sword,"  is  properly 
used  of  the  old  Celtic  one-handed, two-edged  long  sword,  often  engraved 
on  ancient  tombstones,  with  the  guards  pointing  downwards.  The  name 
is  now  commonly  given,  but  inaccurately,  to  the  basket-hilted  sword  of 
the  officers  of  Highland  regiments. 

The  Seven  Days'  Battles  is  the  designation  of  a  series  of  fierce  en- 
gagements (June  25  to  July  1,  1862),  which  took  place  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Richmond,  Va.,  between  the  Federals,  under  McClellan,  and 
the  Confederates,  commanded  by  Lee,  resulting  in  the  retreat  of  the 
former  to  Harrison's  Landing  on  the  James  River. 

By  the  naval  term  "boarding"  is  understood  an  attack  upon  one 
vessel  by  another  in  which  a  company  of  armed  men  from  the  one  forces 
its  way  on  board  the  ;other.  In  the  days  of  ironclads,  boarding  of  war 
vessels  is  less  frequent  than  of  old.  A  "boarding  net"  is  a  framework 
of  stout  rope-netting  placed  so  as  to  obstruct  boarders. 

Cartouch  was  formerly  a  name  for  a  portable  wooden  case  for  holding 
cannon  balls  or  musket  bullets.  A  gun  cartouch  now  means  merely  a 
waterproof  canvas  case  for  holding  the  cartridges  of  a  field  battery,  one 
to  each  ammunition  box.  The  cartridge  box  carried  by  the  soldiers  used 
to  be  called  a  cartouch  in  Bngland,  and  still  is  in  France. 

The  simultaneous  discharge  of  all  the  guns  on  one  side  of  a  ship  of 
war  is  termed  a  broadside.  The  fighting  power  of  a  ship  used  to  be 
estimated  by  the  weight  of  all  the  shot  and  shell  that  could  be  fired  off 
at  once  from  one  side  or  half  of  the  ship.  Thus,  the  broadside  of  the 
old-fashioned  "Duke  of  Wellington"  131-gun  war  steamer,  amounted  to 
2,400  pounds. 

The  military  term  Uhlans  was  a  name  originally  given  to  light  cav- 
alry armed  and  clothed  in  semi-oriental  fashion.  A  body  of  Uhlans  was 
formed  for  the  French  army  by  Marshal  Saxe.  But  the  word  is  now 
familiar  as  a  term  for  the  Prussian  light  cavalry  armed  with  the  lance, 
who  gained  glory  by  their  dash,  bravery  and  swiftness  of  movement  dur- 
ing the  Franco-German  war. 

The  casus  belli,  occasion  for  war,  is  the  reason  alleged  by  one  power 
for  going  to  war  with  another.  It  is  quite  impossible  to  reduce  these 
causes  or  reasons  to  any  definite  code;  enough  that  in  1870  King  Wil- 
helm's  cold-shoulder  to  M.  Benedetti  was  a  casus  belli  between  France 
and  Germany,  and  that  in  1847  the  burning  of  a  Jew's  bedstead  at  Athens 
was  all  but  one  between  France  and  Britain. 

In  the  French  and  some  other  continental  armies,  the  vivandiere  is 
a  female  attendant  in  a  regiment,  who  sells  spirits  and  other  comforts, 
ministers  to  the  sick,  marches  with  the  corps,  and  contrives  to  be  a  uni- 
versal favorite.  From  the  Algerian  campaigns  onward  the  vivandiere 
wore  a  modified  (short-petticoated)  form  of  the  regimental  uniform;  but 
this  arrangement  has  been  forbidden  by  government. 

The  calumet  or  "peace-pipe"  of  the  North  American  Indians,  is  a 
tobacco  pipe  having  a  stem  of  reed  or  painted  wood  about  two  feet  and  a 
half  long,  decorated  with  feathers,  with  a  large  bowl,  usually  of  red 
soapstone.  After  a  treaty  has  been  signed,  the  Indians  fill  the  calumet 
with  the  best  tobacco,  and  present  it  to  the  representatives  of  the  party 
with  whom  they  have  been  entering  into  alliance,  themselves  smoking 
out  of  it  afterwards.  The  presentation  of  it  to  strangers  is  a  mark  of 
hospitality  and  to  refuse  it  would  be  considered  an  act  of  hostility. 


WAR  AND  ITS  APPLIANCES.  193 

The  European  soldiery  called  Landwehr  ("Land-defence")  is  a  mili- 
tary force  in  the  German  and  Austrian  empires,  forming  an  army  reserve, 
but  not  always  retained  under  arms.  Its  members,  although  care  is 
taken  that  they  are  sufficiently  exercised,  spend  most  of  their  time  in 
civil  pursuits  during  peace,  and  are  called  out  for  military  service  only 
in  times  of  war  or  of  commotion. 

The  battle  of  Lissa  was  the  last  great  sea  fight  in  history  and  the 
only  one  wherein  armor-clad  vessels  have  opposed  other  similar  vessels 
in  any  number.  It  was  fought  on  July  20,  1866,  between  the  Austrians, 
under  Admiral  Tegethoff,  and  the  Italians,  under  Admiral  Persano.  Each 
side  had  twenty- three  vessels,  but  eleven  of  the  Italian  fleet  were  armor- 
clad,  while  the  Austrians  mustered  only  seven  armor-clads. 

Infernal  machines  are  contrivances  made  to  resemble  ordinary  harm- 
less objects,  but  charged  with  some  dangerous  explosive.  An  innocent- 
looking  box  or  similar  receptacle  is  partly  filled  with  dynamite  or  other 
explosive,  the  rest  of  the  space  being  occupied  by  some  mechanical  ar- 
rangement, mostly  clockwork,  which  moves  inaudibly,  and  is  generally 
so  contrived  that,  when  it  has  run  down  at  the  end  of  a  predetermined 
number  of  hours  or  days,  it  shall  cause  the  explosive  substance  to  explode. 

.  The  Wars  of  the  Roses  is  the  name  given  to  the  wars  between  the 
house  of  York  and  that  of  Lancaster.  It  began  with  the  battle  of  St. 
Albans,  May  23,  1455,  and  ended  with  the  battle  of  Bosworth  Field, 
August  22,  1483.  A  white  rose  formed  the  badge  of  the  House  of  York, 
and  a  red  rose  was  the  cognizance  of  the  House  of  Lancaster.  The 
political  effects  of  the  war  were — (1)  the  ruin  of  the  ancient  baronage, 
and  (2)  the  growth  of  monarchical  power,  being  relieved  of  the  baro- 
nial check. 

The  boomerang  is  a  wooden  missile  used  by  the  aborigines  of  Aus- 
tralia in  hunting  and  in  war.  It  is  so  constructed  that  the  missile  slowly 
ascends  into  the  air,  whirling  round  and  round,  and  describing  a  curved 
line  of  progress  till  it  reaches  a  considerable  height,  when  it  begins  to 
retrograde,  and  finally,  if  thrown  with  sufficient  force,  falls  eight  or  ten 
yards  behind  the  thrower,  or  it  may  fall  near  him.  Colloquially  a  boom- 
erang is  a  story  told  for  a  political  purpose,  which,  being  proved  false, 
reacts  upon  its  originator. 

The  mace,  a  thick,  heavy  club  or  staff,  about  five  feet  long,  sur- 
mounted by  a  metal  head,  frequently  spiked,  was  used  by  knights  and 
warlike  churchmen  in  the  middle  ages,  The  ornamental  maces  of  par- 
liament, the  universities,  and  city  corporations,  borne  as  an  ensign  of 
authority,  may  be  traced  to  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries,  when 
princes  armed  their  guards  with  spikeless  maces  as  the  handiest  against 
the  sudden  attacks  of  the  assassins.  The  need  passed  away,  but  the  maces 
remained  as  symbols  of  rank. 

An  indefinite  but  interesting  locality  is  the  Wilderness,  a  region  in 
Virginia,  two  miles  south  of  the  Rapidan,  covered  with  dense  thicket, 
and  memorable  for  the  dreadful  two  days'  battle  fought  in  its  depths  by 
Grant  and  Lee,  May  5-6,  1864.  The  Union  loss  was  eighteen  thousand, 
the  Confederate  eleven  thousand,  and  the  desperate  fighting  utterly 
without  advantage  to  either  side.  The  name  Wilderness  Campaign  has 
been  given  to  all  the  movements  of  Grant's  overland  march  to  Rich- 
mond, and  including  the  battles  of  Spotsylvania  Courthouse  and  Cold 
Harbor. 

U.  I.— 18 


194  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

The  Shenandoah  is  a  river  tributary  of  the  Potomac,  which  flows 
through  the  valley  of  Virginia.  It  was  the  scene  of  numerous  military 
operations  during  the  civil  war,  notably  in  1864,  when  its  neighborhood 
was  devastated  by  General  Sheridan.  One  of  the  Confederate  cruisers, 
commanded  by  Captain  Waddell,  was  named  the  Shenandoah  and  com- 
mitted great  devastation  among  the  shipping  of  the  Federal  Government. 
The  vessel  was  surrendered  to  the  British  Government  (Nov.  1865)  and 
given  up  to  the  United  States  consul. 

Contraband  of  war  is  a  name  applied  to  certain  commodities  during 
hostilities  between  states  which  acknowledge  what  are  called  the  laws  of 
nations.  One  such  law  is,  that  neutral  nations  must  not  carry  on,  for  the 
advantage  of  either  of  the  belligerent  powers,  any  branches  of  commerce 
from  which  they  are  excluded  in  time  of  peace.  Another  is,  that  the  name 
of  contraband  of  war  shall  be  given  to  such  articles  as  pertain  to  military 
or  naval  warfare —guns,  ammunition,  and  stores  of  all  kinds.  Negroes 
were  held  to  be  contraband  of  war  during  the  civil  war. 

A  singular  weapon,  used  by  the  natives  and  half-breeds  of  southern 
South  America,  is  the  bolas,  consisting  of  two  heavy  balls,  generally  of 
stone  covered  with  leather,  connected  by  a  plaited  thong  six  to  eight  feet 
long.  One  bola  is  held  in  the  right  hand,  while  the  other  is  swung  rap- 
idly round  the  head  at  the  full  extent  of  the  thong,  and  both  are  dis- 
charged at  the  animal  to  be  captured  so  as  to  wind  round  its  feet  and 
bring  it  to  the  ground.  In  another  form  of  bolas  there  are  three  balls, 
not  of  the  same  size,  connected  at  the  common  center  by  three  short 
thongs  or  ropes. 

The  sutlers  and  dealers  in  smallwares  who  follow  an  army  are  often 
called  camp  followers.  In  India,  owing  to  the  peculiar  habits  and 
customs  of  the  natives,  and  the  large  number  of  servants  retained  by 
European  troops,  the  camp  followers  sometimes  number  four  times  the 
actual  force:  comprising  servants,  grooms,  grass  cutters,  mule  and  camel 
drivers,  water-carriers,  sutlers,  snake  charmers,  dancers,  conjurers,  and 
women.  Even  in  European  armies  they  are  necessary;  they  are  at  all 
times  under  the  control  of  the  commanding  officer,  but  only  subject  to 
military  law  when  in  the  field. 

The  military  operation  of  capturing  an  enemy's  town  or  fortress, 
often  without  a  bombardment  or  regular  siege,  is  called  a  blockade. 
The  attacking  party  throws  up  works  on  the  neighboring  heights  and 
roads,  so  as  to  guard  every  exit  from  the  town.  The  rest  of  the  besieging 
force  remains  under  cover  in  villages,  or  in  a  temporary  camp,  ready  to 
repel  any  sortie  attempted  by  the  besieged.  The  whole  purpose  in  view 
is  to  prevent  the  besieged  from  receiving  supplies  of  any  kind,  in  order 
that,  when  the  food  or  the  ammunition  is  exhausted,  they  may  be  com- 
pelled to  surrender.  It  was  introduced  by  the  Dutch  about  1584. 

Parole  is  the  declaration  made  on  honor  by  an  officer  in  a  case  in 
which  there  is  no  more  than  his  sense  of  honor  to  restrain  him  from 
breaking  his  word.  Thus,  a  prisoner  of  war  may  be  released  from  actual 
prison  on  his  parole  that  he  will  not  go  beyond  certain  designated  limits; 
or  he  may  even  be  allowed  to  return  to  his  own  country  on  his  parole 
not  to  fight  again,  during  the  existing  war,  against  his  captors.  To 
break  parole  is  accounted  infamous  in  all  civilized  nations,  and  an  officer 
who  has  so  far  forgotten  his  position  as  a  gentleman  ceases  to  have  any 
claim  to  the  treatment  of  an  honorable  man,  nor  can  he  expect  quarter 
should  he  again  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy  he  has  deceived. 


WAR  AND  ITS  APPLIANCES.  195 

The  zouaves  were  originally  a  warlike  tribe  of  Kabyles  in  the  mili- 
tary employment  of  the  Dey  of  Algiers.  After  the  French  occupation  of 
Algiers  (1830)  they  were  incorporated  with  the  French  army,  but  the 
native  element  was  gradually  eliminated  from  the  corps,  and  after  1840 
the  zouaves  were  simply  French  soldiers,  bearing  the  native  name  and 
wearing  the  native  dress.  The  zouaves  distinguished  themselves  in 
Algiers,  in  the  Crimean  war,  and  in  the  Italian  campaign  of  1850,  and 
were  long  looked  upon  as  the  elite  of  the  French  infantry. 

The  famous  bashi-bazouks  are  irregular  troopers  in  the  pay  of  the 
Sultan.  Very  few  of  them  are  Europeans;  they  are  mostly  Asiatics  from 
some  or  other  of  the  provinces  in  Asiatic  Turkey.  They  are  wild,  tur- 
bulent men,  brave  enough  if  serving  under  some  leader  who  under- 
stands them;  they  receive  no  regular  pay.  They  may  be  either  infantry 
or  cavalry,  and  their  usual  weapons  are  a  long  lance,  a  sabre,  several 
pistols  and  one  or  more  daggers.  The  famous  "  Bulgarian  atrocities"  of 
1876,  which  roused  the  indignation  of  Europe  and  ultimately  cost  the 
corrupt  Turks  their  supremacy,  were  mainly  due  to  the  lawless  brutality 
of  these  ruffians. 

The  use  of  the  bow  and  arrow  was  probably  known  to  man  at  a  very 
early  period  of  his  history,  and  triangular  flint  arrow-heads,  chipped 
into  the  requisite  shape,  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  showing 
that  they  must  have  been  known  and  largely  used  at  a  period  anterior 
to  the  discovery  of  the  working  of  metals.  The  bow  is  mentioned  in 
Scripture  as  having  been  used  in  patriarchal  times,  and  we  know  that  all 
the  leading  nations  of  antiquity  were  acquainted  with  it.  No  one  coun- 
try or  continent  can  claim  the  bow  exclusively  as  its  own.  The  Hotten- 
tots, Bushmen,  South  Sea  Islanders  and  a  few  tribes  in  North  America 
are  experts  in  the  use  of  the  bow. 

Gendarmes  (Fr.,  "  men-at-arms" )  were  originally  mounted  lancers, 
armed  at  all  points  and  attended  by  five  inferior  soldiers,  who  were  fur- 
nished by  the  holders  of  fiefs.  These  were  replaced  by  Charles  VII.  's 
compagnies  d'ordonnance,  which  were  dissolved  in  1787,  one  company 
of  gendarmerie  being  retained  as  the  bodyguard  of  Louis  XVI.  Since 
the  Revolution,  except  for  a  short  interval  at  the  Restoration,  the  gen- 
darmes have  constituted  a  military  police,  which  superseded  the  old 
marechaussee,  and  comprise  both  cavalry  and  infantry.  Divided  into 
legions  and  companies,  and  these  latter  into  brigades,  the  organization 
of  the  force  corresponds  to  the  territorial  divisions  of  the  army.  The 
men  receive  much  higher  pay  than  the  rest  of  the  army,  of  which,  how- 
ever, the  corps  is  a  part,  its  members  being  drafted  from  the  line  for  this 
service.  Germany  also  since  1808  has  had  its  gendarmen. 

In  1478  Mohammed  II.,  in  forming  the  siege  of  Scutari,  in  Albania, 
employed  fourteen  heavy  bombards,  the  lightest  of  which  threw  a  stone 
shot  of  370  pounds  weight,  two  sent  shots  of  500  pounds,  two  of  750 
pounds,  two  of  850  pounds,  one  of  1,200  pounds,  five  of  1,500  pounds 
and  one  of  the  enormous  weight  of  1,640  pounds,  enormous  even  in 
these  days,  for  the  only  guns  whose  shot  exceed  the  heaviest  of  these  are 
our  80-ton  guns,  throwing  a  1,700-pound  projectile,  our  100-ton,  throw- 
ing one  of  2,000  pounds,  and  the  110-ton,  throwing  an  1,800-pound  shot 
with  a  high  velocity.  The  stone  shot  of  Mahommed's  guns  varied  be- 
tween twenty  and  thirty-two  inches  in  diameter,  about  the  same  height 
as  a  dining  table;  2,534  of  them  were  fired  on  this  occasion,  weighing, 
according  to  a  calculation  of  General  I^efroy's,  about  1,000  tons,  and 


196  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

were  cut  out  of  the  solid  rock  on  the  spot.  Assuming  twenty-four  inches 
as  the  average  diameter  of  the  shot  fired  at  this  siege,  the  total  area  Of 
the  surface  dressed  was  nearly  32,000  square  feet.  At  this  siege  the 
weight  of  the  powder  fired  is  estimated  to  have  been  250  tons.  At  the 
siege  of  Rhodes,  in  1480,  Mohammed  caused  sixteen  basilisks,  or  double 
cannon,  to  be  cast  on  the  spot,  throwing  balls  two  to  three  feet  in 
diameter. 

Italy  expends  every  year  $96,000,000  for  her  soldiers,  and  less  than 
$4,000,000  for  schools.  In  Spain  it  costs  $100,000,000  to  maintain  the 
army,  and  only  $1,500,000  to  educate  the  children,  but  then  it  is  the  ex- 
ception to  find  a  Spanish  farmer  who  is  able  to  read  or  write.  Germany 
boasts  of  being  in  the  foremost  rank  among  the  nations  in  the  kultur- 
kampf  of  the  world,  yet  she  expends  $185,000,000  on  her  army,  while  $10,- 
000,000  is  deemed  sufficient  for  the  education  of  her  children.  France 
maintains  an  army  at  an  expense  of  $151,000,000,  and  supplies  her  schools 
with  $21,000,000.  The  United  States  expends  $115,000,000  for  public 
schools,  while  the  army  and  navy  cost  only  $54,000,000. 

We  apply  the  term  blockhouse  to  a  stockade  roofed  in  and  loopholed. 
The  timber  that  forms  the  walls  must  be  bullet  proof  and  covered  out- 
side with  earth  up  to  the  loop-holes  to  render  them  fire-proof.  Where 
the  country  is  well-timbered  and  no  artillery  attack  is  to  be  feared  the 
blockhouse  is  a  useful  defense.  The  size  and  shape  vary.  It  may  be 
cruciform  in  plan,  the  second  story  may  project  over  the  first,  or  may  be 
placed  diagonally  across  the  lower  one.  A  ditch  or  moat  is  excavated 
around  the  blockhouse,  to  furnish  the  earth  that  covers  the  wood  work 
and  to  provide  a  further  defense.  In  the  ditch  stakes  are  planted  as  a  hin- 
drance to  an  attack  by  the  enemy. 

.  The  charge  of  the  Light  Brigade  at  Balaklava,  often  called  the 
"Death  Ride,"  took  place  October  25,  1854.  In  this  action  600  English 
horsemen,  under  the  command  of  the  Earl  of  Cardigan,  charged  a  Rus- 
sian force  of  five  thousand  cavalry  and  six  battalions  of  infantry.  They 
galloped  through  the  battery  of  thirty  guns,  cutting  down  the  artillery- 
men, and  through  the  cavalry,  but  then  discovered  the  battalions,  and 
cut  their  way  back  again.  Of  the  670  who  advanced  to  this  daring  charge, 
not  two  hundred  returned.  This  reckless  exploit  was  the  result  of  some 
misunderstanding  in  an  order  from  the  commander-in-chief.  Tennyson 
has  a  poem  on  the  subject,  called  "The  Charge  of  the  Light  Brigade." 
Sir  Edw.  Creasy  in  "The  Fifteen  Decisive  Battles"  says,  that  for  chival- 
rous devotion  and  daring  "the  Death  Ride"  of  the  Light  Brigade  will 
not  easily  be  paralleled. 

The  Janissaries  or  Janezaries  were  a  body  of  Turkish  soldiers  first 
organized  about  1330  A.  D.  by  Sultan  Orean  from  the  young  Christian 
prisoners.  The  name  is  from  the  Turkish  yeni  askari,  new  soldiers. 
The  janissaries  formed  the  earlier  standing  army  of  Europe.  They  were 
at  first  highly  privileged  and  soon  attained  great  power  both  in  war  and 
politics.  In  1512  they  raised  Selim  to  the  throne  and  caused  the  death 
of  the  famous  Bajazet;  in  1808  they  objected  to  the  organization  of  any 
other  army  than  their  own  body  and  massacred  all  the  new  troops  they 
could.  In  1826  Mahomet  II.  suppressed  them;  his  new  troops  remem- 
bering the  massacre  eighteen  years  before  slaughtered  20,000  of  the 
obnoxious  troops.  This  put  an  end  to  the  body.  The  massacre  lasted 
three  days,  June  14,  15  and  16.  When  it  was  ended  Mahomet  organized 
his  new  armies  in  comparative  peace. 


WAR  AND  ITS  APPLIANCES. 


197 


The  wager  of  battle  is  a  mode  of  trial  which  prevailed  in  mediaeval 
Europe,  especially  among  the  Teutonic  nations,  on  writs  of  right  and 
appeals  of  treason  and  felony.  After  the  Conquest,  in  England,  trial  by 
combat  superseded  all  other  legal  ordeals,  which  were  abolished  by 
Henry  III.  The  wager  of  battle  was  claimed  and  allowed  in  the  Court 
of  King's  Bench  so  late  as  1818,  but  the  appellant  (the  brother  of  the  de- 
ceased) refused  the  challenge,  and  the  appellee  (a  man  named  Abraham 
Thornton,  accused  of  violating  and  murdering  a  maid  named  Mary  Ash- 
ford)  was  discharged.  In  the  following  year  (1819)  the  law  of  wager  of 
battle  was  struck  off  the  statute-book.  The  legal  duel  was  the  parent  of 
the  illegal  private  duel,  which  still  exists,  though  in  a  languishing  con- 
dition, in  France  and  Germany. 

RATIO  OF  LOSS  IN  GREAT  BATTLES. 

The  number  placed  hors-de-combat  in  battle  is  not  relatively  so  large 
as  formerly,  as  the  table  below  will  show: 

Men  Engaged. 

Thrasymene 65,000 

Cannae 146,000 

Banuockburn 135,000 

Agincourt 62,000 

Crecy 117,000 

Marengo , 58,000 

Austerlitz 170,000 

Borodino 250,000 

Waterloo 145,000 

Alma 103,000 

Sadowa 402,000 

Gravelotte 320,000 


Hors-de-combat. 

Ratio. 

17,000 

27  per  cent 

52,000 

34 

38,000 

28 

11,400 

18 

31,200 

27 

13,000 

22 

23,000 

13 

78,000' 

31 

51,000 

35 

8,400 

8 

33,000 

8 

48,500 

15 

CHIEF  BATTLES  OF  THE  CIVIL  WAR. 

(From  "Regimental  Losses  in  the  American  Civil  War,"  by  William  F. Fox, Lieutenant- 
Colonel,  U.S.V.) 

As  to  the  loss  in  the  Union  armies,  the  greatest  battles  in  the  war  were: 


DATE. 

BATTLE. 

KILLED. 

WOUNDED* 

MISSING. 

AGGREGATE 

July  1-3,  1863  
May  8-18,-  1864  
May  5-7,  1864  
September  17  1862 

Gettysburg  
Spottsylvania  
Wilderness  
Antietamt 

3,070 
2,725 
2,246 
2  108 

14,497 
13,413 
12,037 
9  549 

5,434 
2.258 
3,383 
753 

23,001 
18,399 
17,666 
12  410 

May  1-3,  1863  
Sept.  19-20,  1863.... 
June  1-4,  1864  
Dec.  11-14,  1862.  .. 
August  28-30,  1862.. 
April  6-7,  1862  
December  31,  1862. 
June  15-19,  1864.... 

Chan  eel  lorsville  .  . 
Chickamauga  
Cold  Harbor    
Fredericksburg  .  . 
Manassas:j:  
Shiloh  
Stone's  River§  .... 
Petersburg(as'a'lt) 

1,606 
,656 
,844 
,284 
1,747 
,754 
,730 
.688 

9,762 
9,749 
9,077 
9,600 
8,452 
8,408 
7,802 
8.513 

5.919 
4,774 
1,816 
1,769 
4,263 
2,885 
3,717 
1.185 

17,287 
16,179 
12,737 
12,653 
14,462 
13,047 
13.249 
11.386 

*Wounded  in  these,  and  the  following  returns  include  mortally  wounded. 

tNot  including  South  Mountain  or  Crampton's  Gap. 

^Including  Chantilly,  Rappahannock,  Bristol  Station  and  Bull  Run  Bridge. 

§Including  Knob  Gap,  and  losses  on  January  1  and  2,  1863. 

The  Union  losses  at  Bull  Run  (first  Manassas),  July  21,  1861,  were:  Killed,  470; 
wounded,  1,071;  captured  and  missing,  1,793;  aggregate,  3,334. 

The  Confederate  losses  in  particular  engagements  were  as  follows:  Bull  Run  (first 
Manassas),  July  21,  1861,  killed,  387;  wounded,  1,582;  captured  and  missing,  13;  aggre- 
gate, 1,982.  Fort  Donelson,  Tenn..  February  14-16,  1862,  killed,  466;  wounded,  1,534; 
captured  and  missing,  13,829;  aggregate,  15,829.  Shiloh,  Tenn.,  April  6-7,  1862,  killed, 
1,723;  wounded,  8,012;  captured  and  missing,  959;  aggregate,  10,694.  Seven  Days'  Bat- 
tle, Virginia,  June25-July  1,  862,  killed,  3,478;  wounded,  16.261;  captured  and  missing, 
875;  aggregate,  20,614.  Second  Manassas,  August  21-September  2,  killed,  1,481;  wounded 
and  missing,  7,627;  captured  and  missing,  89;  aggregate,  9,197.  Antietam  campaign, 
September  12-20,  1862,  killed,  1,886;  wounded,  9,348;  captured  and  missing,  1,367;  aggre- 


198  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

gate,  12,601.  Fredericksburg,  December  13, 1862,  killed,  596;  wounded,  4,068;  captured 
and  missing,  651;  aggregate,  5,315.  Stone's  River,  Tenn.,  December  31,  1862,  killed, 
1,294;  wounded,  7,945;  captured  and  missing,  1,027;  aggregate,  10,266.  Chancellorsville, 
May  1-4,  1863,  killed,  1,665;  wounded,  9,081;  captured  and  missing,  2,018;  aggregate, 
12,764.  Gettysburg,  July  1-3,  1803,  killed,  2,592;  wounded,  12,706;  captured  and  missing, 
5,150;  aggregate,  20,448.  Chickamauga,  September  19-20,  1863,  killed,  2,268;  wounded, 
13,613;captured  and  missing,  1,090:  aggregate,  16,971. 

Gettysburg  was  the  greatest  battle  of  the  war ;  Antietam  the  bloodiest.  The  largest 
army  was  assembled  by  the  Confederates  at  the  seven  days'  fight ;  by  the  Unionists  at 
the  Wilderness.  

BLOOD  AND  TREASURE  COST  IN  RECENT  WARS. 
The  cost  of  recent  wars,  according  to  figures  furnished  by  the  Lon- 
don Peace  Society;  is  as  follows: 

Cnmean  war $1,700,000,000 

Italian  war,  1859    300,000,000 

American  civil  war— North 4.700,000,000 

"—South 2,300,000,000 

Schleswig-Holstein  war 35,000,000 

Austrian  and  Prussian  war,  1866 330,000,000 

Expeditions  to  Mexico,  Morocco,  Paraguay,  etc.  (say  only) 200,000,000 

Franco-Prussian  war        2,500,000,000 

Russian  and  Turkish  war,  1877 1,100,000,000 

Zulu  and  Afghan  wars,  1879 50,000,000 

$13,265,000.000 

This  would  allow  $10  for  every  man,  woman  and  child  on  the  habit- 
able globe.  It  would  make  two  railways  all  round  the  world  at  $250,000 
per  mile  each. 

BOSSES   FROM   WAR  IN  TWENTY-FIVE  YEARS  (1855-80.) 

Killed  in  battle,  or  died 
of  wounds  and  disease. 

Crimean  war 

Italian  war,  1859 

War  of  Schleswig-Holstein 

American  civil  war -the  North 

"  —the  South 

War  between  Prussia,  Austria  and  Italy,  in  1866        

Expeditions  to  Mexico,  Cochin-China,  Morocco,  Paraguay,  etc.... 

Franco-German  war  of  1870-71  —France 

"     "  — Germany 

Russian  and  Turkish  war  of  1877 

Zulu  and  Afghan  wars,  1879 

Total 1,588.000 

LENGTH  AND  COST  OF  AMERICAN  WARS. 

Wars.                                                                 Length.  Cost. 

1.  War  of  the  revolution 7  years— 1775-1782  $    135,193,703 

2.  Indian  war  in  Ohio  territory 1790  

3.  War  with  the  Barbary  States 1803-1804  

4.  Tecumseh  Indian  war. .. 1811  

5.  War  with  Great  Britain 3  years— 1812-1815  107,159,003 

6.  Algerine  war    1815  

7.  First  Seminole  war 1817  

8.  Black  Hawk  war 1832  

9.  Second  Seminole  war 1845  

10.  Mexican  war  2  years- 1846  1848  66,000,000 

11.  Mormon  war 1856  

12.  Civil  war 4  years— 1861-1865          6,500,000,000 

AMERICAN  DOCKYARDS. 

The  navy  yards  of  the  United  States  are  eight  in  number.  They  are 
Portsmouth,  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  Charlestown,  Boston,  Mass.,  New  York, 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  League  Island,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Washington,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.,  Norfolk,  Norfolk,  Va.,  Pensacola,  Pensacola,  Fla.,  and 


WAR  AND  ITS  APPLIANCES.  199 

Mare  Island,  San  Francisco,  Cal.  There  are  also  five  naval  stations — 
New  London,  Conn.,  Port  Royal,  S.  C.,  Key  West,  Fla.,  Sackett's  Harbor 
N.  Y.,  and  Brie,  Pa. 

DECISIVE  BATTLES  OF  HISTORY. 

Actium,  B.  c.  31.  The  combined  fleets  of  Antony  and  Cleopatra  de- 
feated by  Octavius,  and  imperialism  established  in  the  person  of  Octavius. 

Philippi,  B.  c.  42.  Brutus  and  Cassius  defeated  by  Octavius  and 
Antony.  The  fate  of  the  Republic  decided. 

Metaurus,  B.  c.  207.  The  Carthaginians  under  Hasdrubul  were  de- 
feated by  the  Romans  under  Caius  and  Marcus  Livius. 

Arbela,  B.  c.  331.  The  Persians  defeated  by  the  Macedonians  and 
Greeks  under  Alexander  the  Great.  End  of  the  Persian  empire. 

Syracuse,  B.  c.,  414.  The  Athenians  defeated  by  the  Syracusans  and 
their  allies,  the  Spartans,  under  Gylippus. 

Marathon,  B.  c.  490.  The  Athenians  under  Miltiades  defeated  the 
Persians  under  Datis.  Free  government  preserved. 

Winfeld-Lippe,  A.  D.  9.  Teutonic  independence  established  by  the 
defeat  of  the  Roman  legions  under  Varus  at  the  hands  of  the  Germans 
under  Arminius  (Hermann.) 

Chalons,  A.  D.  451.  The  Huns  under  Attila,  called  the  "Scourge  of 
God, ' '  defeated  by  the  confederate  armies  of  Romans  and  Visigoths. 

Tours,  A.  D.  732.  The  Saracens  defeated  by  Charles  Martel  and 
Christendom  rescued  from  Islam. 

Hastings,  A.  D.  1066.  Harold,  commanding  the  English  army,  de- 
feated by  William  the  Conqueror,  and  a  new  regime  established  in  Eng- 
land by  the  Normans. 

Siege  of  Orleans,  A.  D.  1429.  The  English  defeated  by  the  French 
under  Joan  of  Arc. 

Defeat  of  the  Spanish  Armada,  A.  D.  1588.  England  saved  from 
Spanish  invasion. 

Lutzen,  A.  D.  1632.  Decided  the  religious  liberties  of  Germany. 
Gustavus  Adolphus  killed. 

Blenheim,  A.  D.  1704.  The  French  and  Bavarians  under  Marshal 
Tallard  defeated  by  the  English  and  their  allies  under  Marlborough. 

Pultowa,  A  D.  1709.  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden  defeated  by  the  Rus- 
sians under  Peter  the  Great. 

Saratoga,  A.  D.  1777.  Critical  battle  of  the  American  War  of  Inde- 
pendence. The  English  defeated  by  the  Americans  under  General  Gates. 

Valmy,  A.  D.  1792.  An  invading  army  of  Prussians,  Austrians  and 
Hessians  under  the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  defeated  by  the  French  under 
Kellermann.  The  first  success  of  the  Republic  against  foreigners. 

Trafalgar.  On  the  21st  of  October,  A.  D.  1805,  the  great  naval  battle 
of  Trafalgar  was  fought.  The  English  defeated  the  French  and  destroyed 
Napoleon's  hopes  to  successfully  invade  England. 

Waterloo,  A.  D.  1815.  The  French  under  Napoleon  defeated  by  ths 
allied  armies  of  Russia,  Austria,  Prussia  and  England  under  Wellington. 

Siege  of  Sebastopol,  A.  D.  1854-5.  The  Russians  succumbed  to  the 
beleaguering  armies  of  England,  France  and  Turkey,  and  the  result  was 
delay  in  the  expansion  of  the  Russian  Empire. 

Gettysburg,  July,  A.  D.  1863.  The  deciding  battle  of  the  war  for  the 
Union.  The  Confederates  under  General  Lee  defeated  by  the  Union  forces 
under  Meade. 

Sedan,  A.  D.  1870,     The  decisive  battle  of  the  Franco-German  war. 


200  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

RECENT  DESPERATE  WARS. 

INDIAN  MUTINY.  General  disaffection  from  a  variety  of  real  or 
supposed  grievances  had  been  for  a  long  time  smoldering  amongst  the 
Sepoys,  who  were  the  flower  of  the  British  East  India  Company's  forces, 
but  when  a  report  spread  that  cartridges  smeared  with  cow  and  pork  fat 
were  to  be  used  by  the  native  soldiers,  open  mutiny,  attended  with  great 
cruelty,  broke  out.  The  war  which  may  be  said  to  have  commenced  in 
March  1857,  raged  until  June  1858.  It  was  marked  by  a  succession  of 
romantic,  pathetic,  and  heroic  incidents — the  siege  of  Delhi,  the  massacre 
of  Cawnpore,  the  relief  and  capture  of  Lucknow— but  was  suppressed  in 
the  latter  year,  when  the  East  India  Company  ceased  to  exist,  and  the 
government  of  India  was  assumed  by  the  British  crown.  A  cruel  ven- 
geance was  taken  on  the  mutineers,  hundreds  of  whom  were  strung  toge- 
ther and  blown  to  pieces  at  the  mouths  of  cannon. 

THE  ABYSSINIAN  WAR  arose  out  of  the  imprisonment  of  Consul 
Capt.  C.  Cameron,  Rev.  H.  Stern,  a  missionary,  and  others  by  King 
Theodore,  in  consequence  of  a  supposed  slight  by  the  British  Govern- 
ment, 1864.  Mr.  Rassam  was  sent  on  a  mission  to  Abyssinia  for  their  re- 
lease. On  the  refusal  of  the  king  to  surrender  the  prisoners,  an  English 
army,  some  12,000  strong,  under  Sir  Robert  (afterwards  Lord) 
Napier,  defeated  the  Abyssinian  forces  at  Arogee,  April  10,  1868,  and  three 
days  later  stormed  the  fortress  of  Magdala.  In  consequence  of  this  King 
Theodore  committed  suicide,  the  prisoners  were  released,  and  the  war 
terminated. 

AMERICAN  Civil,  WAR.  This  began  April  13,  1861,  with  the  capture 
of  Fort  Sumter,  Charleston,  by  the  Confederate  forces.  The  North  pre- 
pared for  the  contest  with  energy,  and  blockaded  the  Southern  ports. 
Throughout  the  war  the  Confederates  chiefly  acted  upon  the  defensive, 
the  Federals  or  Northern  forces,  being  the  attacking  party,  and  possess- 
ing the  advantage  of  superior  forces,  money  and  war  material.  The  prin- 
cipal generals  of  the  South  were  Lee,  "Stonewall"  Jackson,  Hood,  Albert 
Sidney  Johnston,  Longstreet,  Bragg,  Beauregard,  Stuart,  Joseph  E.  John- 
ston; and  of  the  North,  Grant,  Sherman,  Sheridan,  McClellan,  Thomas, 
Rosecrans,  Pope,  Butler,  Halleck,  Baker,  Burnside,  Fremont,  Meade, 
Banks  and  McDowell.  In  the  campaign  of  1861  the  advantage  was  chiefly 
on  the  side  of  the  Confederates  who  were  victorious  at  Bull  Run  (Manas- 
sas,  Va.)  and  Ball's  Bluff,  Va.  (October  21),  but  suffered  a  reverse  at 
Springfield,  Mo.  (Aug.  10),  and  lost  Fort  Hatteras,  N.  C.,  captured  by 
Butler  (August  29).  During  1862  the  Confederates  were  successful  at  Bull 
Run  (August  20)  and  in  Virginia  (June)  at  Fredericksburg,  Va.  (Dec.  10- 
15),  but  sustained  severe  defeats  at  Mill  Springs,  Ky.  (January  19),  Pea 
Ridge,  Ark.  (March  6-8),  Winchester,  Va.  (March  23),  Williamsburgh, 
Va.  Great  battles  were  fought  at  Shiloh,  Tenn.  (April  7),  Fair  Oaks, 
Va.  (May  31,  June  1),  on  the  Chickahominy  (June  25-July  1)  and  Antie- 
tam  Creek,  Md.  (September  17),  in  none  of  which  either  party  could  claim 
a  victory;  but  the  battle  of  Antietam  Creek  obliged  Lee  to  abandon  his 
invasion  of  the  North.  During  this  year  the  naval  operations  of  the 
Federals  were  generally  successful,  Admiral  Farragut  running  past  the 
forts  of  the  Mississippi  and  seizing  New  Orleans  (May).  The  memorable 
conflict  between  the '-Merrimac"  (Confederate)  and  the  Federal  "Monitor" 
resulted  (March  9)  in  the  repulse  of  the  former,  the  "Merrimac"  being 
burnt  by  the  Confederates  on  the  capture  of  their  arsenal  at  Norfolk,  Va. 
(May  11).  The  war  during  1863  was  decidedly  in  favor  of  the  Federal 


WAR  AND  ITS  APPLIANCES.  201 

forces,  although  the  Confederates,  under  "Stonewall"  Jackson,  defeated 
Hooker  at  Chancellorsville  (May  2-4),  Jackson  subsequently  dying  from 
his  wounds  (May  10)  and  Lee  invaded  Maryland  and  Pennsylvania.  At 
Gettysburg,  Pa.  (July  1-3),  Lee  was  defeated,  and  retreated  into  Virginia, 
while  at  Chattanooga,  Tenn.  (Nov.  24-25)  the  Confederates,  under  Bragg, 
sustained  a  severe  repulse.  Grant  made  a  successful  campaign  in  Ten- 
nessee, gaining  several  battles  and  capturing,  Vicksburg,  Miss.,  which 
after  a  gallant  defence,  surrendered  (July  4).  In  August  the  siege  of 
Charleston  began,  and  Fort  Sumter  was  destroyed  (August  21-22),  but 
the  city  was  not  taken  until  1865  (February  18).  With  the  appoint- 
ment of  Grant  as  commander-in-chief,  in  the  early  part  of  1864  (March 
3)  and  his  vigorous  reorganization  of  the  army,  the  power  of  the  North 
was  greatly  strengthened.  Taking  the  command  of  the  army  of  the 
Potomac,  Grant  opposed  the  Confederates  under  Lee,  while  Sherman 
operated  against  Joseph  E.  Johnston.  In  the  Virginian  campaign, 
after  two  days  severe  fighting  (May  3-6)  at  the  Wilderness,  the  result 
was  indecisive,  and  Grant's  attempt  to  cut  off  Lee's  army  from  Rich- 
mond was  unsuccessful.  At  Atlanta,  Ga.,  Sherman,  in  three  battles 
(July  20,  22,  28),  defeated  the  Confederates  under  Hood.  In  the  Shenan- 
doah  valley  the  Federals  were  victorious  in  several  engagements  (August) 
and  under  Sheridan  at  Winchester  (September  9)  and  Cedar  Creek 
(October  19).  In  November  General  Sherman  marched  through  Georgia 
to  Savannah,  which  was  entered  December  21,  while  atNashville,  Tenn., 
the  Confederates  under  Hood  were  defeated  (December  14-16)  by  the 
Federals  under  Thomas.  Among  the  incidents  of  this  year  were  the  sink- 
ing (June  19)  by  the  Federal  corvette  "Kearsarge"  of  the  Confederate 
steamer  "Alabama"  commanded  by  Captain  Semmes,  which  had  caused 
great  devastation  among  the  Federal  shipping,  and  the  destruction 
(August  5,)  by  Admiral  Farragut,  of  the  Confederate  flotilla  at  Mobile. 
The  war  closed  in  1865  by  the  defeat  of  Lee  at  Five  Forks,  Va., 
(March  31-April  2)  by  Sheridan,  who  again  defeated  Lee  at  Sailor's 
Creek  (April  6).  Lee  subsequently  surrendered  (April  9)  his  army  to  Grant 
who  had  occupied  Richmond,  the  capital  of  the  Confederate  States  (April 
2)  on  its  evacuation  by  the  Southern  forces.  The  other  Confederate 
armies  soon  afterwards  surrendered.  An  amnesty,  with  certain  limita- 
tions, was  proclaimed  (May  29)  by  President  Andrew  Johnson  (1865-69), 
who,  as  vice-president,  succeeded  Abraham  Lincoln,  assassinated  in  Ford's 
Theatre,  Washington,  by  J.  Wilkes  Booth  (April  14)  Lincoln  having  but 
newly  entered  on  his  second  term  of  office. 

Russo-TuRKiSH  WARS.  Of  the  many  wars  between  the  Muscovite 
and  Mohammedan  powers,  we  cite  the  two  latest:  (1)  The  first  arose  from 
a  demand  on  the  part  of  Nicholas,  the  Czar  of  Russia,  of  a  protectorate 
over  the  Greek  Christians  in  Turkey.  The  Sultan  refused  the  demand, 
and  appealed  to  his  allies.  Russia  declared  war  against  Turkey,  Novem- 
ber 1,  1853.  England  and  France  declared  war  against  Russia,  March 
27,  28,  1854.  Sardinia  joined  the  allies  January  26,  1855.  Among  the 
great  battles  of  this  war  were  Alma  (September  20,1854),Balaclava(October 
25,  1854),  during  which  occurred  the  memorable  "Charge  of  the  Six 
Hundred."  Inkerman  (November  5,  1854),  Tchernaya  (August  16,  1855), 
in  all  of  which  the  Russians  were  defeated.  The  great  event  of  the  war  was 
the  siege  of  Sebastopol  (commenced  October  17,  1854),  which  fell  Septem- 
ber 8,  1855.  The  war  which  is  usually  termed  the  Crimean  war,  was 
ended  by  the  treaty  of  peace  concluded  at  Paris,  March  30,  1856.  One 
of  the  articles  of  this  treaty  was  that  the  Christians  of  Turkey,  without 


202  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

any  preference  to  Russia,  should  have  the  protection  of  all  the  Powers 
concerned,  in  the  treaty.  (2)  The  second  war  arose  (1877-8;  from  sub- 
stantially the  same  cause  as  the  war  of  1853-6,  viz.,  the  desire  of  Russia 
to  protect  the  Greek  Christians  of  Turkey.  By  a  protocol  of  March  31, 
1877,  the  Great  Powers  agreed  to  see  the  promised  reforms  of  Turkey 
carried  out.  This  protocol  was  repudiated  by  Turkey,  and  war  was  de- 
clared by  Russia  against  Turkey,  April  24.  Among  the  more  prominent 
events  of  this  war  were  General  Gourko's  march  through  the  Balkans 
(July  13),  his  defeat  by  Suleiman  Pasha  at  Eski  Sagra  (July  30),  and  Sulei- 
man Pasha's  desperate,  but  fruitless,  attempt  to  gain  the  Schipka  Pass 
held  by  General  Gourko;  the  fall  of  Kars  (November  18),  and  of  Plevna 
(December  10),  and  Suleiman  Pasha's  defeat  by  Skobeloff  and  Radetsky 
at  Senova  (January  9,  1878),  the  battle  which  virtually  ended  the  war. 
Treaty  of  San  Stefano  (March  3),  modified  by  treaty  of  Berlin  (July  13), 
by  which  Bulgaria  was  created  an  automatic  and  v/ibutary  principality, 
Servia  and  Roumania  were  declared  independent,  and  Bosnia  and  Her- 
zegovina were  ordered  to  be  occupied  and  administered  by  Austria. 

ZULU  WAR  (1879).  Cetewayo,  king  of  Zululand,  became  embroiled 
with  the  British  on  the  annexation  by  the  latter  of  the  Transvaal,  and 
the  British,  under  Lord  Chelmsford",  crossed  the  Tugela,  and  entered 
Zululand  (January  12).  They  suffered  a  terrible  reverse  at  Isandhlwana 
(January  22),  with  a  loss  of  eight  hundred  men,  and  in  spite  of  the 
heroic  defence  of  Rorke's  Drift  (January  22),  had  to  retreat.  Eventually 
reinforcements  arrived,  and  the  Zulus  were  defeated  at  Giughilono 
(April  2),  and  Ulundi  (July  4).  Cetewayo  was  captured  (August  28),  and 
a  despatch  from  Sir  Garnet  Wolseley  (September  3),  announced  the  end 
of  the  war.  Cetewayo  died  (February  8,  1884),  the  New  Republic  was 
formed  by  a  party  of  Transvaal  Boers  (1886-87),  and  the  annexation  of 
the  remainder  of  Zululand  as  a  British  possession  was  proclaimed  (June 
21,  1887).  Trouble  subsequently  arose,  and  several  Zulu  chiefs  were  con- 
victed of  high  treason  and  sentenced  to  various  terms  of  imprisonment 
(1888-9).  Towards  the  end  of  1891,  the  resolution  of  the  colonial  authori- 
ties to  impose  Zibebu  as  chief  upon  the  northern  tribes,  was  protested 
against  by  Miss  Colenso  as  likely  to  lead  to  further  troubles  in  Zulu- 
land. 

FRANCO-GERMAN  WAR.  The  friction  between  France  and  Prussia, 
arising  from  the  proposed  cession  of  Luxembourg,  became  accentuated  by 
the  demand  of  France  that  the  Crown  of  Spain,  offered  (1870)  to  Prince 
Leopold  of  Hohenzollern,  should  not  be  accepted  by  that  Prince.  On  the 
refusal  of  Prussia  to  accede  to  this  request,  war  was  declared  by  France 
(July  19,  1870).  The  Prussian  forces,  about  640,000  strong,  in  which 
were  associated  the  states  of  the  North  and  South  German  Confederation, 
were  divided  into  four  armies,  the  first,  that  of  the  North,  commanded 
by  Gen.  Vogel  von  Falkenstein;  the  second,  that  of  the  Centre,  com- 
manded by  Gen.  Steinmetz;  the  third,  that  of  the  Right,  under  Prince 
Frederick'Charles;  and  *he  fourth,  that  of  the  Left,  led  by  the  Crown 
Prince,  the  King  (William)  of  Prussia  being  commander-in-chief,  with 
Gen.  Von  Moltke  as  head  of  the  Staff.  The  whole  army  was  in  the 
highest  state  of  preparation  and  efficiency.  The  French  army,  about 
300,000  strong,  on  the  other  hand,  badly  organized  and  practically  un- 
prepared for  the  contest,  was  formed  into  six  army  corps,  respectively 
commanded  by  Generals  Frossard,  De  Failly,  Bazaine,  MacMahon,  Lad- 
nierault  and  Marshal  Canrobert.  The  Emperor,  nominally  commander- 
in-chief,  had  as  his  second  in  command,  General  Le  Bceuf,  to  whom, 


WAR  AND  ITS  APPLIANCES.  203 

later,  Marshal  Bazaine  succeeded.  The  war  resulted  in  an  almost  un- 
broken series  of  successes  for  the  Germans.  After  victories  at  Woerth 
and  Forbach  (both  on  August  6),  the  Germans  invested  the  fortress  of 
Strasburg  (August  10— capitulated  September  28),  and  sat  down  before 
Metz,  which  capitulated  (October  27),  after  the  battles  of  Longueville 
(August  14),  Mars  La  Tour  (August  16),  Gravelotte  or  Rezonville  (Aug- 
ust 18),  and  unsuccessful  attempts  at  a  sortie  by  Marshal  Bazaine  (August 
26  and  October  6).  At  Sedan  the  French  under  Marshal  MacMahon  were 
hopelessly  beaten  (September  1),  and  the  Emperor  surrendered  to  the 
Prussian  King  (September  2),  and  was  deported  as  prisoner  to  Wilhelms- 
hohe  (Cassel).  At  Paris  (September  4)  the  deposition  of  the  Imperial 
dynasty  was  declared,  and  the  establishment  of  a  Republic  proclaimed  by 
M.  Gambetta  and  other  members  of  the  Left  in  the  Legislative  Assembly. 
A  government  of  defence  was  proclaimed,  with  General  Trochu  as  Presi- 
dent, M.  Gambetta  as  Minister  of  the  Interior,  M.Jules  Favre  (Foreign), 
General  Le  Flo  (War).  The  Empress  Eugenie  fled  from  Paris  (September 
4),  and  settled  at  Chiselhurst.  Negotiations  for  peace  between  M.  Favre 
and  Count  Bismarck  ended  in  failure  (September  24),  and  a  proclamation 
from  the  Government  at  Tours  was  issued  calling  upon  the  people  "to 
fight  to  the  bitter  end. ' '  The  siege  of  Paris  was  commenced  by  the  Ger- 
mans (September  15),  and  five  days  later  the  troops  at  Versailles  sur- 
rendered, and  the  Crown  Prince  of  Prussia  occupied  the  place.  A  levee  en 
masse  of  all  under  twenty-five  years  of  age  was  ordered  by  the  govern- 
ment (September  23),  and  all  Frenchmen  between  twenty  and  twenty- 
five  years  were  prohibited  (September  26)  leaving  France,  those  between 
twenty-one  and  forty  years  being  organized  as  a  national  garde  mobile. 
M.  Gambetta,  escaping  by  means  of  a  balloon  from  the  beleagured  city 
(October  7),  was  appointed  by  the  government  at  Tours  Minister  of  War. 
An  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  Red  Republicans  at  Paris,  headed  by 
Blanqui,  Ledru-Rollin  and  others,  to  establish  a  Commune  in  that  city, 
was  successfully  defeated  (October  14).  The  news  of  the  capitulation  of 
Metz  caused  riots  at  Paris  (October  31).  As  the  result  of  a  plebiscite  to 
confirm  the  powers  of  the  Government  of  Defence,  the  votes  recorded 
were  557,976  for,  62,638  against.  The  successes  of  the  German  arms 
continued,  the  army  of  the  Loire  was  defeated  by  the  Grand  Duke  of 
Mecklenburg  (November  17),  the  fortresses  of  Verdun  (November  8)  and 
Thionville  (November  27)  capitulated.  The  army  of  the  Loire  under 
General  Chanzy  was  again  attacked  and  defeated  at  Beaugency  (December 
8).  After  various  battles, the  army  of  the  Loire, fighting  and  retreating,  was 
defeated  by  Prince  Frederick  Charles  at  Le  Mans  (January  11,  1871),  and 
near  Vosges  (January  15-16).  The  army  under  General  de  Paladines, 
entrenched  at  Orleans,  suffered  defeat  by  Prince  Frederick  Charles  (De- 
cember 4),  and  Orleans  surrendered,  Rouen  being  two  days  later  occu- 
pied by  General  Manteuffel,  who  engaged  the  army  of  the  North  under 
General  Faidherbe  at  Point  a  Noyelles  (December  23),  and  at  Bapaume 
(January  2-3,  1871),  the  French  retreating  in  each  case.  General  Bour- 
baki  was  also  defeated  by  the  German  general  Von  Werder,  near  Belfort 
(January  15-17),  and  General  Von  Goeben  gained  a  victory  over  the 
French  under  Faidherbe  at  St.  Quentin  (January  19).  After  gallant, 
but  unsuccessful  sorties  from  Paris  by  Generals  Trochu  and  Ducrot  (No- 
vember 20  and  January  21),  the  city,  which  had  been  bombarded,  capitu- 
lated (January  28).  Following  the  fall  of  Paris,  Gen.  Bourbaki's  army 
was  defeated  (January  30-February  1)  by  the  Germans  under  General 
Manteuffel,  and  driven  across  the  frontier  into  Switzerland.  The  fortress 


204  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

of  Belfort  capitulated  (February  16)  with  military  honors  after  a  long  de- 
fence. An  armistice  took  place  preparatory  to  negotiations  for  peace.  On 
the  resignation  of  M.  Gambetta  a  National  Assembly  was  elected  (Feb- 
ruary 8)  of  which  M.  Grevy  was  chosen  president,  M.  Thiers  becoming 
head  of  the  executive  power.  The  French  Government  was  recognized 
by  the  chief  European  powers  (February  18),  and  (February  26)  prelimi- 
naries of  peace  were  signed  by  MM.  Thiers  and  Favre  and  fifteen  dele- 
gates of  the  National  Assembly  on  the  part  of  France,  and  Count  Bis- 
marck on  the  part  of  Germany.  By  this  France  was  to  cede  certain 
parts  of  Lorraine,  including  Metz  and  Thionville  and  Alsace,  excluding 
Belfort.  In  addition,  five  milliards  of  francs  ($1,000,000,000)  were  to  be 
paid  as  war  indemnity  to  Germany;  certain  departments  to  be  occupied 
by  German  troops  until  this  was  fully  discharged.  The  treaty,  signed 
February  26,  was  accepted  by  the  National  Assembly  sitting  at  Bordeaux 
(March  1),  by  546  votes  to  107,  at  the  some  time  unanimously  confirming 
the  fall  of  the  Empire.  The  Germans  after  occupying  Paris  for  forty- 
eight  hours  (March  1-3),  withdrew  from  Versailles  (March  12).  A  Peace 
Conference  met  at  Brussels  (March  28),  and  at  Frankfort  a  definite  treaty 
of  peace  was  signed  (May  10),  and  ratified  by  the  French  Assembly  (May 
21).  The  last  instalment  of  the  indemnity  was  paid  September  5,  1873, 
and  the  last  of  the  German  troops  quitted  French  soil  (September  16). 
The  Red  Republicans  under  the  lead  of  Blanqui,  Gustav  Flourens  and 
Felix  Pyat  rose  in  revolt  (March  18,  1871)  against  the  Government,  held 
Paris  and  established  the  Commune,  which  was  not  suppressed  until  the 
insurgents  had  committed  many  outrages  and  destroyed  much  property, 
after  holding  possession  of  Paris  until  May  28,  when  th^  troops  under 
Marshal  MacMahon  captured  the  city;  some  eight  hundred  troops  were 
killed,  the  Communist  forces  losing  fifty  thousand.  One-fourth  of  Paris 
was  destroyed,  the  loss  to  property  being  estimated  at  $1 60, 000, 000.  Great 
numbers  of  the  Communists  were  subsequently  tried,  some  executed,  and 
the  remainder  transported. 

THE    LATEST    EXPLOSIVE. 

It  begins  to  look  as  if  the  days  of  gunpowder  as  a  charge  for 
the  guns  in  the  British  navy  were  numbered.  Recent  experiments  at  the 
government  proof  butts,  Woolwich,  appear  to  prove  the  decided  superior- 
ity of  cordite.  A  six-inch  quick  firing  gun  was  loaded  with  twenty-nine 
pounds  twelve  ounces  of  the  ordinary  black  gunpowder  and  yielded  a  ve- 
locity of  2,890  feet  per  second,  with  a  pressure  strain  on  the  gun  of  fif- 
teen tons  per  square  inch.  The  same  gun  was  charged  with  fourteen 
pounds  three  ounces  of  cordite,  and  gave  a  velocity  of  2,274  feet  per 
second,  and  a  pressure  of  15.2  tons.  More  important  still,  after  250 
rounds  had  been  fired  there  were  no  signs  of  erosion.  The  new  sub- 
stance is  manufactured  by  the  English  government,  and  contains  fifty -six 
percent  of  nitro-glycerine,  thirty-seven  of  gun  cotton  and  five  of  mineral 
jelly.  The  velocity  of  the  shot  along  the  bore  of  the  six-inch  gun  was 
calculated  to  the  millionth  of  a  second  from  the  first  moment  of  being 
set  in  motion.  Minute  as  they  may  appear,  Lieut.  H.  Watkin,  R.  A., 
has  invented  an  instrument  which,  it  is  said,  will  measure  fractions  of 
time  to  the  nine-billionth  part  of  a  second!  About  fifty  of  the  six-inch 
quick-firing  guns  have  been  supplied  to  the  navy,  and  the  authorities  at 
the  Royal  Gun  Factories  have  begun  the  manufacture  of  the  larger  guns 
of  the  same  pattern,  with  a  velocity  of  1,300  miles  per  hour. 


CREEDS  OE  THE  WORLD. 


Happy  the  man  who  sees  a  God  employed 
In  all  the  good  and  ill  that  checker  life! 
Resolving  all  events,  with  their  effects 
And  manifold  results,  into  the  will 
And  arbitration  wise  of  the  Supreme. 

— COWPER. 

NOTES   ON    FAITH    AND   WORSHIP. 

Apollo  was  worshipped  on  Mt.  Parnassus. 

The  name  "diabolos"  means  "a  slanderer." 

There  is  no  definition  of  religion  in  the  Bible. 

The  first  altar  mentioned  was  that  raised  by  Noah. 

The  cross  was  first  displayed  in  churches  about  431. 

The  term  Puritan  was  first  used  in  England  in  1567. 

In  the  Greek  church  all  priests  are  called  Papa,  or  Pope. 

The  Passion  Play  at  Oberammergau  was  instituted  in  1634. 

Deism  is  the  term  for  natural  as  opposed  to  revealed  religion. 

The  poet  Young  wrote:  "By  night  an  atheist  half  believes  a  God." 

The  Jains  are  an  East  Indian  sect,  between  the  Hindus  and  Buddhists. 

Marabouts  are  religious  devotees  held  in  great  reverence  by  the 
Berbers. 

.    Abrahamites  were  a  Bohemian  sect  that  prevailed  about  1782,  now 
extinct. 

Some  writers  insist  that  absolute  atheism  has  never  existed  in  a  rea- 
soning mind. 

It  was  Shakspeare  who  said  that  ' '  the  devil  can  cite  Scripture  for 
his  purpose." 

The  adherents  of  Zoroastrianism,  the  ancient  faith  of  Persia,  are 
called  Parsees. 

The  shamrock  is  said  to  have  been  used  by  St.  Patrick  as  a  symbol 
of  the  Trinity. 

The  oldest  church  edifice  in  this  country  is  that  of  San    Miguel, 
Santa  F£,  N.M. 

No  general  term  equivalent  to  religion  is  found  either  in  Chinese, 
Sanscrit  or  Hebrew. 

Giaour  is  a  term  applied  by  the  Turks  to  all  who  do  not  believe  in 
Mahommedanism. 

205 


206  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

Tennyson  calls  faith  "  the  great  world's  altar  stairs,  that  slope  thro* 
darkness  up  to  God." 

What  are  called  the  monastic  vows  are  three  in  number— poverty, 
chastity  and  obedience. 

The  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  has  issued  the  Good  Book  in 
three  hundred  tongues. 

The  canonical  books  are  those  books  of  Holy  Scripture  accepted  as 
genuine  by  Christian  churches. 

He  was  a  cunning  wag  who  said:  "Orthodoxy  is  my  doxy  and 
heterodoxy  is  the  other  fellow's." 

Washington  endorsed  the  idea  that  if  there  had  been  no  God  men 
would  have  been  obliged  to  imagine  one. 

The  ascetics  were  ancient  Christians  who  sought  a  higher  and  more 
spiritual  life  by  means  of  severe  penances. 

Sir  Isaac  Newton  said:  "  I  find  more  sure  marks  of  authenticity  in 
the  Bible  than  in  any  profane  history  whatever." 

Charles  Kingsley  observes  that  true  religion  will  make  a  man  a  more 
thorough  gentleman  than  all  the  courts  in  Europe. 

A  strict  definition  of  nihilism  is  that  system  of  philosophy  which 
totally  rejects  religion  and  substitutes  nothing  for  it. 

The  ten  persecutions  of  the  early  Christian  church  are  dated  from 
the  years  64,  95,  106,  166,  202,  235,  249,  258,  274  and  303  A.D. 

Freethinker  was  the  name  applied  from  one  to  two  centuries  ago  to 
those  deists  who  favored  natural  as  against  revealed  religion. 

The  Stoics  taught  that  God  is  the  soul  of  the  world,  and  that  man's 
supreme  good  is  to  live  in  the  perfect  harmony  of  the  universe. 

There  are  two  places  in  London  where  clergymen  can  buy  sermons 
printed.  They  cover  all  subjects,  and  can  be  had  for  every  season. 

The  Gnostics  were  an  early  speculative  school,  with  principles  based 
on  oriental  philosophy,  combined  with  certain  tenets  of  Christianity. 

The  belief  in  and  worship  of  one  personal  God  is  called  monothe- 
ism. Judaism,  Christianity  and  Mahommedanism  are  all  monotheistic. 

Dervishes  are  Mohammedan  devotees.  They  are  divided  into  two 
sections — the  Mevlevies,  or  dancing,  and  the  Nakshbendies,  or  howling 
dervishes. 

The  chamber  or  vault  beneath  a  church,  generally  under  the  altars, 
where  the  dead,  and  particularly  ecclesiastics,  were  formerly  entombed, 
is  called  a  Crypt. 

The  Treacle  Bible  is  Beck's  Bible  of  1549,  in  which  the  word  balm  is 
rendered  treacle.  The  Bishops'  Bible  has  tryacle  (Jer.  iii,  22;  xlvi,  11; 
and  Ezek.  xxvii,  17). 

The  Apple  of  Sodom  is  a  fruit  mentioned  by  Strabo,  Josephus,  and 
others,  as  growing  on  the  shores  of  the  Dead  Sea.  It  was  tempting  to 
the  eye,  but  if  tasted  filled  the  mouth  with  bitter  ashes.  It  is  supposed 
to  have  been  an  oak-gall,  or  the  fruit  of  the  solanum. 

The  deluge  is  the  inundation  of  the  world  recorded  in  the  Mosaic 
history.  It  began  December  7,  1656,  A.D.,  or  2348,  B.C.,  and  lasted  377 
days  (Gen.  vi,  vii,  viii).  The  mythological  history  of  many  nations  men- 
tion inundations  which  correspond  with  the  Scriptural  account. 


CREEDS  OF  THE  WORLD.  207 

Antichrist  is  a  name  which  occurs  only  in  the  epistles  of  St.  John, 
and  is  identified  by  different  writers  with  more  or  less  probability  with 
false  Christs,  and  other  enemies  of  Christianity. 

The  Angelus  Bell  is,  in  Catholic  churches,  a  bell  rung  at  morning, 
noon  and  sunset,  to  invite  the  faithful  to  recite  the  Angelic  Salutation. 
It  gives  name  to  a  very  famous  picture  by  Millet. 

The  great  writers  and  teachers  who  succeeded  the  Apostles  from  the 
second  to  the  sixth  centuries  are  those  called  the  Fathers  of  the  Church. 
They  included  St.  Athanasius,  St.  Augustine,  etc.  , 

The  consistories  were  councils  formed  for  maintaining  ecclesiastical 
discipline  and  regulating  divine  worship  in  the  German  Lutheran  Church, 
1542-55.  A  consistory  is  the  highest  papal  council. 

Many  of  the  South  Sea  islanders  believe  that  paradise  can  be  inher- 
ited only  by  persons  of  perfect  physical  forms.  Where  this  belief  pre- 
vails a  man  will  die  rather  than  submit  to  amputation. 

An  assembly  of  the  clergy  of  cathedral  churches,  usually  held  in  the 
chapter-house,  is  called  a  chapter.  The  Parliaments  of  England  were 
held  in  the  chapter-house  of  Westminster  Abbey  from  1377  to  1547. 

The  five  points  of  Calvinism  as  set  forth  by  John  Calvin  of  Picardy 
are:  (1)  Predestination  and  reprobation;  (2)  original  sin;  (3)  particular 
redemption;  (4)  irresistible  grace;  (5)  the  perseverance  of  the  saints. 

Coverdale's  Bible  was  issued  in  1535.  This  translation  of  the  Bible 
by  Miles  Coverdale,  afterwards  Bishop  of  Exeter,  was  dedicated  to  Henry 
VIII.,  and  was  the  first  English  Bible  sanctioned  by  royal  authority. 

The  primary  meaning  of  Chapel  was  a  chest  containing  relics  or 
their  shrine.  Now  it  is  a  place  of  worship  subordinate  to  a  cathedral  or 
large  church,  or  connected  with  a  castle,  university  or  other  institution. 

Though  often  treated  as  a  proper  name  by  the  translators,  Belial  is 
really  an  abstract  term  meaning  "that  which  is  without  use  or  profit," 
hence  "wickedness."  "  Sons  of  Belial"  is  one  of  the  commonest  forms 
in  use. 

The  staff,  terminating  in  a  cross,  carried  before  archbishops,  is  known 
as  the  crozier;  it  was  used  as  early  as  500  A.  D.  The  crozier  of  an  arch- 
bishop differs  from  that  of  a  bishop  in  having  a  cross  instead  of  a  crook 
on  the  top. 

Canonization  is  the  act  by  the  Pope  ot  declaring  a  deceased  person 
to  be  a  saint.  The  deceased's  name  is  then  put  in  the  Canon  or  Litany 
of  the  saints,  and  a  day  dedicated  to  his  honor.  Canonization  cannot 
take  place  within  less  than  fifty  years  of  the  death  of  the  person  to  be 
canonized. 

The  Cartesian  doctrines,  founded  on  the  principle  "I  know,  there- 
fore I  am,"  were  first  promulgated  by  Rene  Descartes  of  Touraine  in 
1837.  He  held  that  thought  proceeded  from  the  soul,  so  that  man  was 
not  entirely  material,  and  that  the  soul  must  be  from  some  being  not 
material — i.  e.  God. 

In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  the  reception  of  the  tonsure,  a  bare 
circle  on  the  crown  of  the  head,  precedes  admission  into  orders,  and  is 
administered  by  the  bishop.  The  Greek  priests  also  bear  the  tonsure. 
The  earliest  ecclesiastical  precept  on  the  tonsure  occurs  in  a  canon  of 
the  Council  of  Toledo  (633  A.  D.). 


208  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

All  travelers  in  India  have  seen  the  Bonze,  which  is  the  European 
name  for  Buddhist  priests,  who  in  many  respects  resemble  monks  in  the 
Christian  Church,  doing  penance  and  praying  for  the  sins  of  the  laity. 
There  are  also  female  bonzes. 

There  are  three  religious  systems  in  China:  That  of  Yu,  restored  by 
Koun-fou-tse  (Confucius);  the  State  religion,  in  which  the  emperor  acts 
as  the  priest  and  intermediator;  and  the  third  is  Buddhism.  There  are, 
however,  Moslems,  Christians  and  even  a  few  Jews  in  China. 

The^iame  of  Buddhists  (i.e.,  "the  enlightened,")  is  applied  to  the 
followers  of  Gautama  Siddhartha,  the  Sakya  Muni,  generally  called  Bud- 
dha, a  prince  of  Central  India.  Founded  about  500  B.C.  Buddhism  is  the 
chief  religion  in  India  beyond  the  Ganges,  China,  Japan  and  Ceylon. 

In  the  National  Museum  at  the  City  of  Mexico  is  the  stone  head  of 
an  idol  which,  until  its  discovery  by  some  missionaries  a  short  time  ago, 
was  still  being  worshipped  by  the  Indians  in  the  State  of  Morelos.  The 
head  was  on  a  statue  of  immense  size,  covered  with  a  crocodile's  hide. 

The  Swedehborgians,  or  "The  New  Jerusalem  Church,"  are  the  fol- 
lowers of  Dr.  Emanuel  Swedenborg  (1688-1772).  They  hold  peculiar 
views  respecting  salvation,  inspiration,  and  the  Trinity.  In  regard  to 
the  Trinity,  they  believe  it  to  be  centred  in  the  person  of  Jesus  Christ. 

The  purgatory  of  the  Islamites  is  called  Al  Araf,  and  it  is  supposed 
to  be  located  half  way  between  hell  and  paradise.  Mohammed  is  believed 
by  the  whole  sect  of  Islam  to  be  the  only  person  who  has  ever  gone  to 
paradise  without  being  forced  to  go  through  a  preparatory  course  at  Al 
Araf. 

Among  curious  copies  of  the  Scriptures  is  one  known  as  the  Breeches 
Bible,  printed  in  1577  by  Whittingham,  Gilby,  and  Sampson.  So  called 

because  Gen.  iii.  7  runs  thus:  "The  eyes  of  them  bothe  were  opened 

and  they  sewed  figge-tree  leaves  together  and  made  themselves  breeches. ' ' 
It  is  also  called  the  "Geneva  Bible." 

Dies  irtz  (day  of  wrath)  are  the  opening  words  of  a  Latin  hymn 
which  describes  the  judgment  of  the  world.  Ascribed  to  various  authors, 
among  others  to  Pope  Gregory  the  Great  (590)  and  St.  Bernard,  but  more 
generally  to  Tommaso  da  Celano  (fifteenth  century);  c.  1385  adopted  into 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  liturgy. 

The  Zendavesta  is  said  to  have  been  written  by  Zoroaster  in  letters  of 
gold  on  twelve  thousand  skins  of  parchment,  and  to  have  been  deposited 
by  Darius  Hystaspes  in  the  Castle  of  Persepolis,  about  B.  c.  500.  ' 4  Zend ' ' 
is  the  language  and  "avesta"=text.  The  compound  word  means  the 
sacred  books  of  Zoroaster  in  the  Zend  tongue. 

Gehenna  is  the  place  of  everlasting  torment.  Strictly  speaking,  it 
means  the  Valley  of  Hinnom  (Ge  Hinnom\  where  sacrifices  to  Moloch 
were  offered,  and  where  refuse  of  all  sorts  was  subsequently  cast,  for  the 
consumption  of  which  fires  were  kept  constantly  burning.  There  was 
also  a  sort  of  aqua  tofana,  called  liquor  Gehenna. 

Kulturkampf  is  the  term  applied  to  the  ecclesiastical  controversy  with 
the  Church  of  Rome  in  Germany,  arising  from  an  effort  of  the  State  to 
vindicate  its  right  to  interfere  in  the  affairs  of  all  religious  societies. 
The  contest  began  in  1872  with  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits,  and  ended 
with  Prince  Bismarck's  concessions  in  revisions  of  the  politico-ecclesi- 
astical legislation  in  1886  and  1887. 


CREEDS  OF  THE  WORLD.  209 

Taouism  is  the  name  given  to  a  religious  system  in  China  founded 
by  L/ao-Tseu,  who  was  born  B.  c.  604.  It  has  degenerated  into  a  sort  of 
polytheism.  Its  priests,  who  are  looked  on  as  magicians  and  astrologers, 
are  consulted  about  the  sites  of  houses,  burial  grounds,  fortunate  days, 
and  other  responses  of  the  fortune-teller's  character. 

The  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  the  United  States  holds  a  gen- 
eral conference  once  in  four  years,  which  is  the  highest  legislative  body 
in  that  Church.  The  Wesleyan-Methodists  also  hold  an  annual  confer- 
ence in  Great  Britain,  at  which  the  business  of  the  body  is  transacted 
and  arrangements  for  the  circuits  made  for  the  year. 

The  Agapemone  (abode  of  love),  is  a  conventual  establishment  near 
Bridgewater,  England,  instituted  1859,  by  Henry  J.  Prince,  formerly  a 
clergyman.  Its  members  profess  to  devote  themselves  to  spiritual 
recreation,  and  maintain  spiritual  marriage.  The  sect,  which  had  fallen 
into  obscurity,  has  recently  come  again  into  prominence. 

The  religion  of  the  followers  of  Mahommed  (570-632)  is  embo'died 
in  the  Koran.  It  includes  belief  in  one  God,  in  angels,  in  good  and  evil 
spirits,  in  a  general  resurrection  and  judgment,  with  future  rewards  and 
punishments,  in  predestination,  and  in  a  Paradise  where  the  faithful 
spend  their  time  in  the  society  of  beautiful  women  (houris). 

Ultramontane,  meaning  "beyond  the  mountains,"  originally  referred 
to  the  Alps — namely,  in  relation  to  France.  I/ater  it  had  reference  to 
that  party  in  the  Church  of  Rome  which  assigns  the  greatest  weight  to 
the  papal  prerogative.  Italians  of  course  use  the  word  in  a  converse 
geographical  sense  for  people  beyond  the  Alps,  and  so  in  the  north  of 
Europe. 

Koran  (Arab.,  from  karaa,  "to  read"),  The  Reading,  by  way  of  emi- 
nence; a  term  first  applied  to  every  single  portion  of  Mahotnmed's  "Rev- 
elations," used  at  a  later  period  for  a  greater  number  of  these,  and  fin- 
ally for  their  whole  body,  gathered  together  into  the  one  book  which 
forms  the  religious,  social,  civil,  commercial,  military,  and  legal  code 
of  Islam. 

American  pioneers  were  God-fearing  and  Bible-loving.  They  staked 
out  town  lots  in  twenty-two  Bethels,  ten  Jordans,  nine  Jerichos,  fourteen 
Bethlehems,  twenty-two  Goshens,  twenty-one  Shilohs,  eleven  Carmels, 
eighteen  Tabors  and  Mount  Tabors,  twenty-two  Zions  and  Mount  Zions, 
twenty-six  Edens,  thirty  Lebanons,  twenty-six  Hebrews  and  thirty-six 
Sharons. 

Secularism  is  the  name  given  to  the  principles  advocated  (about  1846) 
by  George  Jacob  Holyoake,  a  native  of  Birmingham.  The  central  idea 
of  Secularism  is  freedom  of  thought,  and  freedom  of  action  without  in- 
jury to  others.  It  is  the  religion  of  the  present  life  only,  and  its  stand- 
ard of  morals  is  utilitarian.  Mr.  G.  J.  Holyoake  was  succeeded  in  the 
leadership  of  English  secularists  by  Mr.  Charles  Bradlaugh,  who  died 
in  1891. 

The  secular  clergy  are  the  clergy  generally  who  live  in  private 
houses.  Nearly  all  archbishops,  bishops,  deans,  canons  and  parochial 
clergymen  are  seculars,  in  contradistinction  to  the  regulars,  who,  having 
vowed  obedience,  chastity  and  poverty,  live  in  some  religious  house, 
dead  to  the  world  and  the  "  civil  law  "  by  their  "entrance  into  religion." 
Called  ' '  regulars ' '  because  they  live  under  the  regula  or  rule  of  some 
religious  house. 

U.  I.— 14 


210  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

Hades,  in  the  religion  of  ancient  Greece,  was  the  name  applied  to 
the  kingdom  of  the  under-world,  the  abode  of  the  departed  spirits  or 
shades.  Hades  and  Pluto  are  also  personal  names  for  its  king.  It  is 
the  Greek  word  by  which  the  Septuagint  translates  the  Hebrew  slieol, 
the  abode  of  the  dead,  in  which  sense  it  occurs  frequently  in  the  New 
Testament. 

The  devotional  term  litany  applies  to  a  form  of  prayer  in  which  the 
same  thing  is  repeated  several  times  at  no  long  intervals.  Hence  in 
Latin  the  word  is  always  used  in  the  plural,  litanies.  The  common  for- 
mula, Kyrie  eleison,  Christe  eleison,  Kyrie  eleison — "Lord,  have  mercy 
upon  us— Christ,  have  mercy  upon  us— Lord,  have  mercy  upon  us"— is 
the  simplest  ("lesser")  litany. 

The  English  church  assembly  termed  Convocation,  is  recorded  to 
have  met  under  the  king's  writ  in  1294.  Its  power  was  limited  by  Henry 
VIII.,  and  further  in  1716.  Since  1854  its  proceedings  have  been  formal, 
though  it  was  authorized  to  deliberate  on  alterations  of  the  Liturgy  in 
1872.  Convocation  is  now  a  deliberative  council  of  representative  Church- 
men, but  has  no  official  authority. 

In  the  ceremony  of  the  greater  excommunication  by  the  Catholic 
Church,  since  the  eighth  century,  after  reading  the  sentence  a  bell  is 
rung,  the  book  closed,  and  a  caudle  extinguished;  and  from  that  moment 
the  person  excommunicated  is  excluded  from  the  communion  of  the 
faithful,  from  public  worship,  and  the  sacraments.  Hence  comes  the 
expression  "bell,  book  and  candle." 

Camp-meetings  are  gatherings  of  devout  persons,  held  usually  in 
thinly  populated  districts,  and  continued  for  several  days  at  a  time.  It 
was  in  connection  with  Methodism  in  America  that  such  meetings  became 
especially  prominent.  The  introduction  of  the  protracted  camp  meetings 
into  England  in  1799  by  Lorenzo  Dow,  led  to  the  separation  of  the  Prim- 
itive Methodists  from  the  Wesleyans. 

Humanitarians  is  a  name  assigned  to  anti-Trinitarians,  who  regard 
Christ  as  a  mere  man,  and  refuse  to  ascribe  to  him  any  supernatural 
character,  whether  of  origin  or  of  nature.  The  name  Humanitarian  is  also 
sometimes  applied  to  the  disciples  of  St.  Simon,  and  in  general  to  those 
who  look  to  the  perfectibility  of  human  nature  as  a  great  moral  and  social 
dogma;  also  to  those  who,  from  over-philanthropy,  object  to  severe 
measures,  such  as  capital  punishment,  etc. 

The  Temple  Society  is  a  body  of  German  Christians  who  wait  for  the 
second  coming  of  Christ.  They  separated  from  the  Church  in  Wurtem- 
berg  and  formed  a  separate  sect;  and  many  of  them  settled  in  Palestine 
in  1868,  where  they  now  have  colonies  at  Haifa,  Jaffa,  Sarona  and  near 
Jerusalem.  They  are  distinguished  for  industry,  enterprise  and  success. 
There  may  be  about  five  thousand  in  all  of  the  community,  of  whom 
about  thirteen  hundred  are  in  Palestine. 

The  Septuagint  is  the  Greek  translation  of  the  Old  Testament,  made 
from  the  Massoretic  text  at  Alexandria.  Tradition  says  that  it  was 
executed  in  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  (284-47  B.  C.),  by  seventy- 
two  translators  in  72  days;  but  critics  hold  that  it  is  the  work  of  different 
times.  The  Septuagint  was  the  official  Bible  of  the  Hellenistic  Jews  until 
after  the  destruction  of  the  Temple,  and  it  became  the  official  Bible  ot 
the  Catholic  Church.  Most  of  the  Old  Testament  quotations  in  the 
Testament  are  taken  from  the  Septuagint. 


CREEDS  OF  THE  WORLD.  211 

Mephistopheles  is  the  name  of  one  of  the  best-known  personifications 
of  the  principle  of  evil.  The  word  has  been  very  variously  explained, 
but  is  probably  of  Hebrew  origin,  like  most  names  of  devils  in  the  his- 
tory of  magic,  confounded  with,  and  approximated  in  form  to,  the  Greek 
mephostophiles,  "one  who  loves  not  light."  Mephistopheles  owes  all 
his  modern  vitality  to  Goethe's  "Faust." 

The  Mojaves  believe  that  all  who  die  and  are  not  cremated  are  turned 
into  owls,  and  when  they  hear  the  dismal  screech  of  one  of  the  above 
named  creatures  of  the  night,  they  tell  you  that  it  is  the  spirit  of  some 
dead  Mojave  who  has  returned  to  advise  his  people  to  submit  to  the  ordeal 
of  fire.  When  one  of  the  tribe  dies  his  relations  and  immediate  friends 
do  not  eat  salt  or  wash  themselves  for  four  days. 

The  word  bull  is  derived  from  the  Latin  bulla,  "a  bubble  of  water," 
and  then  "  a  round  ball  of  any  kind."  In  the  middle  ages  it  came  to 
signify  the  capsule  of  the  seal  appended  to  letters  from  emperors  or 
popes,  next  it  was  used  for  the  seal  itself,  and  lastly  for  the  document 
to  which  the  seal  was  appended.  Its  use  is  now  commonly  restricted  to 
papal  documents  issued  with  certain  indispensable  formalities. 

The  Douay  Bible  was  a  translation  made  by  the  professors  connected 
with  the  College  of  Douay,  founded  in  1568  by  Dr.  William  Allen  for  the 
education  of  English  boys  designed  for  the  Roman  Catholic  priesthood. 
These  students  were  to  be  sent  into  England  as  itinerant  preachers, 
with  the  view  of  creating  a  reactionary  feeling  and  upsetting  the  Re- 
formed Church.  Dr.  Allen  himself  worked  on  the  translation. 

The  title  of  Beelzebub  was  given  to  the  form  of  Baal  worshipped  by 
the  Philistines  at  Ekron.  As  the  heathen  deities  were  all  regarded  as 
demons  by  the  Jews,  the  name  Beelzebub  became,  in  course  of  time, 
commonly  applied  to  the  chief  of  evil  spirits,  and  in  this  sense  it  is  em- 
ployed in  the  Gospels.  The  more  correct  reading  of  the  word  is  Beelzebul, 
variously  explained  as  '  'lord  of  the  dwelling, "  "lord  of  the  dunghill. " 

The  Graal  or  "The  Holy  Graal"  was  a  miraculous  chalice  made  of  a 
single  emerald,  which  was  stated  to  possess  the  power  of  preserving 
chastity  and  prolonging  life.  It  is  said  to  have  been  the  cup  from  which 
Christ  drank  at  the  last  supper,  and  in  which  Joseph  of  Arimathea 
caught  the  last  drops  of  blood  as  Christ  was  taken  down  from  the  cross. 
In  1170  Chretien  of  Troyes  sang  of  the  search  by  knights  for  this  miracu- 
lous cup,  which  was  a  very  favorite  subject  in  the  middle  ages. 

The  Veda  is  the  sacred  canon  of  the  Brahmins.  It  is  divided  into 
four  collections:  (1)  the  Rig-veda,  or  love  of  praise  (hymns);  (2)  the 
Sama-veda,  or  love  of  tunes  (chants);  (3)  the  Yajur-veda,  or  love  of 
prayer,  and  (4)  the  Atharva-veda,  or  love  of  the  Atharvans.  Each  col- 
lection is  divided  into  three  parts:  (1)  The  sacred  texts  (mantra);  (2)  the 
ritual  (Brahmana);  and  (3)  the  philosophical  portion  (Upanishads).  The 
hymns  of  the  Rig-veda  are  supposed  to  have  been  collected  about  1000  B.  c. 

The  Targums  are  paraphrastic  translations  of  the  Hebrew  Script- 
ures into  Aramaic,  the  only  tongue  generally  known  to  the  Jews  in 
post-exilic  times.  No  single  Targum  covers  the  whole  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, but  in  one  and  another  there  are  versions  of  all  the  books,  except 
Ezra  and  Nehemiah.  The  Targums,  long  oral,  were  committed  to  writ- 
ing in  Christian  times.  The  Onkelos  Targum  and  the  Targum  ascribed 
to  Jonathan  ben  Uzzill,  the  principal  of  the  eighty  disciples  of  Hillel, 
are  the  most  famous. 


212  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

Among  the  great  monastic  orders  Benedictines  is  the  general  name 
given  to  the  followers  of  St.  Benedict  (480-543),  whose  rule  bound  the 
monk  to  permanent  abode  in  the  monastery,  chastity,  renunciation  of 
private  property,  daily  and  public  solemnization  of  the  divine  office,  a 
life  of  frugality  and  labor,  and  filial  obedience  to  the  abbot.  The  order 
has  produced  many  literary  works,  but  has  taken  little  interest  in  poli- 
tics. Though  at  one  time  very  powerful,  the  membership  today  does 
not  exceed  eight  hundred. 

The  Tabernacle  was  the  portable  tent  in  which  the  Ark  of  the  Cove- 
nant was  conveyed,  and  as  such  the  sanctuary  of  Israel.  It  seems  to 
have  been  superseded  by  a  more  permanent  building  at  Shiloh  before 
David's  time.  In  Roman  Catholic  churches  the  name  is  given  to  the 
receptacle  in  which  the  consecrated  elements  of  the  Eucharist  are 
retained.  It  is  commonly  a  small  structure  of  marble,  metal  or  wood, 
placed  over  the  high  altar  and  appropriated  exclusively  to  the  reserva- 
tion of  the  Eucharist,  no  other  object  whatever  being  allowed  to  be 
kept  in  it. 

The  .word  cabbala,  which  literally  means  "tradition,"  in  itself 
might  be  used  for  any  Jewish  doctrine  not  explicitly  contained  in  the 
Hebrew  Bible  since  the  text  assumed  its  present  form.  The  moral  and 
ritual  precepts  of  the  Talmud  are  all  ascribed  to  a  tradition  that  can  be 
traced  step  by  step.  But  in  its  technical  sense,  the  cabbala  signifies  a 
secret  system  of  theology,  metaphysics  and  magic  prevalent  among  the 
Jews.  The  cabbalists  taught  a  pantheistic  doctrine,  which  came  to  them 
from  the  later  and  degenerate  philosophies  of  Greece.  • 

The  Shakers  are  a  religious  sect,  the  official  title  of  which  is  '  'The 
United  Society  of  Believers  in  Christ's  Second  Appearing. ' '  They  are  an 
offshoot  of  the  Quakers  founded  by  Ann  Lee,  of  Manchester,  England, 
who  with  eight  of  hei  disciples  came  to  America  in  1774.  Here  the  Shakers 
have  founded  eighteen  societies,  distributed  over  seven  States.  They  prac- 
tise celibacy  and  community  of  goods,  and  are  firm  believers  in  the  doc- 
trine of  spiritualism.  The  wild,  violent  motions,  from  which  they  obtained 
their  name,  have  given  place  to  a  regular  dance  to  the  singing  of  a  hymn. 

A  synagogue  is  a  Jewish  place  of  worship.  The  origin  of  this  insti- 
tution is  probably  to  be  traced  to  the  period  of  the  Babylonian  captivity, 
although  tradition  finds  it  in  the  patriarchal  times.  When,  through 
Ezra's  instrumentality,  the  ancient  order  of  things  was  restored  in  Judea, 
synagogues  were  established  in  all  the  towns  for  the  benefit  of  those  who 
could  not  take  part  oftener  than  three  times  a  year  in  the  worship  of  the 
temple  at  Jerusalem,  and  a  special  ritual  of  readings  and  prayers  was  in- 
stituted. From  the  time  of  the  Maccabees  we  find  them  even  in  all  the 
villages. 

Hospitallers,  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  are  charitable  brother- 
hoods, founded  for  the  care  of  the  poor  and  of  the  sick  in  hospitals. 
They  follow  for  the  most  part  the  rule  of  St.  Augustine,  and  add  to  the 
ordinary  vows  of  poverty,  chastity  and  obedience,  that  of  self-dedication 
to  the  particular  work  of  their  order.  The  Knights  of  St.  John  of  Jerusa- 
lem and  the  Teutonic  Knights  were  both  originally  hospitallers.  The 
Knights  Hospitallers  of  the  Holy  Spirit  were  founded  at  Montpellier  in 
1198  by  Guy  of  Montpellier,  and  the  hospitallers  of  Our  Lady  of  Christ- 
ian Charity  at  Paris  in  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century  by  Guy  de 
Joinrille.  And  numerous  similar  orders  have  been  established  since 
then. 


CREEDS  OF  THE  WORLD.  213 

There  is  no  date  from  beginning  to  end  in  the  Bible.  It  comprises  some 
sixty  documents,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  written  by  about  forty  men ; 
fifty-four  miracles  are  recorded  in  the  Old  and  fifty-one  in  the  New 
Testament;  total,  one  hundred  and  five.  The  shortest  verse  in  the  Old 
Testament  is  "Remember  Lot's  wife."  There  is  one  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment shorter,  i.e.,  John  xi,  35,  equaled  in  words,  though  not  in  letters,  by 
Thessalonians  v,  16,  "Rejoice  evermore."  Then  there  are  two  chapters 
in  the  Bible  alike  verbatim,  and  one  book,  Esther,  in  which  the  Deity  is 
not  mentioned. 

The  vigil  was  originally  the  watch  kept,  with  public  prayer  on  the 
night  before  a  feast,  traceable  in  the  very  earliest  centuries,  and  is  one 
of  the  usages  against  which  Vigilantius  inveighs,  and  which  Jerome  vin- 
dicates in  his  reply,  though  he  admits  the  abuses  that  often  accompanied 
it,  and  which  ultimately  brought  about  its  suppression.  The  old  observ- 
ance survives  in  the  Roman  Church  now  only  in  the  matins  and  lauds 
and  the  midnight  mass  before  Christmas,  and  the  term  is  applied  to  the 
day  and  night  preceding  a  feast.  The  "watch  night"  service  at  New 
Year's  is  analogous. 

The  Society  of  Friends  or  Quakers  was  founded  in  1624  by  George 
Fox,  a  shoemaker,  of  Drayton,  in  Leicestershire.  They  believe  in  the 
main  fundamental  principles  of  what  is  called  "Orthodox  Christianity," 
but  they  express  their  religious  creed  in  the  very  words  of  the  New 
Testament  Scripture  and  each  member  has  the  liberty  of  interpreting 
the  words.  Their  main  specialty  is  the  belief  of  "the  Light  of  Christ 
in  man,"  and  hence  they  entertain  a  broader  view  of  the  Spirit's  influ 
ence  than  other  Christians.  In  morals,  propriety  of  conduct,  good  order, 
and  philanthropy,  the  Quakers  are  a  pattern  society. 

The  Tunkers,  by  corruption  Dunkards  (but  by  themselves  called 
"the  Brethren"),  is  a  religious  sect  found  chiefly  in  Pennsylvania, 
Maryland,  Virginia,  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Iowa,  Missouri,  Nebraska 
and  Kansas.  Altogether  they  number  nearly  one  hundred  thousand, 
and  are  almost  confined  to  the  United  States,  although  small  bodies 
exist  in  Denmark  and  Sweden.  Yet  the  sect  had  its  birth  in  Germany, 
being  indeed  a  child  of  the  Pietist  movement  of  the  seventeenth  cent- 
ury; but  betweeen  1719  and  1729  all  the  members,  harassed  and  perse- 
cuted at  home,  had,  on  Penn's  old  invitation,  removed  to  Pennsylvania 
and  settled  about  Germantown  and  Philadelphia,  from  whence  they 
gradually  spread  southward  and  westward.  In  their  creed  the  Brethren 
are  thoroughly  evangelical. 

The  Gutenberg  (?  Schoffer)  Bible  is  the  earliest  book  printed  in  mov- 
able metal  type.  It  contains  no  date,  but  a  copy  in  the  "  Bibliotheque 
Mazarine,"  formed  in  1648  for  the  Cardinal  Mazarin  by  G.  Naude,  and 
given  to  the  public  in  1688,  contains  the  date  of  the  illuminator  Cremer, 
1456,  so  that  the  Bible  must  have  been  printed  before  that  date.  Only 
seven  copies  in  vellum  exist,  but  there  are  known  to  be  twenty-two 
copies  on  paper,  some  of  them  very  imperfect.  In  1855  Mr.  Quaritch, 
bookseller,  of  London  (according  to  the  Methodist  Recorder]  gave  $19,- 
500  for  a  copy  at  Sir  J.  Thorold's;  certainly  in  1887  he  gave  $13,250 
for  the  copy  in  the  library  of  the  late  Earl  of  Crawford.  One  was  sold 
in  1873  for  $17,000,  and  a  copy  was  sold  in  1889  for  $10,000.  A  good  vel- 
lum copy  is  worth  $20,000.  Of  course  it  was  called  the  Mazarine  Bible 
because  the  copy  in  the  Mazarine  Library,  Paris,  gives  the  approximate 
date. 


214  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORM  A  TION. 

The  term  Apocrypha  (a  Greek  word  meaning  "hidden",  "secret") 
seems,  when  applied  to  religious  books  or  writings,  to  have  been  used  (1) 
for  such  as  were  suitable,  not  for  the  mass  of  believers,  but  for  the  initiated 
only;  works  containing  the  esoteric  or  recondite  teaching  of  the  faith  cr 
sect;  (2)  works  the  date,  origin,  and  authorship  of  which  were  unknown 
or  doubtful;  (3)  works  which  claimed  to  be  what  they  were  not,  were 
spurious  or  pseudepigraphic.  When  the  Apocrypha  is  spoken  of,  the 
Apocrypha  of  the  Old  Testament  is  generally  meant.  Another  large 
group  may  be  called  the  apocryphal  books  of  the  New  Testament. 

The  Vulgate  is  the  authorized  translation  of  the  Scriptures  into  Latin 
in  use  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  Before  the  end  of  the  fourth 
century  the  Vetus,  or  old  Latin  version,  called  also  the  Itala  (because  in 
use  in  Italy),  had  become  exceedingly  corrupt,  and  in  382,  Jerome,  at 
the  request  of  Pope  Damasus,  undertook  to  revise  and  correct  this  version. 
The  Gospels  were  completed  in  383,  and  the  whole  New  Testament  soon 
after;  and  this  revision  of  the  old  version  is  the  present  text  of  the  Vul- 
gate New  Testament.  The  official  edition  of  the  authentic  Vulgate  now 
in  use  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  is  that  published  by  Clement 
VIII.  in  1592. 

The  Trappists  are  a  religious  order  founded  in  1140  in  Normandy  by 
Rotrou,  Compte  de  Perche.  It  was  refouuded  by  Abbe  de  Ranee  in  1636. 
It  is  a  reformed  Benedictine  order.  The  female  order,  called  Trappis- 
tines,  was  instituted  1822.  When  driven  out  of  France  in  1791  the  Trap- 
pists went  to  Switzerland  and  built  the  monastery  called  Val-Sainte, 
which  was  suppressed  in  1811.  Fifty-nine  monks  of  La  Trappe  migrated 
from  England  to  France  in  1817  and  settled  in  La  Loire  Inferieure.  In 
1822  the  Trappists  had  sixteen  houses  in  France.  Their  chief  monas- 
tery was  burnt  to  the  ground  in  August,  1871.  They  have  several  houses 
in  the  United  States. 

Under  the  name  of  breviary  Roman  Catholics  understand  the  book 
which  contains  all  the  ordinary  and  daily  services  of  their  church  except 
(a)  those  connected  with  the  celebration  of  the  Eucharist,  which  are 
contained  in  the  Missal,  and  (b)  those  for  special  occasions,  such  as  bap- 
tisms, marriages,  ordinations,  funerals,  etc.,  which  are  contained  in  the 
Ritual  or  Pontifical,  according  as  they  fall  within  the  sphere  of  ordinary 
priests  or  of  bishops.  In  the  Established  Church  of  England,  therefore, 
the  breviary  would  be  exactly  represented  by  a  prayer-book  containing, 
after  the  preface,  tables,  etc.,  the  morning  and  evening  prayer,  litaii)', 
Athanasian  creed,  collects,  psalter  and  all  the  lessons  for  every  day  in 
the  year,  with  the  addition  of  a  complete  set  of  hymns  for  the  different 
occasions. 

Theosophy  is  a  name  often  applied  to  the  systems  of  the  speculative 
mystics  of  the  mediaeval  and  later  times,  as  Eckhart,  Bohn,  Schelling 
and  others.  The  term  is  now  applied  to  the  tenets  of  the  Theosophical 
Society,  founded  at  New  York  (1875)  by  Colonel  Olcott  and  Madame 
Blavatsky  (d.  1891  \  an  American  Russian.  The  search  after  divine 
knowledge,  the  investigation  of  the  powers  of  man  and  of  the  hitherto 
unexplained  laws  of  nature,  the  study  of  Eastern  philosophy,  and  the 
establishment  of  a  universal  brotherhood,  are  some  of  the  objects  which 
it  sets  before  itself.  The  most  striking  tenet  of  theosophy  to  outsiders 
is  that  which  asserts  that  man  is  possessed  of  hitherto  undeveloped 
powers  over  nature,  in  which  respect  it  has  affinities  with  mediaeval 
Rosicrucianism  and  modern  Spiritualism. 


CREEDS  OF  THE  WORLD.  215 

The  Holy  Alliance  was  a  league  formed  in  1816  after  the  fall  of 
Napoleon  by  the  sovereigns  of  Russia,  Austria  and  Prussia,  whereby  they 
pledged  themselves  to  rule  their  peoples  like  fathers  of  families,  and  to 
regulate  all  national  and  international  relations  in  accordance  with  the 
principles  of  Christian  charity.  But  the  alliance  was  made  in  actual  fact 
a  means  of  mutual  encouragement  in  the  maintenance  of  royal  and  im- 
perial absolutism,  and  an  instrument  for  suppressing  free  institutions 
•and  checking  the  aspirations  for  political  liberty  struggling  into  realiza- 
tion amongst  the  nations  of  the  Continent.  The  league  died  a  natural 
death  after  the  lapse  of  a  few  years. 

Wakes  and  lyke-wakes  are  very  different  things.  A  lyke  or  liche  wake 
is  a  watching  of  the  dead  body  (Ang.-Sax.  lie]  all  night  by  the  friends 
and  neighbors  of  the  deceased.  It  used  to  be  a  scene  of  revelry  and 
mourning,  the  object  being  to  watch  the  body  from  being  interfered 
with  by  evil  spirits.  The  other  "  wake  "  is  about  equal  to  "vigil,"  and 
every  church  had  its  wake  on  the  anniversary  of  the  saint.  A  religious 
service  was  given,  but,  as  the  crowd  became  great,  hawkers  and  minstrels 
assembled,  and  the  wake  became  a  fair,  held  in  the  churchyard.  In 
1285  Edward  I.  forbade  fairs  to  be  held  in  churchyards,  but  the  practice 
continued  to  the  time  of  the  Reformation. 

Among  the  Jews  the  Talmud  is  a  book  held  in  high  veneration,  con- 
taining the  Mishna,  or  oral  law,  and  the  Gemara,  or  commentary  on  the 
Mishna.  There  are  two  forms,  or  editions  of  the  Talmud.  (1)  the  Pales- 
tinian (commonly  called  the  Jerusalem  Talmud)  completed  about  the 
middle  of  the  fifth  century  and  (2)  the  Babylonian  Talmud  completed 
towards  the  end  of  the  sixth  century.  The  latter  is  the  larger  and  more 
valuable  of  the  two.  The  Talmud  is  divided  into  Halaka,  or  legal  part, 
and  Hagada,  or  legendary  part.  The  Halaka  still  rules  Jewish  life,  es- 
pecially in  regard  to  dietary  laws,  marriages  and  festivals,  and  is  the 
authoritative  text-book  of  all  rabbinic  tribunals. 

The  Flagellants  were  fanatics  who  appeared  at  sundry  times  in 
Europe,  and  marched  about  in  procession  along  the  streets  and  public 
roads  to  appease  the  wrath  of  God.  They  marched  two  and  two,  singing 
dolorous  hymns,  mingled  with  groans,  and  every  now  and  then  stopped 
to  whip  each  other  with  scourges  to  "  atone  for  the  sins  of  the  people." 
They  first  appeared  in  the  eleventh  century  under  St.  Peter  Damian; 
again  in  1268,  when  Reinier,  a  Dominican,  formed  them  into  a  sect;  again 
in  1349,  when  Germany  was  attacked  with  the  pestilence  called  the  Black 
Death;  again  in  1574,  when  Henri  III.  of  France  joined  the  sect.  They 
still  exist  in  Italy,  France,  Mexico  and  New  Mexico,  but  their  number  is 
small. 

The  natives  of  Botocudes,  one  of  the  hottest  regions  of  the  earth, 
believe  that  heaven  will  be  a  land  of  cool  streams  and  shady  groves 
entirely  cleared  of  all  underbrush  and  cacti!  All  desert-dwellers,  it  is 
said,  die  expecting  to  awake  in  a  wooded  land  supplied  bountifully  with 
cold  water.  Natives  of  the  frozen  north  have  paradise  pictured  as 
a  land  of  warm  sunshine,  with  glowing  fires  overhung  with  pots  of  boil- 
ing whale's  blubber,  and  easeful  couches  of  fur  scattered  here  and  there. 
The  Caroline  islanders,  who  are  passionately  fond  of  liquor,  but  who 
are  in  mortal  dread  of  breaking  their  necks  by  falling  from  one  of  the 
millions  of  cliffs  with  which  their  islands  abound,  believe  that  paradise 
will  be  a  land  as  level  as  a  floor,  where  one  can  get  drunk  and  not  be  in 
constant  dread  of  cracking  his  cervical  Tertebrae. 


216  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

The  Catholic  sisterhood  known  as  Beguines  was  organized  in  the 
Netherlands  in  the  twelfth  century.  They  are  still  extant  in  Germany, 
but  there  is  at  Ghent  the  noted  Beguinage  of  St.  Elizabeth,  with  seven 
hundred  sisters,  who  live  in  a  separate  quarter  of  the  town  in  one  hun- 
dred and  three  little  brick-built  cottages,  with  eighteen  convents  and 
two  churches,  arranged  in  streets  and  squares  within  a  common  wall, 
open  to  the  visits  of  strangers.  Living  here  a  life  of  retirement  and 
piety,  the  Beguines,  in  their  simple  dark  dresses,  go  out  as  nurses  to  the 
hospitals  and  perform  other  acts  of  kindness  among  the  poor.  Though 
they  are  under  no  monastic  vow,  it  is  their  boast  that  none  is  known  to 
have  quitted  the  sisterhood. 

The  Society  of  Jesus,  or  Jesuits,  was  founded  by  Ignatius  Loyola,  and 
confirmed  by  Paul  III.  in  1540.  It  was  monarchical  in  its  constitution 
and  secular,  while  all  other  Catholic  societies  are  more  or  less  democratic 
and  regular.  The  head  of  the  society  is  called  the  General,  or  Prtzpo- 
situs  Generalis,  and  holds  his  office  for  life.  This  General  has  absolute 
command  over  the  whole  society,  and  from  his  decisions  there  is  no  ap- 
peal. The  four  objects  of  the  society  are:  (1)  the  education  of  youth;  (2) 
the  education  of  others  by  preaching,  etc.;  (3)  the  defense  of  the  Catholic 
faith  against  all  heretics  and  unbelievers,  and  (4)  the  propagation  of  the 
Catholic  faith  among  the  heathen.  The  Jesuits  wear  no  monastic  garb, 
but  dress  like  any  other  of  the  "secular  clergy,"  and  live  in  no  religious 
house,  but  in  private  dwellings. 

Candlemas  is  an  ecclesiastical  festival  observed  on  2d  February  in 
honor  of  the  Purification  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  when  she  presented  the  in- 
fant Jesus  in  the  temple.  The  great  feast  of  expiation  and  purification 
(Februa)in  ancient  Rome  was  held  on  the  15th  of  February.  Its  institu- 
tion as  a  Christian  festival  took  place  in  the  reign  of  Emperor  Justinian 
in  541  or  542.  A  principal  part  of  the  celebration  is  a  procession  of  light- 
candles — hence  the  name.  There  is  a  tradition  all  over  Christendom  to 
the  effect  that  a  fine  Candlemas  portends  a  severe  spring.  Sir  Thomas 
Browne  in  his  Vulgar  Errors  quotes  a  Latin  distich  expressive  of  this 
idea.  In  Scotland  the  prognostication  is  expressed  in  the  following 
distich :  If  Candlemas  is  fair  and  clear. 

There  '11  be  twa  winters  in  the  year. 

The  Wahabees  is  the  name  of  a  reforming  Mahommedan  sect  founded 
by  Abd-el-Wahhab  (1691-1787),  a  renowned  Oriental  scholar  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Nejd,  in  Arabia,  who  prohibited  to  his  followers  the  use  of  intoxi- 
cating liquors  and  tobacco,  and  reasserted  the  primitive  doctrine  and 
practice  of  the  Koran.  Subjected  to  persecution,  the  Wahabees  appealed 
to  the  sword,  and  acquired,  in  addition  to  the  character  of  a  reforming 
religious  sect,  that  of  a  native  Arabian  political  party.  At  one  time  their 
power  extended  over  almost  the  whole  of  Arabia,  Mecca  being  conquered 
in  1803,  and  Medina  in  1804.  The  Wahabees'  power  was  for  a  time 
broken  by  Mehemet  Ali,  of  Egypt,  and  his  son,  Ibrahim  Pasha  (acting 
for  the  Ottoman  Porte),  and  the  Wahabees' chief  was  beheaded  (December 
19,  1818),  in  the  public  square  in  front  of  St.  Sophia,  Constantinople;  but 
the  empire  of  the  Wahabees  was  speedily  re-established,  with  Nejd  for  its 
nucleus,  and  at  the  present  day  extends,  a  well-organized  and  strong 
independent  state  of  Arabia,  in  a  broad  belt  across  the  center  of  the  pe- 
ninsula, from  the  Red  Sea  to  the  Persian  Gulf,  the  population  being  esti- 
mated at  four  millions.  After  1823,  for  many  years,  the  Wahabees  gave 
trouble  in  India. 


CREEDS  OF  THE  WORLD.  217 

The  societies  formed  to  distribute  the  Holy  Scriptures  are  called 
Bible  societies.  The  following  are  the  names  of  the  chief  societies,  their 
nationality,  date  of  foundation,  and  approximate  total  issue  of  copies(  in 
whole  or  in  part)  of  the  Bible:  England,  British  and  Foreign,  1804  (due 
to  the  initiative  of  a  Welsh  clergyman),  translated  into  some  three  hun- 
dred different  languages,  100,000,000;  Scotland,  National,  1861  (from 
union  of  older  soc. ,  as  the  Edinburgh,  1809),  6,000,000;  Ireland,  Hiber- 
nian, 1806,  5,000,000;  United  States  1816,  40,000,000;  France,  two  societies 
f.  1818  and  1833;  Germany,  Prussian,  1814;  Switzerland,  Basle,  1804;  Rus- 
sian, 1826,  suppressed,  but  revived  1831;  Sweden,  1808;  Norway,  1816; 
Netherlands,  1815. 

The  Kaaba,  or  "Caaba, "  was  taken  possession  of  by  Cossai  about  455, 
and  was  restored  in  1630  by  the  Sultan  Mustapha.  The  word  means  '  'the 
square  house, ' '  and  it  designates  a  stone  building  in  the  great  mosque  at 
Mecca.  Next  the  silver  door  is  the  famous  Black  Stone,  "Dropped  from 
Paradise."  It  was  originally  white,  but  the  sin  of  the  world  has  turned 
it  black.  In  pilgrimages  the  devotee  walks  round  the  Kaaba  seven 
times,  and  each  time  he  passes  the  stone  either  kisses  it  or  lays  his  hand 
thereon.  According  to  Arabian  legend  Adam,  after  his  expulsion  from 
the  garden,  worshipped  Allah  on  this  spot.  A  tent  was  then  sent  down 
from  heaven,  but  Seth  substituted  a  hut  for  the  tent.  After  the  flood 
Abraham  and  Ishmael  rebuilt  the  Kaaba. 

By  infallibility  is  meant  entire  exemption  from  liability  to  error 
when  the  pope  speaks  ex  cathedra.  The  dogma  of  papal  infallibility  was 
promulgated  by  the  Vatican  Council  in  1870.  As  adopted  by  the  Council 
it  is  thus  defined:  "We  teach  and  define  that  it  is  a  dogma  Divinely  re- 
vealed, that  the  Roman  pontiff,  when  he  speaks  ex  cathedra,  that  is, 
when  in  discharge  of  the  office  of  pastor  and  doctor  of  all  Christians,  by 
virtue  of  his  supreme  authority,  he  defines  a  doctrine  regarding  faith  and 
morals  to  be  held  by  the  universal  Church,  by  the  Divine  assistance 
promised  him  in  blessed  Peter  is  possessed  of  that  infallibility  with  which 
the  Divine  Redeemer  willed  that  His  Church  should  be  endowed  for  de- 
fining doctrines  regarding  faith  or  morals;  and  that,  therefore,  such 
definitions  of  the  Roman  pontiffs  are  irreformable  of  themselves  and  not 
by  consent  of  the  Church. ' ' 

The  WTaldenses,  or  Vaudois,  is  a  sect  inhabiting  the  valleys  of  the 
Cottian  Alps,  in  Northern  Italy.  It  was  founded  by  Peter  Waldo 
(1170),  a  rich  merchant  of  Lyons,  who  sold  his  goods  and  gave  the  money 
to  the  poor,  and  then  went  forth  as  a  preacher  of  the  doctrine  of  Christ 
from  a  translation  of  the  New  Testament  made  into  Provencal.  The 
preaching  of  the  Waldenses  led  to  collision  with  the  ecclesiastical  au- 
thorities, and  they  were  formally  condemned  by  the  Lateran  Council  of 
1215.  Persecution  increased,  and  the  Waldenses,  originally  an  esoteric 
society  within  the  Church,  withdrew  altogether  from  its  ministrations, 
and  appointed  ministers  of  their  own,  election  taking  the  place  of  ordi- 
nation. By  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century  they  were  found  in  France, 
Italy,  Spain  and  Germany;  but  their  numbers  were  greatly  reduced,  and 
their  limits  circumscribed,  by  persecution  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  gen- 
eral movement  of  Protestantism  at  the  Reformation  on  the  other.  They 
have,  at  present,  about  forty  churches,  with  four  thousand  members. 


218  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

THE  SEVEN  BIBLES  OF  THE  WORLD 

Are  the  Koran  of  the  Mahommedans,  the  Eddas  of  the  Scandinavians, 
the  Try  Pitikes  of  the  Buddhists,  the  Five  Kings  of  the  Chinese,  the 
Three  Vedas  of  the  Hindoos,  the  Zendavesta,  and  the  Scriptures  of  the 
Christians.  The  Koran  is  the  most  recent  of  these  seven  Bibles,  and  not 
older  than  the  seventh  century  of  our  era.  It  is  a  compound  of  quota- 
tions from  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  the  Talmud,  and  the  Gospel  of 
St.  Barnabas.  The  Eddas  of  the  Scandinavians  were  first  published  in 
the  fourteenth  century.  The  Pitikes  of  the  Buddhists  contain  sublime 
morals  and  pure  aspirations,  and  their  author  lived  and  died  in  the  sixth 
century  before  Christ.  There  is  nothing  of  excellence  in  these  sacred 
books  not  found  in  the  Bible.  The  sacred  writings  of  the  Chinese  are 
called  the  Five  Kings,  king  meaning  web  of  cloth,  or  the  warp  that  keeps 
the  threads  in  their  place.  They  contain  the  best  sayings  of  the  best 
sages  on  the  ethico-political  duties  of  life.  These  sayings  cannot  be 
traced  to  a  period  higher  than  the  eleventh  century  B.  c.  The  Three 
Vedas  are  the  most  ancient  books  of  the  Hindoos,  and  it  is  the  opinion 
of  Max  Muller,  Wilson,  Johnson,  and  Whitney  that  they  are  not  older 
than  the  eleventh  century  B.  c.  The  Zendavesta  of  the  Persians  is  the 
grandest  of  all  the  sacred  books,  next  to  our  Bible.  Zoroaster,  whose 
sayings  it  contains,  was  born  in  the  twelfth  century  B.  c.  Moses  lived 
and  wrote  his  Pentateuch  in  the  fifteenth  century  B.  c.,  and,  therefore, 
has  a  clear  margin  of  three  hundred  years  older  than  the  most  ancient 
of  the  sacred  writings. 

NATIONALITY  OF  THE  POPES. 

The  various  nations  of  Europe  are  represented  in  the  list  of  Popes  as 
follows:  English,  1;  Dutch,  1;  Swiss,  1;  Portuguese,  1;  African,  2;  Aus- 
trian, 2;  Spanish,  5;  German,  6;  Syrian,  8;  Greek,  14;  French,  15;  Italian, 
197.  Eleven  Popes  reigned  over  20  years;  69,  from  10  to  20;  57,  from  5  to 
10;  and  the  reign  of  116  was  less  than  5  years.  The  reign  of  Pius  IX. 
was  the  longest  of  all,  the  only  one  exceeding  25  years.  Pope  Leo  XIII. 
is  the  258th  Pontiff.  The  full  number  of  the  Sacred  College  is  seventy, 
namely:  Cardinal  Bishops,  6;  Cardinal  Priests,  50;  Cardinal  Deacons,  14. 
At  present  there  are  62  Cardinals.  The  Roman  Catholic  hierarchy 
throughout  the  world,  according  to  official  returns  published  at  Rome 
in  1884,  consisted  of  11  Patriarchs  and  1,153  Archbishops  and  Bishops. 
Including  12  coadjutor  or  auxiliary  bishops,  the  number  of  Roman 
Catholic  archbishops  and  bishops  now  holding  office  in  the  British  Empire 
is  134.  The  numbers  of  the  clergy  are  approximate  only. 


FATE  OF  THE  APOSTLES. 

The  following  brief  history  of  the  fate  of  the  Apostles  may  be  new 
to  those  whose  reading  has  not  been  evangelical: 

St.  Matthew  is  supposed  to  have  suffered  martyrdom  or  was  slain 
with  the  sword  at  the  city  of  Ethiopia. 

St.  Mark  was  dragged  through  the  streets  of  Alexandria,  in  Egypt, 
till  he  expired. 

St.  Luke  was  hanged  upon  an  olive  tree  in  Greece. 

St.  John  was  put  into  a  caldron  of  boiling  oil  at  Rome  and  escaped 
death.  He  afterward  died  a  natural  death  at  Ephesus  in  Asia. 

St.  James  the  Great  was  beheaded  at  Jerusalem. 


CREEDS  OF  THE  WORLD.  219 

St.  James  the  Less  was  thrown  from  a  pinnacle  or  wing  of  the  temple 
^iid  then  beaten  to  death  with  a  fuller's  club. 

St.  Philip  was  hanged  up  against  a  pillar  at  Hieropolis,  a  city  of 
Phrygia. 

St.  Bartholomew  was  flayed  alive  by  the  command  of  a  barbarous 
king. 

St.  Andrew  was  bound  to  a  cross,  whence  he  preached  unto  the 
people  till  he  expired. 

St.  Thomas  was  run  through  the  body  with  a  lance  at  Coromandel, 
in  the  Bast  Indies. 

St.  Jude  was  shot  to  death  with  arrows. 

St.  Simon  Zealot  was  crucified  in  Persia. 

St.  Matthias  was  first  stoned  and  then  beheaded. 

St.  Barnabas  was  stoned  to  death  by  Jews  at  Salania. 

St.  Paul  was  beheaded  at  Rome  by  the  tyrant  Nero. 


THE  NAME  OF  GOD  IN  FORTY-EIGHT  LANGUAGES. 

Hebrew Eleah,  Jehovah    Olotu  tongue Deu 

Chaldaic Eiliah    German  and  Swiss Gott 

Assyrian Eleah    Flemish God 

Syrian  and  Turkish Alah    Dutch God 

Malay Alia    English God 

Arabic Allah    Teutonic Goth 

languages  of  the  Magi Orsi    Danish  and  Swedish Gud 

Old  Egyptian Teut    Norwegian Gud 

Armenian Teuti    Slay  Buch 

Modern  Egyptian Teun    Polish Bog 

Greek Theos    Polacca Bung 

Cretan Thios    Lapp Jubinal 

Aedian  and  Dorian Ilos    Finnish Jumala 

Latin Deus    Runic     As 

Low  Latin  Diex    Zemblian        Fetiza 

Celtic  Gaelic Diu    Pannonian Istu 

French Dieu    Hindoostanee Rain 

Spanish Dios    Coromandel Brama 

Portuguese Deos    Tartar  Magatai 

Old  German Diet    Persian Sire 

Provincial Diou    Chinese Prussa 

Low  Breton Done    Japanese Goezer 

Italian Dio    Madagascar Zannar 

Irish  Dia    Peruvian Puchecammae 


THE  SALVATION  ARMY. 

The  Salvation  Army  is  a  missionary  organization  set  on  foot  in  Eng- 
land by  William  Booth,  who  was  called  the  "General"  of  the  army.  The 
plan  of  operation  is  for  a  company  to  march  about  cities,  towns,  and  vil- 
lages, singing  popular  sacred  songs  and  speaking  between  whiles  for 
about  five  minutes.  The  army  has  also  a  large  number  of  religious  period- 
icals and  small  books.  Mr.  Booth  was  a  minister  of  the  Methodist  New 
Connexion,  which  he  left  in  1861  to  begin  "revivalistic  services"  in  a 
tent  in  Whitechapel.  In  1865  his  little  band  of  followers  called  them- 
selves "The  East  London  Christian  Revival  Society,"  afterwards  changed 
to  "The  Christian  Mission."  In  1869  the  Mission  made  expeditions  to 
provincial  towns.  Lastly,  in  1873,  the  name  was  changed  to  '  'The  Salvation 
Army."  Their  literary  organ  called  "The  Christian  Mission*  first  appeared 
monthly  in  1874.  In  1879  it  was  called  "The  Salvationist"  and  in  the 
same  year  its  title  was  changed  into  "The  War  Cry."  Its  flag  now  flies 
in  thirty-four  countries  or  colonies,  where,  under  the  leadership  of  11,- 


220 


MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORM  A  TTON. 


149  men  and  women,  whose  lives  are  entirely  given  up  to  the  work,  it 
holds  49,800  religious  meetings  every  week.  It  has  27  weekly  newspapers 
and  15  magazines,  with  a  total  annual  circulation  of  49,015,044.  It  has 
accumulated  $4, 015, 085  worth  of  property,  pays  rentals  amounting  to 
$1, 100, 000  per  annum  for  its  meeting  places,  and  has  a  total  income  from 
all  sources  of  $3, 750, 000.  The  Army  literature  is  issued  in  fifteen  lan- 
guages and  services  are  held  in  29  languages.  The  number  of  local  officers, 
bandsmen  and  office  employes  is  23,540.  The  United  States  branch  was 
established  in  1880.  •  There  are  now  in  this  country  536  corps  and  out- 
posts and  1,487  officers,  with  15,000  adherents.  The  value  of  the  prop- 
erty held  by  the  United  States  wing  of  the  Army  is  $175, 000. 


WORSHIP  OF  THE  HUMAN  FAMILY. 

The  following  estimates,  by  M.  Fournier  de  Flaix,  are  the  latest  that 
have  been  made  by  a  competent  authority.  (See  Quarterly  of  the  Ameri- 
can Statistical  Association  for  March,  1892.) 


CREEDS. 

No.  of  Followers. 

CREEDS. 

No.  of  Followers. 

1  Christianity        

477,088  158 

5  Buddhism  

147  900  000 

2  Worship  of  Ancestors 

6  Taoism 

43000  000 

and  Confucianism 

256,000,000 
190000000 

7  Shintoism  
8  Judaism            .  .   . 

14,000,000 
7  056  000 

4  Mahommedanism  .... 

176,834,372 

9  Polytheism  

1  17  681  669 

CHRISTIANITY. 


CHURCHES. 

Total. 

CHURCHES. 

Total. 

Catholic  Church  

230,866,533 

Armenian  Church  

1  690  000 

Protestant  Churches. 

143237625 

Nestorians 

80  000 

Orthodox  Greek  Church 

98  016  000 

70  000 

3  000  000 

Coptic  Church      .... 

120000 

477  080  158 

THE  GREAT  COUNCILS. 

A  council  or  synod,  is  an  assembly  of  ecclesiastics  met  to  regulate  doc- 
trine or  discipline.  We  first  hear  of  such  assemblies  during  the  Mon- 
tanist  controversy,  about  150  A.  D.  (Ecumenical  councils  are  convoked 
from  all  parts  of  Christendom,  and  claim  to  regulate  the  affairs  of  the 
whole  church.  Other  synods  have  represented  the  East  and  West  respec- 
tively. Patriarchal,  national,  and  primatial  councils  represent  a  whole 
patriarchate,  a  nation,  or  the  several  provinces  subject  to  a  primate, 
while  the  bishops  and  other  dignitaries  of  a  province  constitute  a  provin- 
cial; the  clergy  of  a  diocese  under  the  presidency  of  the  bishop,  a  dio- 
cesan council.  Mixed  councils  during  the  middle  ages  dealt  with  civil 
as  well  as  ecclesiastical  affairs,  and  were  composed  of  secular  persons 
as  well  as  churchmen.  Sometimes,  but  not  always,  the  lay  and  eccle- 
siastical members  voted  in  separate  chambers. 

The  Greek  Church  recognizes  seven  general  councils— viz. :  (1)  The 
first  of  Nicsea,  325  A.  D. ;  (2)  the  first  of  Constantinople,  381;  (3)  Ephesus, 
431;  (4)  Chalcedon,  451;  (5)  second  of  Constantinople,  553;  (6)  third  of 
Constantinople,  680;  (7)  second  of  Nicaea,  787.  To  these  Roman  Cathol- 
ics add:  (8)  fourth  of  Constantinople,  869;  (9)  first  Lateran,  1123;  (10) 
second  Lateran,  1139;  (11)  third  Lateran,  1179;  (12)  fourth  Lateran,  1215; 


CREEDS  OF  THE  WORLD.  221 

13)  first  of  Lyons,  1245;  (14)  second  of  Lyons,  1274;  (15)  Vienne,  1311; 
(16)  Constance,  1414-18,  of  which  Ultramontanes  accept  only  the  decrees 
passed  in  sessions  1442-45  inclusive  and  such  decrees  of  earlier  sessions 
as  were  approved  by  Martin  V. ;  (17)  Basel,  1431  and  the  following  years, 
oecumenical  according  to  Ultramontanes  only  till  the  end  of  the  twenty- 
fifth  session,  and  even  then  only  in  respect  of  such  decrees  as  were  ap- 
proved by  Eugenius  IV. ;  (18)  Ferrara- Florence,  1438-42,  really  a  contin- 
uation of  Basel;  (19)  fifth  Lateran,  1512-17;  (20)  Trent,  1545-63;  (21) 
Vatican,  December  8,  1869,  to  July  18,  1870,  and  still  unfinished. 


MORMONS  AND  THEIR  "BOOK." 

The  Mormons  or  Latter  Day  Saints,  are  a  religious  sect  founded  in 
1830  by  Joseph  Smith,  of  Vermont,  who  declared  that  he  received  his 
mission  from  an  angel  in  1823.  This  angel  told  him  where  to  find  certain 
plates  containing  the  records  of  the  ancient  American  prophets.  These 
plates  were  about  as  thick  as  tin,  and  held  together  by  three  rings  run- 
ning through  them  all.  The  character  employed  was  "Reformed  Egyp- 
tian," and  with  the  plates  were  deposited  the  "Urim  and  Thummim," 
or  spectacles  for  deciphering  them.  The  plates  say  that  the  Americans 
were  a  colony  from  the  Tower  of  Babel  at  the  confusion  of  tongues.  The 
Mormonites  receive  their  name  from  the  prophet  Mormon  who  wrote 
the  plates  called  "The  Book  of  Mormon."  There  are  in  the  United 
States  856  organizations  with  166,125  communicants  in  the  Mormon 
Church.  Polygamy  so  long  practiced  has  given  place  to  monogamy. 

A  notable  publication  was  the  "Book  of  Mormon"  claiming  to  be 
the  "revealed''  history  of  America  from  its  first  settlement  by  a  colony 
dispersed  at  the  confusion  of  tongues  to  the  fifth  century  of  the  Chris- 
tian Era.  Joseph  Smith  professed  that  this  information  was  Obtained 
by  him  in  September,  1827,  in  a  volume  of  metal  plates  engraved  in 
reformed.  Egyptian,  and  discovered  by  revelation  "on  the  west  side  of 
a  hill,  not  far  from  the  top,  about  four  miles  from  Palmyra,  in  the 
county  of  Ontario."  As  Smith  could  not  decipher  the  writing,  a  pair  of 
magic  spectacles,  which  he  called  his  Urim  and  Thummim,  were  given  to 
him,  and  one  Oliver  Cowdery  wrote  down  on  paper  what  Smith  professed 
to  translate.  It  is  said  that  the  "Book"  is  a  mere  plagiary  of  a  MS. 
romance  by  the  Rev.  Solomon  Spalding  in  1816.  Certainly  the  plates  and 
spectacles  have  disappeared. 

CREEDS  OF  THE  PRESIDENTS. 

Washington,  Garfield  and  HarrGon  were  the  only  Presidents  who 
were  church  members,  but  all,  one  excepted,  were  men  who  revered 
Christianity.  Adams  married  a  minister's  daughter,  and  was  inclined  to 
Unitarianism.  Jefferson  was  not  a  believer,  at  least  while  he  was  Chief 
Magistrate.  Madison's  early  connections  were  Presbyterian.  Monroe 
is  said  to  have  favored  the  Episcopal  Church.  John  Quincy  Adams  was 
like  his  father.  Jackson  was  a  Presbyterian  and  died  in  the  communion 
of  that  church.  Van  Buren  was  brought  up  in  the  Reformed  Dutch 
Church,  but  afterwards  inclined  to  the  Episcopal  Church.  Harrison 
leaned  toward  the  Methodist  Church,  and  Tyler  wras  an  Episcopalian. 
Polk  was  baptized  by  a  Methodist  preacher  after  his  term  of  office  expired. 
Taylor  was  inclined  to  the  Episcopal  communion.  Fillmore  attended 
the  Unitarian  Church,  and  Franklin  Pierce  was  a  member,  but  not  a 
communicant,  of  a  Congregationalist  Church,  at  Concord.  Buchanan  was 


222 


MANUAL  OP  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 


a  Presbyterian,  as  is  also  Benjamin  Harrison.  General  Grant  attended 
the  Methodist  Church,  and  President  Garfield  the  Church  of  the  Disci- 
ples. Grover  Cleveland  has  worshipped  with  the  Presbyterians. 


RELIGIOUS  BODIES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 
(ACCORDING  TO  REPORTS  OF  CENSUS  OF  1890.) 


DENOMINATIONS. 

ORGANIZA- 
TIONS. 

CHURCH 
EDIFICES. 

COMMUNI- 
CANTS. 

1  756 

744 

60  491 

Baptists      

41  629 

35093 

3  594  093 

(River)  Brethren 

111 

69 

'    34»7 

(Plymouth)  Brethren  

23^ 

4 

6  408 

Catholics       .                                                         ... 

10  260 

8  799 

6  255  033 

Catholic  Apostolic  

10 

3 

1  394 

Chinese  Temples  .     .              

47 

47 

Christadelphians 

63 

4 

1  277 

Christians  

1  424 

1  097 

103  722 

Christian  Missionary  Association 

13 

11 

754 

221 

7 

8  724 

Christian  Union      .         

294 

183 

18  214 

Church  of  God  (  Winnebrenarian  )  

479 

338 

22511 

Church  Triumphant  (Schweinlurth) 

12 

384 

Church  of  New  Jerusalem 

154 

87 

7  095 

Communistic  Societies  

37 

45 

4  401 

Congregationalists      ....                                      ... 

4  868 

4736 

512  771 

7  246 

5  324 

641  051 

Dunkards    

969 

1  018 

73  845 

2310 

1  £99 

133  313 

Friends  

1,056 

995 

107  208 

Friends  of  the  Temple          

4 

5 

340 

52 

52 

36  156 

German  Evan  Synod                   

870 

785 

187  432 

533 

301 

130496 

Latter-Day  Saints      

856 

388 

166  125 

8595 

6703 

1  ^31  072 

550 

405 

41  541 

Methodists             ...    .           

51,503 

46,!  50 

4  588  662 

94 

114 

11  781 

Presbyterians        

IV  76 

12,452 

1  278  332 

Episcopalians                                               

5  102 

5,103 

540  509 

2  181 

2079 

309  458 

'329 

27 

8  662 

Schwenkfeldians     .                 ....          

4 

6 

306 

Social  Brethren 

20 

11 

913 

4 

1  064 

334 

30 

45  030 

40 

695 

United  Brethren           

4,526 

3,419 

225  158 

421 

424 

67  749 

956 

832 

49  2°4 

Unassociated  congregations        ...         

150 

103 

12  228 

Grand  totals  

163,786 

139,928 

20.489,697 

WHAT  IS  A  STATE  RELIGION? 

A  state  religion  and  a  national  religion  are  two  different  things.  A 
nation  may,  with  more  or  less  universal  concurrence,  accept  a  certain 
type  of  religion — as  the  people  of  the  United  States  for  the  most  part  ac- 
cept Christianity — yet  they  may  not  commit  to  their  government  the 
task  either  of  representing  officially  or  of  maintaining  financially  their 


CREEDS  OP  THE  WORLD.  223 

religion.  In  that  case  it  is  a  national  but  not  a  state  religion.  Wherever, 
on  the  other  hand,  we  witness  either  establishment  or  endowment  com- 
mitted to  the  government — even  if,  as  in  Ireland  till  1869,  the  religion 
thus  favored  is  very  far  from  being  national — there  we  have  the  spectacle 
of  a  state  religion. 

AN  OMITTED  PSALM. 

Your  Bible,  if  it  is  of  the  regulation  sort,  closes  the  Book  of  Psalms 
with  the  150th.  In  the  Greek  Bible,  however,  there  is  another  entitled 
"A  Psalm  of  David  After  He  Had  Slain  Goliath."  Athanasius  praises  it 
very  highly  in  his  "Synopsis  of  the  Holy  Scriptures."  It  was  versified 
by  Apollinarius  Alexandrius,  A.  D.  360,  and  a  Latin  translation  of  it 
may  be  found  in  the  works  of  Fabricus,  Vol.  II.,  pp.  995-997.  The  trans- 
lation below  is  by  Baring-Gould,  the  well-known  antiquarian. 

PSALM  CLI 

1.  I  was  small  among  my  brethren;  and  growing  up  in  my  father's  house,  I  kept 
his  sheep. 

2.  My  hands  made  the  organ  and  my  fingers  shaped  the  psaltery. 

8.    And  who  declared  unto  my  Lord.     He,  the  Lord,  he  heard  all  things. 

4.  He  sent  his  angels  and  they  took  me  from  my  father's  sheep;  he  anointed  me 
jn  mercy  from  his  unction. 

5.  Great  and  goodly  are  my  brethren,  but  with  them  God  was  not  well  pleased. 

6.  I  went  to  meet  the  [giant]  stranger;  and  he  cursed  me  by  all  his  idols. 

7.  But  I  smote  off  his  head  with  his  own  drawn  sword;  and  I  blotted  out  the  re- 
proach of  Israel. 

RELIGION    AS    A    SCIENCE. 

A  religion  is  a  group  or  whole  of  religious  phenomena — of  religious 
beliefs,  practices  and  institutions  — so  closely  connected  with  one  another 
as  to  be  thereby  differentiated  from  those  of  any  other  religion.  Each 
religion  has  had  a  history,  and  its  rise  and  spread,  formation  and  trans- 
formations, as  a  religion,  can  only  be  truly  traced  by  being  histori- 
cally traced.  Also  religions  are  historically  connected,  are  related  to 
one  another,  and  have  influenced  one  another,  in  ways  which  may 
be  discovered,  and  can  only  be  discovered,  by  historical  research. 
Hence  the  History  of  Religions  is  also  the  history  of  religion, 
not  an  aggregation  of  the  histories  of  particular  religions,  but  a 
truly  general  history.  Like  the  histories  of  art,  industry,  science,  and 
society  in  general,  it  is  found  on  examination  to  have  been  a  process  of 
development  in  which  each  stage  of  religion  has  proceeded  gradually 
from  antecedent  factors  and  conditions.  The  precise  nature  of  the  devel- 
opment can  only  be  ascertained  by  investigation  of  the  history  itself.  No 
hypothesis  of  development  should  be  assumed  as  a  presupposition  of  such 
investigation.  Naturalistic  apriorism  is  as  illegitimate  in  historical  in- 
quiry as  theological  or  metaphysical  apriorism.  The  history  of  religion 
is  not  only  of  great  importance  in  itself,  but  indispensable  to  the  right 
understanding  of  general  history,  of  the  history  of  art,  of  philosophy, 
etc.  It  has  been  studied  with  more  zeal  and  success  during  the  nineteenth 
century  than  in  all  the  preceding  ages.  The  history  of  religious  beliefs 
is,  of  course,  only  a  part  of  the  history  of  religions.  It  is,  however,  dis- 
tinguishable, although  inseparable  from  it,  and  is  often  and  conveniently 
designated  Comparative  Theology.  It  comprehends  comparative  myth- 
ology and  the  history  of  doctrines,  myths  being  beliefs  which  are  mainly 
the  products  of  imagination  and  doctrines  of  reflection. 

The  Psychology  of  Religion,  the  History  of  Religions,  and  Compara- 
tive Theology  are  clearly  distinct,  and  ought  not  to  be  confounded.  At 


224  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

the  same  time  they  are  closely  connected.  They  agree  in  that  they  are 
alike  occupied  with  religion  as  an  empirical  fact.  Hence  they  may  be 
regarded  as  parts  of  a  comprehensive*  science,  to  which  it  might 
be  well  to  confine  the  designation  "Science  of  Religions,"  instead 
of  using  it  in  the  vague  and  ambiguous  way  which  is  so  com- 
mon. Thus  understood,  the  Science  of  Religions  may  be  said  to  deal 
with  religion  as  a  phenomenon  of  experience,  whether  outwardly  mani- 
fested in  history  or  inwardly  realized  in  consciousness;  to  seek  to  describe 
and  explain  religious  experience  so  far  as  it  can  be  described  and  ex- 
plained without  transcending  the  religious  experience  itself.  Its  stu- 
dents have  only  to  ascertain,  analyse,  explain  and  exhibit  experienced 
fact.  Were  religion  a  physical  fact,  to  study  it  merely  as  a  fact  would  be 
enough.  The  astronomer,  the  naturalist,  the  chemist  have  no  need  to 
judge  their  facts;  they  have  only  to  describe  them,  analyze  them,  and 
determine  their  relations.  But  it  is  otherwise  with  the  students  of  re- 
ligion, of  morality,  of  art,  of  reasoning.  They  soon  come  to  a  point 
where  they  must  become  judges  of  the  phenomena  and  pronounce  on 
their  truth  and  worth.  Experience  in  the  physical  sphere  is  experience 
and  nothing  more;  experience  in  the  spiritual  sphere  is  very  often  ex- 
perience of  what  is  irreverent  and  impious,  immoral  and  vicious,  ugly 
and  erroneous,  foolish  or  insane.  Has  the  mind  simply  to  describe  and 
analyze,  accept  and  be  content  with  such  experience?  Even  the  logician 
and  thesesthetician  will  answer  in  the  negative,  will  claim  to  judge  their 
facts  as  conforming  to  or  contravening  the  laws  of  truth  and  the  ideals 
of  art.  Still  more  decidedly  must  the  moralist  and  the  student  of  re- 
ligion so  answer.  Religion,  then,  is  not  completely  studied  when  it  is 
only  studied  historically.  Hence  it  must  be  dealt  with  by  other  sciences 
or  disciplines  than  those  which  are  merely  historical. 

All  the  particular  theological  sciences  or  disciplines  treat  of  particu- 
lar aspects  of  religion  or  of  religion  in  particular  ways.  Their  relation- 
ships to  one  another  can  only  be  determined  by  their  relationship  to  it. 
They  can  only  be  unified  and  co-ordinated  in  a  truly  organic  manner  by 
their  due  reference  to  it.  When  religion  is  studied  not  merely  in  partic- 
ular aspects  and  ways,  but  in  its  unity  and  entirety,  with  a  view  to  its 
comprehension  in  its  essence  and  all  essential  relations,  it  is  the  object 
of  the  Philosophy  of  Religion.  Although  a  distinct  and  essential  depart- 
ment of  philosophy,  and  the  highest  and  most  comprehensive  theological 
science,  the  philosophy  of  religion  could  only  have  appeared  in  an  inde- 
pendent and  appropriate  form  when  both  philosophy  and  theology  were 
highly  developed. 

THE  TESTIMONY  OF  LITERATURE. 

To  be  of  no  church  is  dangerous.  Religion,  of  which  the  rewards 
are  distant  and  which  is  animated  only  by  Faith  and  Hope,  will  glide 
by  degrees  out  of  the  mind,  unless  it  be  invigorated  and  reimpressed  by 
external  ordinances,  by  stated  calls  to  worship  and  the  salutary  influence 
of  example.— Johnson. 

The  writers  against  religion,  whilst  they  oppose  every  system,  are 
wisely  careful  never  to  set  up  any  of  their  own. — Burke. 

A  little  philosophy  inclineth  a  man's  mind  to  atheism,  but  depth  of 
philosophy  bringeth  men's  minds  about  to  religion. — Bacon. 


JOTTINGS  IN  SCIENCE. 


Go  abroad 

Upon  the  paths  of  nature,  and  when  all 
Its  voices  whisper,  and  its  silent  things 
Are  breathing  the  deep  beauty  of  the  world, 
Kneel  at  its  simple  altar. 

— N.  P.  WILLIS. 

ANSWERS   TO    MANY    QUERIES. 

Newton  was  born  in  1642. 

The  word  philosophy  means  "I  love  wisdom." 

Astrology  rightly  means  the  science  of  the  stars. 

Galileo  constructed  the  first  refracting  telescope. 

The  term  science  comes  from  the  Latin  sew,  I  know. 

At  the  equator  the  limit  of  perpetual  snow  is  14,400  feet. 

Perigee  is  that  point  in  the  moon's  orbit  nearest  the  earth. 

Torricelli,  a  pupil  of  Galileo,  invented  the  barometer  in  1643. 

The  principle  of  the  pendulum  was  discovered  by  Galileo  in  1583. 

Among  all  rude  nations  the  healing  art  is  practiced  by  the  priests. 

The  I/eyden  Jar  was  invented  by  Muschenbrock,  of  L,eyden,  in  1746. 

Perihelion  is  that  point  of  a  planet's  orbit  in  which  it  is  nearest 
the  sun. 

The  first  balloon  ascent  was  made  in  1783  by  Joseph  and  Stephen 
Montgolfier. 

Froebel  reminds  us  that  nature  supplies  the  raw  material,  education 
is  the  manufacturer. 

As  physics  means  the  science  of  matter,  it  is  about  synonymous  with 
natural  philosophy. 

Aphelion  is  that  point  in  the  elliptical  orbit  of  a  planet  which  is 
most  remote  from  the  sun. 

The  inductive  school  of  philosophy,  on  which  modern  science  has 
been  developed,  began  about  1624. 

The  horse-power  of  Niagara  is  three  and  one  quarter  million  nomi- 
nal, equal  to  ten  million  horses  effective. 

Three  miles  an  hour  is  about  the  average  speed  of  the  gulf  stream; 
at  certain  places,  however,  this  speed  is  considerably  increased. 

Cuvier  says:  "In  the  exact  sciences  at  least,  it  is  the  patience  of  a 
sound  intellect,  when  invincible,  which  truly  constitutes  genius." 

U.  I.— 15  225 


226  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

Satellites  are  small  members  of  the  solar  system,  taking  the  place  of 
attendants  of  the  larger  planets,  by  which  their  motions  are  controlled. 

On  shipboard  the  term  Binnacle  is  given  to  a  wooden  box  or  case 
containing  the  compass,  together  with  a  lamp  and  other  necessary  ap- 
paratus. 

The  crow  flies  at  the  rate  of  but  twenty-five  miles  per  hour.  The 
sparrow  hawk  flies  six  times  as  far,  or  150  miles,  in  the  same  length 
of  time. 

Rider  Haggard  makes  a  scientific  error  when  in  "King  Solomon's 
Mines"  he  describes  a  lunar  eclipse  taking  place  at  the  new  moon  instead 
of  at  the  full. 

The  Arctic  whale  never  migrates  to  the  southward  as  most  species  of 
whales  do,  because  of  its  inability  to  live  in  the  heated  waters  of  the 
southern  seas. 

The  carbon  of  the  food,  mixed  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  furnishes 
fuel  for  the  body,  which  evolves  the  heat  in  exactly  the  same  way  that  a 
fire  or  candle  does. 

The  smallest  tree  in  Great  Britain  grows  on  the  summit  of  Ben  Lo- 
mond. It  is  the  dwarf  willow,  which  is  mature  when  it  attains  the 
height  of  two  inches. 

Lightning  is  zig-zag  because,  as  it  condenses  the  air  in  the  immediate 
advance  of  its  path  it  flies  from  side  to  side  in  order  to  pass  where  there  is  the 
least  resistance  to  its  progress. 

Generally  speaking,  we  say  that  the  curvature  of  the  earth  amounts 
to  about  seven  inches  to  the  statute  mile;  it  is  exactly  6.99  inches,  or  7.962 
inches  for  a  geographical  mile. 

The  sciences  that  have  been  educed  from  reason  are  called  abstract, 
those  that  depend  on  cause  and  effect  are  natural,  and  those  assumed  to 
be  complete  are  exact  sciences. 

Good  clear  ice,  two  inches  thick,  will  bear  men  to  walk  on;  four 
inches  thick  will  bear  horses  and  riders;  six  inches  thick  will  bear  horses 
and  teams  with  moderate  loads. 

The  normal  temperature  of  man  is  about  98.5  degrees;  of  the  snail,  76 
degrees;  oyster,  82  degrees;  porpoise,  100  degrees;  sheep,  104  degrees;  hog, 
105  degrees;  chicken,  11  degrees. 

To  discover  the  weight  of  our  earth,  Cavendish  makes  it  5,480  times 
the  weight  of  water,  and  the  total  weight  to  be  6,000,000,000,000,000,000,- 
000  tons  (/'.  e.  6,000,000  trillions). 

The  properties  and  use  of  the  mariner's  compass  were  known  to  the 
Chinese  centuries  ago.  It  was  brought  to  Europe  in  the  thirteenth  century, 
and  first  used  on  the  Mediterranean. 

That  fragile  and  paradoxical  wonder,  the  "snow  plant,"  which  is 
found  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  mountains,  is  pronounced  by  western  botan- 
ists as  probably  our  most  remarkable  plant. 

One  horse-power  will  raise  16^  tons  per  minute  a  height  of  twelve 
inches,  working  eight  hours  a  day.  This  is  about  nine  thousand  nine 
hundred  foot-tons  daily,  or  twelve  times  a  man's  work. 

A  gray,  green,  or  yellowish  green  sunset  indicates  rain.  A  red  sun- 
set means  rain.  A  deep  blue  sky  means  fair  weather.  A  growing  white- 
ness, a  storm.  Unusually  bright  or  twinkling  stars  mean  rain. 


JO  TTINGS  IN  SCIENCE.  227 

Plants  breathe  through  the  " stomata,"  or  breathing-pores  in  the 
leaves.  In  case  the  plant  or  tree  is  of  the  leafless  variety  the  stem,  which 
is  also  provided  with  stomata,  performs  the  office  of  breathing. 

In  the  manufacture  of  air  gas,  steam  is  passed  over  petroleum  or  other 
rich  mineral  oil,  which  it  volatilizes,  and  the  resulting  mixture  burns 
brilliantly.  The  process  is,  however,  expensive,  and  not  much  used. 

When  we  speak  of  chemical  affinity  we  mean  the  tendency  to  combine 
with  one  another  which  is  exhibited  by  many  substances;  or  to  the  force 
by  which  the  substances  constituting  a  compound  are  held  together. 

The  elephant  is  given  the  credit  of  being  the  most  long-lived,  as  well 
as  the  most  intelligent  of  all  animals.  Cuvier  says  that  there  are  in- 
stances of  their  having  lived  to  beyond  the  age  of  three  hundred  years. 

Professor  Barnard's  photograph  of  the  milky  way  shows  the  exist- 
ence of  500,000,000  suns,  each  supposed  to  be  the  center  of  a  system  of 
planets,  where  hitherto  it  was  thought  to  contain  only  about  20,000,000 
such  suns. 

A  female  codfish  will  lay  45,000,000  eggs  during  a  single  season. 
Piscatorial  authorities  say  that  were  it  not  for  the  work  of  the  natural 
enemies  of  fish,  they  would  fill  all  the  available  space  in  the  seas,  rivers 
and  oceans. 

Snow  appears  white  because  it  is  an  aggregation  of  an  infinite  num- 
ber of  minute  crystals,  each  reflecting  all  the  colors  of  the  rainbow;  these 
colors,  uniting  before  they  reach  the  eye,  cause  it  to  appear  white  to  every 
normal  eye. 

Army  worm  is  a  name  sometimes  given  to  the  grubs  of  a  small  black 
fly,  very  common  in  some  European  forests.  In  the  United  States  the 
name  is  given  to  a  voracious  moth,  common  everywhere,  which  collects 
in  large  numbers. 

One  pair  of  rabbits  can  become  multiplied  in  four  years  into  one 
million  two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand.  They  were  introduced  in  Aus- 
tralia a  few  years  ago,  and  now  that  colony  ships  six  million  rabbit  skins 
yearly  to  England. 

The  nautical  term  "trade  winds"  applies  to  constant  winds  which 
blow  at  sea  to  the  distance  of  about  30°  on  both  sides  of  the  equator.  On 
the  north  of  the  equator  they  blow  from  the  north-east,  and  on  the  south 
from  the  south-east. 

Lead  in  the  form  of  filings,  under  a  pressure  of  two  thousand  atmos- 
pheres, or  thirteen  tons  to  the  square  inch,  becomes  compressed  into  a 
solid  block,  in  which  it  is  impossible  to  detect  the  slightest  vestige  of 
the  original  grain.  Under  a  pressure  of  five  thousand  atmospheres  it 
liquefies. 

Below  half  a  mile  in  depth  the  water  of  the  ocean  is  intensely  cold, 
remaining  both  winter  and  summer  at  a  point  only  slightly  above  freez- 
ing. The  contents  of  a  trawl  hauled  up  from  the  floor  of  the  sea  at 
the  equator,  will  be  found  to  include  mud  and  ooze  that  is  nearly 
freezing. 

Simoom  (Arab,  samdm.  fr.  samma,  he  poisoned)  is  the  designation 
of  a  hot,  dry  wind,  laden  with  dust  and  sand,  which  prevails  in  Africa 
and  Arabia,  especially  at  the  time  of  the  equinoxes.  It  originates  in  the 
sand  deserts  of  the  interior.  Called  Sirocco  in  South  Italy,  and  Solano 
in  Spain. 


228  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

Richard  Proctor,  the  astronomer,  said  that  when  a  novelist  attempts 
to  describe  a  scientific  phenomenon,  he  should  take  care  to  be  exact,  for 
people  pay  more  attention  to  the  descriptions  of  the  novel  than  to  those 
of  the  scientific  text-book. 

We  have  sixty  divisions  on  the  dials  of  our  clocks  and  watches,  be- 
cause the  old  Greek  astronomer,  Hipparchus,  who  lived  in  the  second 
century  before  Christ,  used  the  Babylonian  system  of  dividing  time,  and 
that  system  being  sexagesimal. 

Tin,  when  compressed  in  powder,  becomes  solid  under  a  pressure  of 
ten  tons  on  the  square  inch,  zinc  at  thirty-eight  tons,  antimony  at  thirty- 
eight  tons,  aluminum  at  thirty-eight  tons,  bismuth  at  thirty-eight  tons, 
and  copper  at  thirty-three  tons. 

The  volume  of  a  portion  of  gas  varies  inversely  as  the  pressure.  Thus 
if  we  double  the  pressure,  the  gas  will  be  reduced  one-half;  if  we  treble 
the  pressure,  the  volume  of  gas  will  be  reduced  to  one-third,  and  so  on. 
This  is  the  fact  which  physicists  term  Boyle's  Law. 

It  is  believed  that  whales  often  attain  the  age  of  four  hundred  years. 
The  number  of  years  these  huge  creatures  have  lived  is  ascertained  by 
counting  the  layers  of  laminae  forming  the  horny  substance  known  as 
"whalebone."  These  laminae  increase  yearly,  just  as  the  "growths"  do 
on  a  tree. 

Scientists  say  that  if  the  bed  of  the  Pacific  ocean  could  be  seen  it 
would  disclose  to  view  several  mountains  with  truncated  tops  scattered 
over  it.  These  mountains  would  be  perfectly  bare  at  their  bases,  and  all 
around  their  tops  they  would  be  covered  with  a  beautiful  growth  ot 
coral  polypi. 

A  camel  has  twice  the  carrying  power  of  an  ox;  with  an  ordinary 
load  of  four  hundred  pounds  he  can  travel  twelve  to  fourteen  days  with- 
out water,  going  forty  miles  a  day.  Camels  are  fit  to  work  at  five  years 
old,  but  their  strength  begins  to  decline  at  twenty-five,  although  they  live 
usually  till  forty. 

Should  the  earth  collide  with  another  world  of  equal  bulk,  it  is 
claimed  the  heat  generated  would  be  sufficient  to  melt,  boil  and  com- 
pletely evaporize  a  mass  of  ice  seven  hundred  times  the  bulk  of  both  the 
colliding  worlds— in  other  words,  an  ice  planet  one  hundred  and  fifty 
thousand  miles  in  diameter. 

Scientists  use  the  term  Choke-damp  (also  called  after-damp  or  foul 
damp),  to  describe  the  carbonic  acid  gas  given  off  by  coal  which  ac- 
cumulates in  coal  mines,  and  may  suffocate  those  exposed  to  it.  It  is 
distinguished  from  fire-da mj>,  the  marsh  gas  or  light  carburetted  hydro- 
gen which  causes  the  explosions. 

Our  atmosphere  which  is  a  gaseous  compound  of  oxygen  and  nitro- 
gen surrounding  the  earth,  is  estimated  to  extend  for  a  distance  of  forty- 
five  miles  from  the  globe.  It  exerts  a  pressure  of  fifteen  pounds  to  the 
square  inch  on  the  surface  of  human  and  other  bodies,  but  as  the  pres- 
sure is  balanced  inside  and  out  no  inconvenience  is  felt. 

Heredity  is  the  term  applied  to  the  transmission  to  the  offspring  of 
the  characteristics,  mental  and  physical,  of  the  parent.  Such  peculiari- 
ties may  be  imparted  by  the  mother  or  by  the  father.  The*  study  of 
heredity  has  in  recent  years  been  much  developed  by  Haeckti,  Herbert 
Spencer,  Huxley,  Darwin,  Wallace,  Galton,  and  others 


JOTTINGS  IN  SCIENCE.  229 

When  starch  is  carefully  heated  to  392°  (200°  C.),  or  until  vapors 
arise  from  it,  it  becomes  soluble  in  cold  and  hot  water,  and  loses  its  gela- 
tinous character;  it  also  has  the  property,  when  viewed  by  polarized 
light,  of  turning  the  plane  of  polarization  to  the  right;  hence  its  name  of 
dextrine.  It  is  often  used  as  a  substitute  for  gum  arabic. 

According  to  geological  computation,  the  minimum  age  of  the  earth 
since  the  formation  of  the  primitive  soils  is  21,000,000  years— 6,700,000 
years  for  the  primordial  formations,  6,400,000  years  for  the  primary  age, 
2,300,000  years  for  the  secondary  age,  and  460,000  years  for  the  tertiary 
age,  and  100,000  since  the  appearance  of  man  upon  the  globe. 

Cosmos  is  a  term  used  to  denote  the  order  and  harmony  of  the  uni- 
verse. Originally  used  by  Homer  to  denote  "  order  "  it  was  applied  by 
Heraclitus  and  Anaxagoras  to  the  divine  order  and  arrangement  of 
nature;  by  Plato  to  celestial  and  terrestrial  order.  It  was  further  ap- 
plied to  the  habitable  world  and  the  world  generally  as  an  orderly 
system. 

In  geography  the  basin  of  a  river  is  the  whole  tract  of  country  drained 
by  that  river.  The  line  or  boundary  which  separates  one  river-basin  from 
another  is  called  the  watershed.  By  tracing  these  watersheds,  the  whole 
of  a  country  or  continent  may  be  divided  into  a  number  of  distinct  basins; 
the  basin  of  a  lake  or  sea  being  made  up  of  the  basins  of  all  the  rivers  that 
flow  into  it. 

In  Mercator's  Projection  the  maps  are  so  constructed  that  the  lines  of 
longitude  are  straight  and  not  curved.  This  device  of  representing  a 
globe  in  perspective  on  a  flat  surface  is  due  to  Edward  Wright,  an  English- 
man; but  the  chart  so  arranged  by  Wright  was  printed  and  published  by 
Gerard  Mercator,  a  printer  of  maps  in  Flanders,  who  died  at  the  age  of 
eighty-two,  in  1594. 

Those  who  use  pencils  should  know  that  "black  lead"  is  but  the 
popular  name  for  plumbago,  a  mineral  consisting  chiefly  of  carbon,  to- 
gether with  alumina,  silica,  lime,  iron,  etc.  No  lead  whatever  enters 
into  its  composition.  It  is  employed  in  making  pencils,  to  give  a  black 
gloss  to  iron  grates,  railings,  etc. ,  and  to  diminish  the  friction  of  belts, 
machinery  and  rifle  cartridges. 

An  English  rainmaker  operating  in  India  has  an  apparatus  consist- 
ing of  a  rocket  capable  of  rising  to  the  height  of  a  mile,  containing  a 
reservoir  of  ether.  In  its  descent  it  opens  a  parachute,  which  causes  it  to 
come  down  slowly.  The  ether  is  thrown  out  in  a  fine  spray,  and  its  ab- 
sorption of  heat  is  said  to  lower  the  temperature  about  it  sufficiently  to 
condense  the  vapor  and  produce  a  limited  shower. 

The  greatest  known  depth  of  the  ocean  is  midway  between  the  islands 
of  Tristan  d' Acunha  and  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata.  The  bottom  was 
here  reached  at  a  depth  of  46, 236  feet,  eight  and  three-fourths  miles,  ex- 
ceeding by  more  than  thirteen  thousand  feet  the  height  of  Mt.  Hercules, 
the  loftiest  mountain  in  the  world.  The  average  depth  of  all  the  oceans 
is  from  two  thousand  to  three  thousand  fathoms. 

It  is  a  rare  thing  to  find  a  really  lustrous  pearl  in  an  American  oys- 
ter, but  a  great  many  such  pearls  are  found  in  the  common  fresh-water 
mussel.  The  pearl-bearing  mussel  is  distributed  over  a  wide  area  in  the 
United  States,  and  extremely  valuable  mussel  pearls  have  been  found  in 
New  Jersey,  Ohio,  Tennessee  and  several  other  states.  An  occasional 
black  pearl  of  some  value  is  found  in  the  native  oyster. 


230  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

The  Davy  lamp  is  a  form  of  safety  lamp  for  use  in  coal  mines,  in' 
vented  by  Sir  Humphry  Davy  in  1815.  In  it  the  frame  is  surrounded  with 
fine  wire  gauze,  on  the  principle  that  flame  will  not  pass  through  the  holes, 
and  so  does  not  ignite  the  gas  surrounding  the  lamp.  George  Stephen- 
son  invented  a  similar  lamp,  but  both  are  now  largely  susperseded  by  the 
use  of  electric  lights  in  mines. 

With  the  aid  of  the  great  Lick  telescope  the  astronomers  in  charge 
of  that  institution  have  made  the  startling  discovery  that  one  of  the  satel- 
lites of  Jupiter  is  double— in  other  words,  that  what  has  heretofore  been 
taken  for  a  single  moon  is,  indeed,  two  moons,  a  large  and  a  small  one, 
the  lesser  slowly  revolving  around  the  greater.  Hereafter  it  will  be 
proper  to  speak  of  the  "twenty-one  moons  of  the  solar  system." 

The  word  comet  is  derived  from  the  Greek  kome,  "hair,"  a  title 
which  had  its  origin  in  the  hairy  appearance  often  exhibited  by  the  haze 
or  luminous  vapor,  the  presence  of  which  is  at  first  sight  the  most  strik- 
ing characteristic  of  the  celestial  bodies  called  by  this  name.  The  gen- 
eral features  of  a  comet  are — a  definite  point  or  nucleus,  a  nebulous  light 
surrounding  the  nucleus,  and  a  luminous  train  preceding  or  following 
the  nucleus. 

Nectar  in  flowers  is  not  honey.  This  nectar  is  gathered  by  the  tongue 
of  the  bee,  and  enters  what  is  called  the  honey  bag,  from  which  it  is  re- 
gurgitated by  the  bee  on  its  return  to  the  hive,  and  deposited  in  the  honey 
cell.  Bven  then  it  is  thin  and  watery,  and  does  not  become  really  honey 
until  the  watery  parts  have  evaporated.  In  collecting  the  sweets  the  bees 
do  not  confine  themselves  wholly  to  flowers.  They  extract  them  also 
from  fruits. 

According  to  the  theory  of  evolution,  the  lower  animals  develop  into 
the  higher  animals,  so  that  the  larvae  of  Ascidians  (marine  molluscoid) 
developed  gradually  into  apes,  and  probably  apes  are  only  one  link  from 
man;  but  hitherto  no  trace  of  that  link  has  been  discovered,  unless,  in- 
deed, it  be  in  the  Neanderthal  skull  found  in  the  Rhine  province  of  Rus- 
sia, which  seems  to  be  between  the  skull  of  an  ape  and  the  skull  of  a 
human  being. 

Several  meanings  attach  to  the  word  Degree.  (1.)  The  highest  part 
of  an  unknown  quantity  in  algebra.  (2.)  The  three  hundred  and  sixtieth 
part  of  a  circle,  as  of  the  circumference  of  the  earth,  the  length  being 
sixty-nine  and  one-half  miles  at  the  equator. — Academical  D.  A  dis- 
tinction conferred  by  the  various  universities  in  recognition  of  proficiency 
in  arts,  medicine,  law  and  science.  There  are  three  degrees:  Bachelor, 
Master  and  Doctor. 

The  theory  of  gravitation  is  the  law  by  which  all  atoms  of  matter  are 
attracted  one  to  another  with  a  force  directly  proportional  to  the  product 
of  the  two  masses,  and  inversely  as  the  square  of  their  distances.  The 
power  of  gravitation  was  noticed  and  speculated  upon  by  the  Greeks,  and 
Seneca  noticed  the  attractive  power  of  the  moon  over  the  ocean.  Kepler 
investigated  the  subject  of  gravitation  in  1615.  Galileo  (c,  1633)  demon- 
strated the  theory  of  gravitation.  A  system  of  gravitation  was  also  pro- 
jected by  Hooke  at  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century.  To  Newton, 
however,  is  ascribed  the  honor  of  proving  mathematically  the  truth  of 
the  theory  in  his  great  work  the  "Principia,"  published  1687.  Newton's 
laws  have  since  been  carried  out  to  great  perfection  in  their  application 
to  complicated  problems  of  astronomical  and  physical  science. 


JO  TTINGS  IN  SCIENCE.  231 

Telepathy  is  a  word  coined  about  1886  from  the  Greek  to  express  the 
supposed  power  of  communication  between  one  mind  and  another  by 
means  unknown  to  the  ordinary  sense-organs.  Some  members  of  the 
Psychical  Research  Society  believe  that  they  have  established  the  fact 
that  such  a  power  does  exist  in  the  material  universe,  and  have  attempted 
to  turn  the  assumption  to  account  in  the  explanation  of  certain  unex- 
plained natural  phenomena. 

The  blowpipe  is  a  small  instrument  used  in  the  arts  for  glass-blow- 
ing and  soldering  metals,  and  in  analytical  chemistry  and  mineralogy 
for  determining  the  nature  of  substances  by  the  action  of  an  intense  and 
continuous  heat.  Its  utility  depends  on  the  fact,  that  when  a  jet  of  air 
or  oxygen  is  thrown  into  a  flame,  the  rapidity  of  combustion  is  increased, 
while  the  effects  are  concentrated  by  diminishing  the  extent  or  space 
originally  occupied  by  the  flame. 

The  analysis  of  the  spectrum,  which  is  an  image  of  white  light  passed 
through  a  prism,  and  refracted  and  decomposed  into  various  colors  of 
light  is  what  scientists  mean  by  the  term  spectrum  analysis.  The  light 
of  the  sun  and  stars  has  been  examined  by  spectrum  analysis,  and 
these  heavenly  bodies  have  thus  been  shown  to  contain  some  of  the 
same  elements  as  those  which  exist  on  the  earth.  Spectrum  analysis 
has  also,  been  usefully  employed  in  physiology  and  pathology,  and  for 
the  discovery  of  metals,  etc. 

One  of  the  most  wonderful  discoveries  in  science  that  have  been 
made,  is  the  fact  that  a  beam  of  light  produces  sound.  A  beam  of  sun- 
light is  thrown  through  a  lense  on  a  glass  vessel  that  contains  lamp- 
black, colored  silk  or  worsted,  or  other  substances.  A  disk,  having 
slits  or  openings  cut  in  it,  is  made  to  revolve  swiftly  in  this  beam  of  light, 
so  as  to  cut  it  up,  thus  making  alternate  flashes  of  light  and  shadow.  On 
putting  the  ear  to  the  glass  vessel  strange  sounds  are  heard  so  long  as  the 
flashing  beam  is  falling  on  the  vessel. 

A  term  which  has  been  occasionally  abused  in  English  popular  writ- 
ing is  biology,  more  especially  in  the  absurd  word  electro-biology,  which 
at  one  time  threatened  to  take  root  in  popular  usage,  and  has  even  by 
some  scientific  writers  been  confused  with  general  physiology,  or  a  special 
province  of  it.  Yet  the  established  and  only  legitimate  meaning  of  bi- 
ology is  its  literal  one,  that  of  the  science  of  life — ie.  the  science  which 
seeks  to  classify  and  generalize  the  vast  and  varied  multitude  of  phenom- 
ena presented  by  and  peculiar  to  the  living  world. 

The  Stoics  were  a  school  of  philosophers  who  followed  immediately 
after  Plato  and  Aristotle.  It  was  founded  by  Zeno  of  Citium  (340-260 
B.  c.),  who  taught  in  the  painted  portico  (Stoa poikile}  on  the  north  side 
of  the  market  place  at  Athens.  The  Stoics  taught  that  God  is  the  soul 
of  the  world,  and  that  man's  supreme  good  consists  in  living  in  accord- 
ance with  the  perfect  life  of  the  universe.  For  two  hundred  years  all 
the  best  of  the  Romans  were  Stoics. 

St.  Elmo's  Fire  is  the  popular  name  of  an  electric  appearance  some- 
times seen,  especially  in  southern  climates  during  thunder- storms,  of  a 
brush  or  star  of  light  at  the  tops  of  masts,  spires,  or  other  pointed  objects. 
It  is  also  observed  at  the  tops  of  trees,  on  the  manes  of  horses,  and  occa- 
sionally about  human  heads.  It  is  similar  in  kind  to  the  luminous  glow 
seen  at  the  point  when  a  lightning-rod  is  working  imperfectly,  or  when 
there  is  any  very  rapid  production  of  electricity. 


232  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

In  the  human  body  there  is  said  to  be  more  than  two  million  perspi- 
ration glands  communicating  with  the  surface  by  ducts,  having  a  total 
length  of  some  ten  miles.  The  blood  contains  millions  of  millions  of 
corpuscles,  each  a  structure  in  itself.  The  number  of  rods  in  the  retina, 
supposed  to  be  the  ultimate  recipient  of  light,  is  estimated  at  thirty- 
million.  A  German  scientist  has  calculated  that  the  gray  matter  of  the 
brain  is  built  of  at  least  six  hundred  million  cells. 

The  word  Arctic  means  property,  lying  near  the  constellation  of  the 
Bear  (Gr.  arctos}  or  Ursa  Major,  and  hence,  northern.  The  Arctic  Circle 
is  a  circle  drawn  round  the  North  Pole,  at  a  distance  from  it  equal  to  the 
obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  or  23^°.  The  corresponding  circle  round  the 
South  Pole  is  the  Antarctic  Circle.  Within  each  of  these  circles  there  is 
a  period  of  the  year  when  the  sun  does  not  set,  and  another  when  he  is 
never  seen,  this  latter  period  being  longer  the  nearer  to  the  pole.  The 
word  is  also  used  figuratively  to  express  extreme  cold. 

The  Ignis  Fatuus  (I/at,  ignis,  "fire,"  fatuus,  "foolish")  is  aluminous 
appearance  of  uncertain  nature  which  is  occasionally  seen  in  marshy 
places  and  churchyards.  The  phenomenon  has  been  frequently  described, 
but  it  has  been  observed  so  rarely  in  favorable  circumstances  by  scientific 
men  that  there  is  no  satisfactory  explanation.  The  light  usually  appears 
in  autumn  evenings  shortly  after  sunset;  it  is  common  in  the  north  of 
Germany,  in  Italy,  in  the  south  and  north  west  of  England,  and  on  the 
west  of  Scotland,  but  it  has  been  noticed  in  many  other  countries. 

A  device  of  modern  science  called  the  bottle  chart  is  one  which  pur- 
ports to  show  the  track  of  sealed  bottles  thrown  from  ships  into  the  sea. 
Lieutenant  Becher,  an  English  naval  officer,  constructed  in  1843  a  chart 
of  bottle- voyages  in  the  Atlantic,  so  as  to  illustrate  the  currents.  The 
time  which  elapses  between  the  launching  of  the  bottle  from  the  ship 
and  the  finding  it  on  shore,  or  picking  up  by  some  other  ship,  has  varied 
from  a  few  days  to  sixteen  years;  while  the  straight-line  distance  between 
the  two  points  has  varied  from  a  few  miles  to  five  thousand  miles. 

Somnambulism  (Lat.  somnus^  "sleep,"  ambulo,  "I  walk")  is  a  dis- 
order of  sleep.  It  is  symptomatic  of  more  or  less  activity  in  some  of  the 
psychical  and  motor  areas  of  the  brain,  while  the  centers  that  preside 
over  consciousness  are  slumbering  soundly.  There  are  different  forms, 
as  sleep-crying,  sleep-talking  (somniloquy)  and  sleep-walking.  These 
all  involve  sensori-motor  acts.  Sleep-walking  is  closely  related  to  hys- 
teria and  epilepsy,  and  it  occasionally  alternates  with  these  and  allied 
diseases.  It  occurs  mostly  in  youth,  affecting  males  and  females  in 
almost  equal  proportion;  commonly,  although  not  invariably,  it  disap- 
pears when  adult  age  is  attained.  It  is  met  with  chiefly  in  persons  of 
nervous  temperament. 

A  Vienna  scientist  has  made  a  series  of  interesting  experiments  with 
the  virus  of  such  insects  as  bees  and  wasps,  and  comes  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  effectiveness  of  the  irritating  substance  depends  largely  upon 
the  mood  of  the  insect.  A  drop  of  the  fluid  taken  from  the  poison  bag 
of  a  dead  hornet,  for  instance,  produces  a  slight  itching,  but  nothing  re- 
sembling the  inflammation  caused  by  a  hornet  sting  with  a  much  smaller 
quantity  of  the  same  virus.  This  theory  is  supported  by  the  curious  fact 
that  under  the  influence  of  rage  the  saliva  of  all  sorts  of  otherwise  harm- 
less animals  can  become  virulent  enough  to  produce  alarming  and  even 


fatal  symptoms.     Death  from  blood  poisoning  has  more  than  once  re- 
sulted from  the  bite  of  a  wounded  squirrel,  a  chi] 


tipmunk  or  a  caged  rat. 


JOTTINGS  IN  SCIENCE.  233 

Alchemy,  a  pseudo  chemistry,  the  precursor,  in  the  middle  ages,  of 
the  modern  science,  had  for  its  primary  object  the  transmutation  of 
metals  into  gold  and  silver  by  the  discovery  of  a  universal  solvent  con- 
taining the  primary  principle  of  all  matter.  This  solvent,  called  the  phi- 
losopher's  stone,  was  supposed  to  possess  the  power  of  renewing  life  and 
eliminating  disease.  Harmes  Trismegistus,  an  ancient  Egyptian  king, 
was  claimed  to  be  the  founder  of  alchemy  by  the  alchemists.  Among  its 
devotees  were  Roger  Bacon,  Albertus  Magnus,  Valentinus,  Paracelsus, 
and  others. 

Nocturnal  creatures  are  generally  supposed  not  to  see  well  in  the 
daylight,  but  facts  collected  are  gradually  dispelling  the  idea.  It  is  well 
known  that  felines,  which  see  well  by  night,  seem  to  be  able  to  see  quite 
as  well  by  day,  and  this  is  being  found  true  of  many  other  creatures. 
The  bat  sees  admirably  by  daytime,  as  anyone  can  ascertain  by  threat- 
ening it  with  a  twig.  The  owl  also  has  first-rate  day  sight.  Night-flying 
lepidoptera,  when  disturbed  in  their  places  of  refuge  during  the  day,  have 
no  difficulty  in  seeing  at  once  where  is  the  nearest  and  best  place  for  a 
temporary  refuge. 

When  animals  or  plants  are  removed  from  their  peculiar  and  natural 
districts  to  one  entirely  different  in  climate  some  surprising  changes  take 
place.  As  soon  as  possible  after  such  removal  they  change  their  charac- 
ter and  habits  so  as  to  conform  with  their  new  homes,  or  else  cease  to 
exist.  A  good  wool-bearing  sheep  transferred  from  some  northern  past- 
ure to  the  tropics  changes  his  coat  to  a  thin  covering  of  straggling  hairs 
scarcely  resembling  wool;  the  dog  becomes  destitute  of  hair  altogether, 
and  even  bees  cease  to  lay  up  their  stores  of  honey,  and  in  a  great  meas- 
ure lose  their  industrious  habits. 

We  apply  the  term  buoyancy  to  that  quality  whereby  a  ship,  or  any 
other  floating  body,  is  enabled  to  support  a  certain  weight.  In  the  case 
of  a  ship,  it  is  necessary  that  such  weight  should  be  carried  without  her 
sinking  too  deeply  in  the  water,  or  floating  too  lightly  on  it.  The  weight 
of  a  ship  not  loaded  with  any  cargo,  is  exactly  equivalent  to  the  weight 
of  the  volume  of  water  she  displaces.  Therefore,  given  a  certain  draught- 
line  to  which  a  ship  is  to  be  loaded,  multiply  the  number  of  cubic  feet  of 
the  volume  of  the  immersed  part  by  the  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  sea- 
water  (64  lb.),  and  the  product  will  be  the  weight  of  water  displaced  by 
the  ship  at  the  given  draught-line.  If  from  this  the  weight  of  a  ship  her- 
self be  subtracted,  the  residue  is  the  amount  of  extra  weight,  or  cargo 
she  is  capable  of  carrying  at  that  draught-line,  and  is  a  measure  of  her 
quality  of  buoyancy. 

Vivisection  is  a  term  applied  to  experiments  upon  animals  for  the 
purpose  of  physiological  and  pathological  investigation.  The  term, 
although  strictly  applicable  only  to  cutting  operations  is  extended  so  as 
to  embrace  all  scientific  operations  upon  living  animals,  such  as  the  ad- 
ministration of  poisons  and  the  innoculation  of  disease.  The  anti- vivisec- 
tion movement  commenced  in  1859  with  the  societies  for  the  prevention 
of  cruelty  to  animals  in  Dresden  and  Paris.  By  the  act  of  1876,  regulat- 
ing vivisection,  vivisectors  must  have  a  license  or  certificate,  the  experi- 
ment must  be  performed  in  a  registered  place,  and  the  animal  to  be 
experimented  upon  must  be  rendered  insensible  by  an  anaesthetic.  In 
Great  Britain,  in  1880,  there  were  thirty -three  persons  licensed  to  vivisect 
and  three  hundred  and  eleven  experiments;  in  1889  the  numbers  had 
risen  to  eighty-seven  and  1,417. 


234  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

A  planet  is  said  to  be  in  conjunction  with  another  body  when  it  has 
the  same  longitude,  and  is  seen  in  the  same  direction  in  the  heavens.  It 
is  obvious  that  in  the  case  of  the  inferior  planets  this  conjunction  will  be 
of  two  kinds:  the  one  when  the  planet  is  between  the  Earth  and  the  Sun, 
called  inferior  conjunction;  and  the  other  when  at  the  opposite  point  of 
of  its  orbit,  with  the  Sun  between  the  planet  and  the  Earth,  called  superior 
conjunction.  The  latter  is  the  only  kind  of  conjunction  that  can  happen 
to  the  superior  planets  Mars,  Jupiter,  Saturn,  Uranus  and  Neptune;  the 
inferior  planets,  Mercury  and  Venus,  being  subject  to  both  positions. 

In  many  mountain  ranges  rent  by  the  action  of  torrents,  isolated 
cliffs  have  been  left  standing  like  monuments  of  former  geological  periods 
while  the  softer  strata  of  gravel  and  loose  rocks  have  been  washed  away, 
with  the  exception  perhaps  of  a  massive  boulder  resting,  as  it  were,  upon 
the  roof  of  a  tower-like  crag.  On  the  island  of  Mauritius  that  arrangement 
repeats  itself  on  a  marvelous  scale  in  the  mountain  peak  known  as  "Peter 
Botte"  a  monolith  towering  above  the  coast  range  to  a  height  of  more 
than  2,000  feet  and  supporting  a  rock  so  much  broader  than  its  pedestal 
that  it  gives  the  combination  the  appearance  of  an  inverted  pyramid  or 
a  gigantic  toad-stool. 

The  stars  which  stud  the  firmament  have,  from  a  time  earlier  than 
authentic  records  can  trace,  been  formed  into  artificial  groups,  which 
have  received  names  borrowed  from  fancy  or  fable,  mainly  from  Greek 
mythology.  These  groups  are  called  constellations.  Though  quite 
devoid  of  anything  like  systematic  arrangement,  this  traditional  group- 
ing is  found  a  sufficiently  convenient  classification,  and  still  remains  the 
basis  of  nomenclature  for  the  stars  among  astronomers.  They  are  divided 
into  northern,  southern  and  zodiacal  constellations.  In  old  authors, 
"constellation"  is  used  to  signify  the  relative  positions  of  the  planets  at  a 
given  moment. 

It  is  only  within  a  few  years,  one  might  almost  say  months,  that  the 
wide  effect  of  the  warm,  moist  Pacific  winds,  called  chinooks,  has  been 
known  in  British  Columbia  and  Alaska.  These  winds,  corresponding 
exactly  to  those  that  make  England  a  fertile  country  in  the  latitude  of 
Labrador,  keep  the  snow  melted  from  the  plains  at  the  eastern  base  of 
the  Rockies,  and  they  encourage  a  magnificent  growth  of  root  crops,  cab- 
bage, oats  and  grass  a  thousand  miles  north  of  New  York.  Wheat  does 
not  do  well  and  berries  are  small,  though  little  attempt  has  been  made  to 
cultivate  fruit.  The  winters  are  biting  cold,  but  dry,  and  the  summer, 
though  short,  is  so  hot  that  vegetation  comes  out  of  the  earth  with  a  rush. 

Eureka!  or  rather  Heureka!  ("I  have  discovered  it!")  was  the  excla- 
mation of  Archimedes,  the  Syracusan  philosopher,  when  he  found  out 
how  to  test  the  purity  of  Hiero's  crown.  The  tale  is  that  Hiero  suspected 
that  a  craftsman  to  whom  he  had  given  a  certain  weight  of  gold  to  make 
into  a  crown  had  alloyed  the  metal,  and  he  asked  Archimedes  to  ascertain 
if  his  suspicion  was  well  founded.  The  philosopher,  getting  into  his 
bath,  observed  that  the  water  ran  over,  and  it  flashed  into  his  mind  that 
his  body  displaced  its  own  bulk  of  water.  Now  suppose  Hiero  gave  the 
goldsmith  one  pound  of  gold,  and  the  crown  weighed  one  pound,  it  is 
manifest  that  if  the  crown  was  pure  gold,  both  ought  to  displace  the  same 
quantity  of  water;  but  they  did  not  do  so,  and  therefore  the  gold  had 
been  tampered  with.  Archimedes  next  immersed  in  water  one  pound 
of  silver,  and  the  difference  of  water  displaced  soon  gave  the  clue  to  the 
amount  of  alloy  introduced  by  the  artificer. 


JOTTINGS  IN  SCIENCE.  235 

The  phenomenon  known  as  the  blizzard  is  a  fierce  storm  of  bitter, 
frosty  wind  with  blinding  snow,  in  which,  especially  in  the  western 
States,  man  and  beast  often  perish.  The  word  seems  to  be  akin  to  blast 
and  bluster  and  is  no  doubt  onomatopoetic  in  character.  The  most  severe 
of  record  is  the  one  that  visited  the  Dakotas,  Montana,  Minnesota,  Ne- 
braska, Kansas  and  Texas  in  January,  1888.  Within  twenty-four  hours 
the  thermometer  fell  from  74°  above  zero  to  28°  below  zero  in  most  places 
and  in  Dakota  to  40°  below.  The  roar  of  the  wind  drowned  the  voices  of 
men  six  feet  distant.  Objects  a  few  yards  off  became  invisible.  Some 
two  hundred  and  thirty-five  lives  were  lost.  The  Colorado  river  in  Texas 
for  the  first  time  in  the  memory  of  man  was  covered  with  ice  a  foot  thick. 

Such  fierce  canivorous  fishes  as  exist  in  the  depths  of  the  ocean  are 
unknown  at  the  surface.  There  is  the  "black  swallower,"  which  devours 
other  finny  creatures  ten  times  as  big  as  itself,  literally  climbing  over  its 
victim,  first  with  one  jaw  and  then  with  the  other.  Another  species  is 
nearly  all  mouth,  and  having  no  power  of  locomotion,  it  lives  buried  in 
the  soft  ooze  at  the  bottom,  its  head  alone  protruding,  ready  to  engulf 
any  prey  that  may  wander  into  its  cavernous  jaws.  There  is  a  ferocious 
kind  of  shark,  resembling  a  huge  eel.  All  of  these  monsters  are  black 
as  ink.  Some  of  them  are  perfectly  blind,  while  others  have  enormous 
goggling  eyes.  No  ray  of  sunlight  ever  pierces  the  dark  unfathomed 
caves  in  which  they  dwell.  Bach  species  is  gobbled  by  the  species  next 
bigger,  for  there  is  no  vegetable  life  to  feed  on. 
On  metal  rails  a  horse  can  draw: 

One  and  two-thirds  times  as  much  as  on  asphalt  pavement. 

Three  and  one-third  times  as  much  as  on  good  Belgian  blocks. 

Five  times  as  much  as  on  ordinary  Belgian  blocks. 

Seven  times  as  much  as  on  good  cobble-stone. 

Thirteen  times  as  much  as  on  ordinary  cobble-stone. 

Twenty  times  as  much  as  on  an  earth  road. 

Forty  times  as  much  as  on  sand. 

A  modern  compilation  of  engineering  maxims  states  that  a  horse  can 
drag, -as  compared  to  what  he  can  carry  on  his  back,  in  the  following 
proportions:  On  the  worst  earthen  road,  three  times  more;  on  a  good 
macadamized  road,  nine;  on  plank,  twenty-five;  on  a  stone  trackway; 
thirty-three;  and  on  a  good  railway,  fifty-four  times  as  much. 

Whirlwinds  occurring  on  the  sea  and  other  sheets  of  water  are  called 
waterspouts.  When  fully  formed  they  appear  as  tall  pillars  of  cloud 
stretching  from  the  sea  to  the  sky,  whirling  round  their  axes,  and 
exhibiting  the  progressive  movement  of  the  whole  mass  precisely  as 
in  the  case  of  the  dust-whirl-wind.  The  sea  at  the  base  of  the 
whirling  vortices  is  thrown  into  violent  commotion,  resembling  the 
surface  of  water  in  rapid  ebullition.  What  are  sometimes  called 
"waterspouts  on  land"  are  quite  distinct  phenomena.  They  are  merely 
heavy  falls  of  rain  of  a  very  local  character,  and  may  or  may  not  be  ac- 
companied with  whirling  winds.  They  generally  occur  during  thunder- 
storms, being  quite  analogous  to  severe  hailstorms,  from  which  they  differ 
only  in  point  of  temperature,  the  heavy  drops  being  probably  no  more 
than  melted  hailstones.  Also  all  the  moisture  that  falls  is  the  result  of 
condensation;  whereas,  in  the  true  waterspout,  the  rain  is  mixed  with 
spray  which  has  been  caught  up  from  the  broken  waves,  carried  aloft  by 
the  ascending  currents  of  the  whirlwind,  and  ultimately  precipitated  with 
the  rain. 


236  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

Hypnotism  is  a  method  for  the  alleged  cure  of  disease,  by  the  concen- 
trated action  of  the  mind  upon  the  body  while  in  a  state  of  trance,  induced 
by  causing  the  patient  to  fix  his  eyes  and  concentrate  his  mind  upon  a 
disc  of  bright  metal  held  at  a  distance  of  about  twelve  inches  above  the 
level  of  the  eyes.  The  first  effort  to  investigate  hypnotism  in  a  scientific 
manner  was  made  by  James  Braid,  of  Manchester  (1846)  from  which  cir- 
cumstance hypnotism  is  sometimes  called  Braiaism.  The  power  to 
hypnotize  is  possessed  only  by  persons  of  peculiar  mental  organization. 
While  in  the  hypnotized  condition,  which  renders  them  insensible  to  pain, 
patients  may  be  operated  upon  for  surgical  or  medical  purposes,  the 
patient  being  entirely  subject  to  the  will  of  the  hypnotizer.  Hypnotism 
can,  however,  only  be  considered  as  of  quasi  medical  utility,  though  in- 
vestigation is  being  made  with  the  view  to  placing  it  on  a  sound  scientific 
basis. 

The  Copernican  system  is  that  which  represents  the  sun  to  be  at  rest 
in  the  center  of  the  universe,  and  the  earth  and  planets  to  move  round  it 
as  a  center.  It  got  its  name  from  Copernicus,  who  (although  some  vague 
general  notion  of  the  system  seem  to  be  due  to  Pythagoras)  first  distinctly 
drew  the  attention  of  philosophers  to  it,  and  devoted  his  life  to  its  dem- 
onstration. For  the  rest,  the  glory  of  developing  on  the  lines  he 
broadly  laid  down,  belongs  to  Kepler,  Galileo  and  others,  and  to  Newton 
who  finally  marked  out  the  form  of  modern  theoretical  astronomy. 
Many  who  reverence  the  name  of  Copernicus  in  connection  with  this 
system,  would  be  surprised  to  find,  on  perusing  his  work,  how  much  of 
error,  unsound  reasoning,  and  happy  conjecture  combined  to  secure  for 
him  in  all  times  the  association  of  the  system  with  his  name;  yet,  with 
all  its  faults,  that  work  marks  one  of  the  greatest  steps  ever  taken  in 
science. 

The  system  of  philosophy  known  as  positivism,  taught  by  Auguste 
Comte  (1799-1857),  discarding  the  possibility  of  knowing  the  beginning 
and  the  end  of  anything,  concerns  itself  only  with  what  lies  between.  It 
accepts  neither  atheism,  theism,  nor  pantheism.  It  may  be  divided  into 
two  parts:  The  historic  conception  and  the  co-ordination  of  the  sciences. 
The  former  is  this:  That  the  human  mind  passes  through  three  stages, 
viz.,  the  theological,  the  metaphysical  and  the  positive.  In  all  subjects 
capable  of  experiment  it  passes  from  metaphysics  to  experimental  verifi- 
cation or  exact  science.  In  regard  to  the  co-ordination  of  the  sciences 
the  basis  is  mathematics;  then  follow  astronomy,  physics,  chemistry, 
biology  and  sociology.  Take  the  last:  The  science  of  society  is  impossi- 
ble without  the  science  of  life.  The  science  of  life  is  impossible  without 
chemistry.  Chemistry  presupposes  physics,  physics  astronomy,  and 
astronomy  mathematics. 

If  we  look  intently  at  a  bright  star  we  notice  that  the  color  and  inten- 
sity of  the  light  is  constantly  changing  from  brilliancy  to  almost  total 
obscurity,  and  from  bright  red  to  blue,  orange,  yellow,  etc.  This  is  the 
phenomenon  usually  spoken  of  as  the  "twinkling"  or  scintillation  of  the 
stars.  The  "twinkling"  will  be  noticed  more  plainly  when  the  star  is  near 
the  horizon,  and  will  diminish  in  intensity  as  it  rises  until  it  is  near  the 
zenith,  at  which  time  the  twinkling  is  scarcely  noticeable.  It  must  be 
confessed  that  this  twinkling  has  never  been  explained  to  the  satisfaction 
of  all  investigators.  However,  it  is  generally  believed  to  be  due  to  con- 
trolling causes  within  the  earth's  atmosphere.  That  the  cause  may  be 
looked  for  within  the  belt  of  air  that  surrounds  our  planet  (to  particles  of 


JOTTINGS  IN  SCIENCE. 


237 


vapor,  dust,  etc.)  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  the  planets  never 
exhibit  the  characteristic  twinkling  so  noticeable  in  the  star.  One  reason 
for  this  is  the  size  (apparent)  of  the  planets.  The  planets  each  show  a 
sensible  disk  even  to  the  naked  eye,  while  the  strongest  instrument  in 
the  world  only  shows  the  stars  as  being  mere  points  of  light.  This  being 
the  case,  any  foreign  substance  in  the  atmosphere  would  momentarily 
hide  the  light  and  make  the  star  appear  to  "twinkle." 

Two  synonymous  terms  in  science  are  Equinoxes  and  Equinoctial 
Points.  More  commonly,  by  the  equinoxes  are  meant  the  times  when 
the  sun  enters  those  points — viz.  21st  March  and  22d  September,  the 
former  being  called  the  Vernal  or  Spring  Equinox,  and  the  latter  the 
Autumnal.  When  in  the  equinoxes,  the  sun,  through  the  earth's  rotation 
on  its  axis,  seems  to  describe  the  circle  of  the  equator  in  the  heavens,  and 
the  days  and  nights  are  of  equal  length  all  over  the  world.  At  the  vernal 
equinox,  the  sun  is  passing  from  south  to  north,  and  in  the  northern 
hemisphere  the  days  are  lengthening;  at  the  autumnal,  he  is  passing 
from  north  to  south,  and  the  days  are  shortening.  As  the  earth  moves 
more  rapidly  when  near  the  sun,  or  in  winter,  the  sun's  apparent  motion 
is  not  uniform,  and  it  happens  that  he  takes  eight  days  more  to  pass  from 
the  vernal  to  the  autumnal  equinox  than  from  the  latter  to  the  former. 
The  equinoctial  points  are  not  stationary. 

Thought-reading,  or  mind-reading,  is  a  term  which  came  up  in  1881 
to  designate  the  act  or  art  of  discerning  what  is  passing  in  another's  mind 
by  some  direct  and  unexplained  method,  depending  neither  on  gesture, 
facial  expression,  nor  any  articulate  or  other  voluntary  indication.  It 
was  brought  into  notice  (1881)  by  Mr.  W.  Irving  Bishop  (d.  1889),  who 
professed,  while  blindfolded,  and  without  the  aid  of  confederates,  or  of 
collusion  with  his  subject  whose  hand  and  pulse  he  held,  and  with  whom 
he  thereby  became  in  mesmeric  sympathy,  to  find  any  article  previously 
hidden  by  the  subject,  or  to  show  in  other  ways  that  he  was  able  to  read 
the  subject's  thought.  The  believing  explanation  is  that  thought-force, 
nervous  energy,  or  the  like,  passes  in  a  perfectly  natural  but  as  yet  un- 
explained manner  through  A's  forehead  into  B's  hand,  and  so  to  B's 
mind.  The  unbelieving  theory  is  that  A  inevitably,  but  quite  uncon- 
sciously, communicates  a  succession  of  slight  but  sufficient  muscular 
indications  to  B,  which  B  instinctively  follows  without  being  aware  of 
them  severally.  Enthusiasts  have  sought  to  include  thought-reading  in 
the  sphere  of  spiritualism.  

THE  LARGEST  RIVER  SYSTEMS. 


RIVER. 

Area  of 
Basin, 
sq.  m. 

Length 
Miles. 

RIVERS. 

Area  of 
Basjn. 
sq.  m 

Length 
Miles. 

Amazon             -... 

2,230,000 
1,540,000 
1,290,000 
1,290.000 
1,060,000 
1,190,000 
995,000 
942,000 
880,000 
689,000 
607,000 
592,000 

3,400 
2,600 
3,700 
4,100 
2,600 
3,200 
2,303 
2,900 
3,200 
3,200 
2,300 
2,200 

Ganges  and  Brahmaputra 
Zambesi  
St.  Lawrence  

588,000 
570,000 
565,000 
504,000 
433,000 
430,000 
403,000 
387,000 
360,000 
330,000 
300,000 

1,800 
1,600 
2,400 
1,500 
2,200 
1,400 
2,800 
2,500 
1,900 
1,700 
1,500 

Nile 

Mississippi  

Winnipeg-  Nelson  

Yukon          

Obi 

Orinoco  

La  Plata 

Amur       

Hoang-ho  

Yenisei 

Yang-tsze-kiang  

Murray  

Volga  

238 


MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 


THE  ZODIAC  AND  ITS  SIGNS. 

Zodiac  was  the  name  given  by  the  ancients  to  an  imaginary  band 
extending  round  the  celestial  sphere,  having  as  its  mesial  line  the  ecliptic 
or  apparent  path  of  the  sun.  It  was  fixed  at  about  16°  in  width,  for  the 
purpose  of  comprehending  the  paths  of  the  sun  and  of  the  five  planets 
(Mercury,  Venus,  Mars,  Jupiter  and  Saturn)  which  were  then  known;  and 
as  of  these  planets  Mercury  has  by  far  the  greatest  inclination  of  orbit  to 
the  ecliptic,  and  the  value  of  that  element  in  his  case  is  only  7°  0'  9"  the 
width  given  to  the  zodiac  was  amply  sufficient  for  the  required  purpose. 

SIGNS  OF  THE  ZODIAC. 

V  Aries The  Ram. 

#  Taurus The  Bull. 

n  Gemini The  Twins. 

£5  Cancer The  Crab. 

St  Leo The  Lion. 

1%  Virgo : The  Virgin. 

=2=  Libra ! . . . .  * . .  The  Balance. 

tt\,  Scorpio The  Scorpion. 

/  Sagittarius The  Archer. 

V$  Capricornus The  Goat. 

Z£  Aquarius The  Water-Bearer. 

X  Pisces The  Fishes. 


FREEZING,  FUSING  AND  BOILING  POINTS. 


SUBSTANCES. 


CKNTIGRADE  FAHRENHEIT 


FREEZING — 

Bromine  freezes  at 

Oil  Anise 

'    Olive 

41  Rose : 12 

Quicksilver. . — 31 . 

Water 

FUSING— 

Bismuth  metal  fuses  at 200 

Cadmium 248.8 

Copper 874.6 

Gold 961 

Iodine 

Iron 

Lead 255.5 

Potassium 

Phosphorus    34 

Silver 816.8 

"      Nitrate 159 

Sodium..* 72 

Steel 1452 

Sulphur 72 

Tin 173 

Zinc 328 

BOILING— 

Alcohol  boils  at 

Bromine ; . . .  ?. 50 

Ether 

Nitrous 11 

Iodine 140 

Olive  Oil 252 

Quicksilver 280 

Water 80 


—20° 
10 
10 
15 


264 

315 
1093 
1200 

115 
1538 

325 

58 

44 

1021 


1856 

90 

230 

410 

78 
53 
35 
14 
175 
315 
350 
100 


-  4° 
50 
50 
60 

-39 


507 
592 

2000 

2200 
239 

2800 
617 
136 
111 

1870 
389 
194 

3300 
194 
446 
770 

173 

145 

95 

57 

347 

600 

662 

212 


JOTTINGS  IN  SCIENCE. 


239 


SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  OF  SUBSTANCES. 

A  gallon  of  water  or.  wine  weighs  10  Ibs.,  and  this  is  taken  as  the 
basis  of  the  following  table: 


LIQUIDS. 

Water  

..  100 

TIMBER. 

Cork           

24 

METALS. 
Zinc  

719 

Sea  Water 

103 

Poplar 

Cast  iron 

721 

Dead  Sea 

124 

Fir 

55 

Tin 

729 

Alcohol  

84 

Cedar   

61 

Bar  iron  

...   .      779 

Olive  oil 

92 

Pear 

..     66 

Steel 

783 

99 

Walnut 

67 

869 

Wine 

100 

Cherry 

72 

Brass 

840 

Urine 

.   101 

Maple 

75 

Silver 

051 

Cider 

102 

Ash 

84 

I,ead 

'l35 

Beer 

102 

Apple  .. 

79 

Mercury    .  .  . 

357 

Woman's  milk 

102 

Beech 

85 

Gold 

926 

Cow's  milk  

103 

Mahogany  

106 

Platina  

'950 

Goat's  milk 

104 

Oak          

117 

Porter  .  .  . 

..   104 

Ebonv  .  .  . 

..   133 

Emerald   

PRECIOUS  STONES. 

2775|  Diamond     353.0    Garnet  

4063 

Crystal 

265  3  1  Topaz 

..    401.1 

Riihv   .  . 

4283 

Indigo 

SUNDRIES. 
77     P^at                                                 133     Porr-plnin 

226 

Gunpowder  

93 

Opium  .  .  . 

134 

Stone 

252 

Butter 

94 

Honey 

145 

Marble 

970 

Ice  

117 

Ivory  

183 

278 

Clay    

....     120 

Brick  ...     . 

200 

Chalk  .... 

.     .             279 

Coal 

.   130 

Sulphur 

203 

Glass 

289 

Cork     

Ivbs.  per 
Cub.  Ft. 
15 

SELECTED 

Oak    .     .     . 

WEIGHTS. 

L,bs.  per 
Cub.  Ft. 
70 

Iron  

I,bs.  per 
Cub.  Ft. 
470 

Cedar 

36 

Clay  ...   . 

72 

Copper 

520 

Beech 

51 

Coal 

80 

Silver 

630 

Butter      

56 

Brick 

120 

I,ead 

680 

Water 

62 

Stone 

150 

Gold 

1  155 

66 

166 

Ice  

70 

Glass    . 

172 

THE  SOIvAR  SYSTEM. 


NAME. 

Mean 
Distance 
From  Earth 
in  Millions 
of  Miles. 

Mean 
Distance 
From  Sun, 
Millions  of 
Miles. 

Sidereal 
Period, 
Days. 

Orbit 
Velocity, 
Miles  per 
Second. 

Mean 
Diameter, 
Miles. 

Sun    

929 

866  400 

Mercury  
Venus  

56.9 
25.7 

36.0 

67.2 

87.969 
224.701 

23  to  35 

21  9 

3,030 
7700 

Earth     

929 

365  256 

185 

7918 

Mars 

486 

141  5 

686  950 

150 

»     4  230 

Jupiter  

390.4 

483.3 

4,332.58 

8.1 

86,500 

Saturn  
Uranus      

793.2 
1  6890 

886.0 
1,781  9 

10,759.22 
3068682 

6.0 
4  2 

71,000 
31  900 

Neptune  

2,698.8 

2,791.6 

60,181.11 

3.4 

31,800 

The  number  of  asteroids  discovered  up  to  present  date  is  330.  A  number  of  these 
small  planets  have  not  been  observed  since  their  discovery,  and  are  practically  lost. 
Consequently  it  is  now  sometimes  a  matter  of  doubt,  until  the  elements  have  been  com- 
puted, if  the  supposed  new  planet  is  really  new,  or  only  an  old  one  rediscovered. 

It  is  supposed  that  a  Centuri,  one  of  the  brightest  stars  of  the  Southern  Hemis- 
phere, is  the  nearest  of  the  fixed  stars  to  the  earth.  The  researches  on  its  parallax  by 
Henderson  and  Maclear  gave  it  for  its  distance  from  the  earth,  in  round  numbers, 
20,000.000,000,000  of  miles.  At  the  inconceivably  rapid  rate  at  which  light  is  propagated 
through  space,  it  would  require  three  years  and  three  months  to  reach  the  earth  from 
this  star. 


240 


MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 


SOME    GREAT   WATERFALLS. 

Waterfalls  occur  most  frequently  in  mountainous  countries,  where 
the  streams  from  the  mountain  sides  enter  the  valleys.  These  mountain 
waterfalls,  however,  are  generally  rather  curious  and  picturesque  than 
grand,  the  volume  of  water  being  in  most  cases  comparatively  insignifi- 
cant, though  the  height  of  fall  is  occasionally  very  great. 

Among  the  leading  waterfalls  are: 

Yosemite  (3  plunges) 2,660  feet. 

Roraima  Falls,  Guiana  (2  plunges) .2,000 

Grand  Falls,  Labrador 2,000 

Sutherland  Falls,  New  Zealand  (3  plunges) 1 ,904 

Kukenam  Fall,  Guiana  (sheer  plunge) 1,500 

Gavarnie  Fall,  Pyrenees 1,380 

Staubbach 866 

Kaieteur  Falls,  Guiana 740 

Tequendama  Falls,  near  Bogota 625 

Victoria  Falls,  Zambesi 400 

Rio  Iguassu,  southern  Brazil 21ft 

Shoshone 210 

Foyers,  highest  in  Britain  (2  plunges) 205 

Hay  River,  Alaska 200 

Niagara  169 


.LIGHTNING  CONDUCTORS. 

Copper  is  the  best  material  for  conductors.  When  circumstances  are 
not  such  as  to  promote  corrosion  iron  may  be  used,  but  of  larger  dimen- 
sions. Its  conductivity  is  about  one-fifth  that  of  copper. 

Copper  lightning  conductors  should  be  of  the  following  dimensions: 

Rods  Y^f  diameter,  tubes  >6X/  diameter,  l/%"  thick,  or  bands  ll/2" 
wide,  %"  thick. 

Iron  lightning  conductors  should  be  either  solid  rods  Vf  diameter, 
or  bands  2"  wide,  #"  thick. 

Lightning  conductors  afford  protection  over  a  circle  whose  radius 
equals  their  height  from  the  ground;  formerly  considered  twice. 


LATITUDE  AND  LONGITUDE. 

A  Table  showing  the  number  of  miles  in  degree  of  longitude  at  each 
degree  of  latitude. 


J^AT. 

MILES. 

LAT. 

MILES. 

LAT. 

MILES. 

LAT. 

MILES. 

LAT. 

MILES. 

1« 

60. 

19° 

56.7 

37° 

47.9 

55° 

34.4 

73° 

17.5 

2 

60. 

510 

56.4 

38 

47.3 

56 

33.6 

74 

16.5 

3 

59.9 

21 

56.0 

39 

46.6 

57 

32.7 

75 

15.5 

4 

59.9 

22 

55.6 

40 

46.0 

58 

31.8 

76 

14.5 

5 

59.8 

23 

55.2 

41 

45.3 

59 

30.9 

77 

13.5 

61 

69.7 

24 

54.8 

42 

44.6 

60 

30.0 

78 

12.5 

7 

596 

25 

54.4 

43 

43.9 

61 

29.1 

79 

11.4 

8 

59.4 

26 

53.9 

41 

43.2 

62 

28.2 

80 

10.4 

9 

59.3 

27 

53.5 

45 

42.4 

63 

27.2 

81 

9.4 

10 

59.1 

28 

53.0 

46 

41.7 

64 

26.3 

82 

8.4 

11 

58.9 

29 

52.5 

47 

409 

65 

25.4 

83 

7.3 

13 

58.7 

30 

52.0 

48 

40.1 

66 

24.4 

81 

6.3 

13 

58.5 

31 

51.4 

49 

39.4 

67 

23.4 

85 

5.2 

14 

58.2 

32 

50.9 

50 

38.6 

68 

22.5 

86 

4.2 

15 

58.0 

33 

50.3 

51 

37.8 

69 

21.5 

87 

3.1 

16 

57.7 

b4 

49.7 

52 

36.9 

70 

205 

88 

2.1 

17 

57.4 

35 

49.1 

53 

36.1 

71 

19.5 

89 

1.0 

18 

57.1 

36 

48.5 

54 

35.3 

72 

18.5 

90 

0.0 

fOTTINGS  IN  SCIENCE. 
THE    THERMOMETER. 


241 


The  thermometer  is  an  instrument  for  measuring  the  heat  or  temper- 
ature of  bodies  by  the  regular  expansion  of  mercury  or  alcohol  in  a 
graduated  glass  tube.  Halley  proposed  the  substitution  of  mercury  for 
alcohol  in  1697.  The  thermometers  usually  employed  are  Fahrenheit's, 
the  Centigrade  and  Reaumur's,  the  first  invented  in  1726,  and  the  two 
others  soon  afterwards. 

The  following  table  is  interesting  as  a  comparison  of  the  three  ther- 
mometers: 


Reaumur. 

Centigrade. 

Fahrenheit. 

0 
8 
16 
32 
40 
48 
56 
64 
72 
80 

0 
10 
20 
40 
50 
60 
70 
80 
90 
100 

32 
50 

68 
lf)4 
122 
140 
158 
176 
194 
212 

Vine  Cultivation      .  .                         

Water  boils  

Ice  melts  at  32°;  temperature  of  globe,  50°;  blood  heat,  98°;  alcohol  boils,  174°; 
water  boils,  2i2°;  lead  melts,  594°;  heat  of  common  fire,  1,140°;  brass  melts,  2,233°;  iron 
melts,  3,479°. 

To  convert  one  thermometer  into  another,  observe  the  following 
rules: 

To  convert  Fahrenheit  into  Centigrade — Deduct  32°,  multiply  by  5 
and  divide  by  9. 

To  convert  Fahrenheit  into  Reaumur— Deduct  32°,  divide  by  9  and 
multiply  by  4. 

To  convert  Centigrade  into  Fahrenheit — Multiply  by  9,  divide  by  5 
and  add  32°. 

To  convert  Centigrade  into  Reaumur— Multiply  by  4  and  divide  by  5. 

To  convert  Reaumur  into  Centigrade— Multiply  by  5  and  divide  by  4. 

To  convert  Reaumur  into  Fahrenheit— Multiply  by  9,  divide  by  4 
and  add  32°.  

SUMMER    HEAT   IN   VARIOUS    LANDS. 

The  following  figures  show  the  extreme  summer  heat  in  the  various 
countries  of  the  world:  Bengal  and  the  African  desert,  150°  Fahrenheit; 
Senegal  and  Guadaloupe,  130°;  Persia,  125°;  Calcutta  and  Central  Amer- 
ica, 120°;  Yuma,  Arizona,  118°;  Afghanistan  and  the  Arabian  desert,  and 
at  Umatilla,  Oregon,  and  Poplar  River,  Montana,  110°;  in  four  places  in 
Western  and  southern  United  States  the  temperature  has  reached  108°; 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  Utah,  105;  Greece,  104°;  Arabia,  103°;  Mon- 
treal, 103°;  New  York,  and  at  twelve  other  places  in  the  United  States, 
102°;  Spain, India,  China,  Jamaica,  and  at  eleven  points  in  the  United 
States,  100°;  Sierra  Leone,  94°;  France,  Denmark,  St.  Petersburg,  Shan- 
ghai, the  Burman  Empire,  Buenos  Ayres,  and  the  Sandwich  Islands, 
90°;  Great  Britain,  Siam,  and  Peru,  85°;  Portugal,  Pekin  and  Natal,  80°; 
Siberia,  77°;  Australia  and  Scotland,  75°;  Italy,  Venezuela  and  Madeira, 
73°;  Prussia  and  New  Zealand,  70°;  Switzerland  and  Hungary,  66°;  Ba- 
varia, Sweden,  Tasmania  and  Moscow,  65°;  Patagonia  and  the  Falkland 
Isles,  55°;  Iceland,  45°;  Nova  Zembla,  34°. 
U.  I.-16 


242  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

HISTORIC  COLD  WEATHER. 

1234.    Mediterranean  frozen ;  traffic  with  carts. 

1420.     Bosphorus  frozen. 

1468.    Wine  at  Antwerp  sold  in  blocks. 

1658.    Swedish  artillery  crossed  the  sound. 

1766.    Snow  knee-deep  at  Naples. 

1789.  Fahrenheit  thermometer  marked  23°  below  zero  at  Frankfort,  and  36°  below 
at  Basle. 

1809.    Moscow,  48°  below  zero,  greatest  cold  recorded  there;  mercury  frozen. 

1829.  Jakoutsk,  Siberia,  73°  below  zero  on  the  25th  of  January;  greatest  cold  on 
record. 

.  1846.    December  marked  25°  below  zero  at  Pontarlier ;  lowest  ever  marked  in  France. 

1864.    January,  Fahrenheit  stood  at  zero  in  Turin ;  greatest  cold  recorded  in  Italy. 

Captain  Parry,  in  his  Arctic  explorations,  suffered  for  some  time  fifty-one  degrees 
below  zero  Frost  is  diminishing  in  Canada  with  the  increase  of  population,  as  shown 
by  the  fact  that  Hudson's  Bay  was  closed  from  1828-'37,  184  days  per  annum,  and  from 
1871-'80  only  179  days  per  annnm.  

EXTREME   HEAT    IN    EUROPE. 

In  1303  and  1304  the  Rhine,  lyoire  and  Seine  ran  dry.  The  heat  in 
several  French  provinces  during  the  summer  of  1705  was  equal  to  that  of 
a  glass  furnace.  Meat  could  be  cooked  by  merely  exposing  it  to  the  sun. 
Not  a  soul  dare  venture  out  between  noon  and  4  P.M.  In  1718  many 
shops  had  to  close.  The  theaters  never  opened  their  doors  for  three 
months.  Not  a  drop  of  water  fell  during  six  months.  In  1773  the  ther- 
mometer rose  to  118  degrees.  In  1778  the  heat  of  Bologna  was  so  great 
that  a  great  many  people  were  stifled.  There  was  not  sufficient  air  for 
the  breath,  and  people  had  to  take  refuge  under  the  ground.  In  July, 
1793,  the  heat  again  became  intolerable.  Vegetables  wers  burned  up, 
and  fruit  dried  on  the  trees.  The  furniture  and  wood- work  in  dwelling- 
houses  cracked  and  split  up;  meat,  exposed,  decayed  in  an  hour. 


HORSE  POWER  OF  STEAM  ENGINES. 

The  unit  of  nominal  power  for  steam  engines,  or  the  usual  estimate 
of  dynamical  effect  per  minute  of  a  horse,  called  by  engineers  a  ''horse 
power,"  is  thirty -three  thousand  pounds  at  a  velocity  of  one  foot  per 
minute,  or,  the  effect  of  a  load  of  two  hundred  pounds  raised  by  a  horse 
for  eight  hours  a  day,  at  the  rate  of  two  and  a  half  miles  per  hour,  or 
150  pounds  at  the  rate  of  220  feet  per  minute. 

RULE. — Multiply  the  area  of  the  piston  in  square  inches  by  the  average  force  of 
the  steam  in  pounds  and  by  the  velocity  of  the  piston  in  feet  per  minute;  divide  the 
product  by  thirty-three  thousand,  and  T70  of  the  quotient  equal  the  effective  power. 

TERMS  IN  ELECTRICITY. 

The  technical  terms  used  in  regard  to  electricity  refer  to  units  of  va- 
rious nature.  Thus  the  unit  of  capacity  is  one  farad;  the  unit  of  activity, 
one  watt;  the  unit  of  work,  one  joule;  the  unit  of  quantity,  one  coulomb; 
the  unit  of  current,  one  ampere;  the  unit  of  resistance,  one  ohm;  the  unit 
of  magnetic  field,  one  gauss;  the  unit  of  pressure,  one  volt;  the  unit  of 
force,  one  dyne.  The  names  are  mostly  derived  from  the  names  of  men 
that  have  been  famous  in  the  field  of  electrical  research.  Thus  Michael 
Faraday,  James  Watt  and  James  P.  Joule,  famous  English  discoverers, 
give  their  names  to  the  first  three  units  mentioned;  Charles  A.  Coulomb 
and  Andre  M.  Ampere,  French  inventors,  to  the  two  units  following;  G. 
S.  Ohm  and  Carl  F.  Gauss,  Germans,  name  two  more  units;  and  the  volt 
is  named  from  the  Italian  discoverer,  Volta.  The  dyne  is  derived  from 
the  root  word  of  dynamo,  itself  meaning  force. 


JOTTINGS  IN  SCIENCE. 


243 


HEIGHTS  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  MOUNTAIN  PEAKS. 


ASIA.  Feet- 

Everest,  Himalayas 29,002 

Dapsang,  Karakorums 28,700 

Tagarma,  Pamir 25,800 

Khan-tengri,  Tian-shan 24,000 

AFRICA. 

Kilima-'Njaro 19,680 

Kenia 19.000 

Ruwenzori  18,000 

I4gonyi 14,000 

AUSTRALIA  AND  POLYNESIA. 

Mount  Hercules,  Isle  of  Papua 32,763 

Charles-L,ouis,  New  Guinea 20,000 

Mauna  Koa,  Hawaii 13,805 

Mt.  Cook.  New  Zealand 12,349 

Kinabalu,  Borneo  11,582 

Mt.  Kosciusko,  New  South  Wales ...    7,308 


NORTH  AMERICA. 


Feet. 


Nevada  de  Toluca 19,454 

Orizaba 18,314 

Mount  St.  Elias. 18,010 

Mount  Brown 16,000 

SOUTH  AMERICA. 

Aconcagua 82,867 

Mercedario 22,302 

Gualtieri 22,000 

Huascan 22,000 

EUROPE. 

Mont  Blanc 16,782 

Ben  Nevis 4,406 

Snowdon 3,571 

Carran-Tual 3,414 

Scaw  Fell  Pike 3.210 


CURIOUS  FACTS  ABOUT  FISHES. 

Following  are  some  curious  facts  about  fishes.  While  naturalists 
have  generally  accepted  Cuvier's  view  that  the  existence  of  fishes  is  silent, 
emotionless  and  joyless,  recent  observations  tend  to  show  that  many 
fishes  emit  vocal  sounds.  The  anabas  scandens,  the  climbing  perch  of 
India,  quits  the  water  and  wanders  over  banks  for  considerable  distances, 
and  is  even  said  to  climb  trees  and  bushes.  At  Tranquebar,  Hindoostan, 
may  be  seen  the  strange  spectacle  of  fish  and  shell-fish  dwelling  high 
on  lofty  trees.  The  perch  there  climbs  up  tall  fan-palms  in  pursuit  of 
certain  shell-fish  which  form  his  favorite  food.  Covered  with  viscid 
slime,  he  glides  smoothly  over  the  rough  bark.  Spines,  which  he  may 
sheathe  and  unfold  at  will,  serve  him  like  hands  to  hang  by,  and  with 
the  aid  of  side  fins  and  a  powerful  tail  he  pushes  himself  upward.  One 
species  of  fish,  the  sticklebacks,  are  known  to  build  nests.  There  are 
several  varieties  of  this  fish,  all  natives  of  fresh  water  with  one  or  two 
exceptions.  They  are  found  in  the  Ottawa  River.  The  cyprinodon  is  a 
sightless  fish  which  gropes  in  the  dreary  waters  of  the  Mammoth  Cave  of 
Kentucky. 

The  blind  fish  are  so  sensitive  that  the  sound  made  by  the  dropping 
of  a  grain  of  sand  on  the  water  will  cause  them  to  dart  away  beyond 
reach.  

THE  AURORA  BOREALIS. 
Northern  lights,  or  Aurora  Borealis,  is  the  name  given  to  the  luminous 

Ehenomenon  which  is  seen  towards  the  north  of  the  heavens  by  the  in- 
abitants  of  the  higher  latitudes.  During  the  winter  of  the  northern 
hemisphere,  the  inhabitants  of  the  arctic  zone  are  without  the  light  of 
the  sun  for  months  together,  and  their  long  dreary  night  is  relieved  by 
this  beautiful  meteor,  which  occurs  with  great  frequency  in  those  regions. 
Those  who  have  explored  the  southern  seas  have  seen  the  same  phenom- 
enon in  the  direction  of  the  south  pole,  so  that  the  term  Polar  Lights 
might  be  more  appropriate  than  Northern  Lights  to  designate  the  aurora. 
For  the  phenomenon  as  seen  in  the  southern  hemisphere,  the  name  aurora 
Australis  is  used.  The  appearance  of  the  aurora  borealis  has  been  de- 
scribed by  a  great  variety  of  observers  in  Northern  Europe  and  in  Amer- 
ica, all  of  whom  cive  substantially  the  same  account  of  the  manner  ill 
which  the  phenomenon  takes  place. 


244  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

COMMON   NAMES    OF    CHEMICAL    SUBSTANCES. 

Aqua  Fortis Nitric  Acid. 

Aqua  Regia Nitro-Muriatic  Acid. 

Blue  Vitriol Sulphate  of  Copper. 

Cream  of  Tartar Bitartrate  Potassium. 

Calomel Chloride  of  Mercury. 

Chalk Carbonate  Calcium. 

Salt  of  Tartar Carbonate  of  Potassa. 

Caustic  Potassa Hydrate  Potassium. 

Chloroform Chloride  of  Gormyle. 

Common  Salt Chloride  of  Sodium. 

Copperas,  or  Green  Vitriol Sulphate  of  Iron. 

Corrosive  Sublimate Bi-Chloride  of  Mercury. 

Diamond Pure  Carbon. 

Dry  Alum Sulphate  Alluminum  and  Potassium. 

Epsom  Salts    Sulphate  of  Magnesia. 

IJthiops  Mineral Black  Sulphide  of  Mercury. 

Galena Sulphide  of  Lead. 

Glauber' s-Salt Sulphate  of  Sodium. 

Glucose Grape  Sugar. 

Iron  Pyrites Bi-Sulphide  Iron. 

Jeweler's  Putty Oxide  of  Tin. 

King's  Yellow Sulphide  of  Arsenic. 

laughing  Gas Protoxide  of  Nitrogen. 

Lime Oxide  of  Calcium. 

Lunar  Caustic Nitrate  of  Silver. 

Muriate  of  Lime Chloride  of  Calcium. 

Niter  of  Saltpeter Nitrate  of  Potash. 

Oil  of  Vitriol Sulphuric  Acid. 

Potash Oxide  of  Potassium. 

Realgar Sulphide  of  Arsenic. 

Red  Lead Oxide  of  Lead. 

Rust  of  Iron Oxide  of  Iron. 

Salmoniac Muriate  of  Ammonia. 

Slacked  Lime Hydrate  Calcium. 

Soda Oxide  of  Sodium. 

Spirits  of  Hartshorn Ammonia. 

Spirit  of  Salt        Hydro-Chloric,  or  Muriatic  Acid. 

Stucco,  or  Plaster  of  Paris Sulphate  of  Lime. 

Sugar  of  Lead Acetate  of  Lead. 

Verdigris Basic  Acetate  of  Copper. 

Vermilion Sulphide  of  Mercury. 

Vinegar Acetic  Acid  (diluted). 

Volatile  Alkali Ammonia. 

Water Oxide  of  Hydrogen. 

White  Precipitate Ammoniated  Mercury. 

White  Vitriol Sulphate  of  Zinc. 


THE  NEBULAR  HYPOTHESIS. 

The  nebular  hypothesis,  now  generally  accepted  by  scientists  as  ex- 
plaining, as  far  as  possible  by  human  conception,  the  genesis  of  the 
heavenly  bodies,  was  first  suggested  by  Herschel,  and  developed  by 
L/aplace.  It  assumes  that  the  solar  system  was  once  an  enormous  mass  of 
gaseous  substance.  Rapid  rotation  being  set  up  in  this  gaseous  mass,  it 
took  the  form  of  a  disc,  and  at  last,  centrifugal  force  overcoming  cohe- 
sion, whole  rings  and  fragments  flew  off  from  this  disc,  and  by  centripe- 
tal force  contracted  into  spheroid  masses.  As  in  the  original  mass,  the 
velocity  of  the  outer  circle  of  each  body  thrown  off  is  greater  than  the 
inner  circle,  and  this  causes  each  spheroid  to  revolve  on  its  own  axis. 
This  process  goes  on,  and  the  central  mass  continues  to  cool  and  shrink, 
until  we  have  at  last  a  central  body  with  a  number  of  smaller  spheroidal 
bodies  revolving  around  it  in  orbits  the  smaller  the  nearer  they  are  to  the 
central  orb.  Certain  points  are  assumed  in  this  hypothesis  to  explain  the 
distribution  of  matter  in  our  solar  system.  It  is  assumed  that  in  the 


JOTTINGS  IN  SCIENCE.  245 

throwing  off  of  great  masses  from  the  central  disk,  immense  quantities  of 
minute  particles  were  also  thrown,  which  continued  to  revolve,  in  the 
same  plane  with  the  large  mass,  around  the  center  body.  By  slow  degrees 
these  minute  atoms,  by  the  law  of  gravitation,  were  aggregated  into  the 
mass  nearest  to  them.  These  subordinate  aggregations  would  form  with 
most  difficulty  nearest  the  large  central  mass,  because  of  the  superior  at- 
tractive force  of  the  latter,  wherefore  the  interior  planets— Mercury, 
Venus,  the  Earth,  Mars— are  smaller  than  the  two  great  orbs  in  the  zone 
beyond  them.  These  two  enormous  planets,  Jupiter  and  Saturn,  occupy 
the  space  where  conditions  are  most  favorable  to  subordinate  aggrega- 
tions, but,  beyond  them,  the  gravity  of  aggregating  material  becomes 
reduced,  and  so  the  planets  found  in  the  outer  zone,  Uranus  and  Neptune, 
are  smaller  than  the  planets  of  the  middle  zone. 


AEROLITES. 

B.C.  654,  a  shower  of  stone  fell  on  the  Alban  Mount  (Livy.) 

B.C.  467,  a  great  stone  fell  at  ^gospotSmi,  on  the  Hellespont  (Par- 
ian Chronicle).  Pliny  says  it  was  about  the  size  of  a  wagon. 

A.D.  1492,  November  7,  a  ponderous  stone,  weighing  250  pounds, 
fell  from  the  sky  near  the  town  of  Ensisheim,  in  Upper  Alsace.  A  part 
of  it  is  still  preserved  in  the  parish  church.  The  Emperor  Maximilian 
witnessed  the  fall  of  this  meteor,  and  had  the  stone  placed  in  the  church 
to  prove  that  "God  insisted  on  a  crusade  against  the  Turks." 

A.D.  1510,  there  was  a  great  fall  of  meteors  in  Lombardy,  some  sixty 
pounds  in  weight,  and  some  as  much  as  120  pounds.  They  were  of  a 
rusty  color. 

A.D.  1627,  November  27,  a  stone  weighing  fifty-nine  pounds  fell  on 
Mount  Vassier,  in  Provence.  This  is  attested  by  Gassendi. 

A.D.  1751,  May  26.  Two  masses  fell  at  Agram,  in  Sclavonia,  one 
weighing  sixteen  pounds  and  the  other  seventy-one  pounds.  The  analy- 
sis of  these  stones  by  Klaproth  is  preserved  in  the  Vienna  museum 
(ninety-five  parts  are  iron,  three  nickel). 

A.D.  1803,  April  26.  A  shower  of  stones  fell  near  L'Aigle.  M.  Biot 
was  deputed  by  the  French  Government  to  repair  to  the  spot  and  report 
on  the  phenomenon.  Between  two  thousand  and  three  thousand  stones 
had  fallen,  the  largest  being  seventeen  pounds  in  weight. 

A.D.  1807,  March  13.  A  stone  fell  at  Smolensk,  in  Russia,  weigh- 
ing 160  pounds.  It  was  black  and  shiny. 

A.D.  1813,  September  10.  A  stone  weighing  seventeen  pounds  fell 
in  the  county  of  Limerick,  at  10  o'clock  in  the  morning. 

A.D.  1815,  February  15.  A  stone  weighing  twenty-five  pounds  fell 
in  the  town  of  Dooralla,  in  British  India.  The  Indians  consecrated  it  in 
a  temple,  and  approach  it  with  reverence  and  clasped  hands. 

A.D.  1822,  June  2,  Sunday,  3  o'clock  p.  M.  An  aerolith  fell,  at  Gis- 
lingham.  Suffolk.  It  made  a  deep  hole  in  the  earth  and  then  bounded 
off  and  burst.  It  fell  with  a  tremendous  noise,  like  crashing  thunder. 

In  the  Imperial  Museum  of  St.  Petersburg  is  an  immense  mass.  The 
fall  was  witnessed  by  Pallas  in  Siberia. 

The  largest  aerolith  known  is  one  which  fell  in  Brazil.  It  is  estim- 
ated to  weigh  about  thirty  tons. 

A.D.  1887.  An  aerolith  fell  near  St.  Joseph,  in  the  West  Indies. 
It  weighs  two  tons  and  buried  itself  in  the  earth  between  fifteen  and 
eighteen  feet. 


246  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

HOW  WE  MEASURE  THE  EARTH. 

The  circumference  of  the  earth  is  measured  in  this  way:  Suppose  two 
astronomers,  A  and  B,  stationed  on  the  same  meridian,  a  certain  distance 
apart,  and  with  accurate  instruments,  should  make  careful  observations 
on  a  certain  star  at  the  moment  it  crossed  the  meridian;  and  A  should 
find  the  star  16  degrees  south  of  the  zenith,  and  B,  who  is  exactly 
415  miles  south  of  A,  should  find  it  only  10  degrees  south  of  the  zenith; 
there  would  then  be  a  difference  of  6  degrees  between  the  two  places;  and 
as  they  are  415  miles  apart,  one  degree  must  be  J/6th  of  415  or  69  ^£th  miles. 
Now,  if  one  degree,  which  is  the  360th  part  of  the  earth's  circumference,  is 
69  l/6  miles,  the  whole  circumference  must  be  360  times  69  y$t  or  24,900 
miles.  

WHAT    IS    VENTRILOQUISM? 

Ventriloquism  is  the  art  of  producing  tones  and  words  without  any 
motion  of  the  mouth,  so  that  the  hearer  is  induced  to  refer  the  sound  to 
some  other  place.  It  does  not  depend  on  any  peculiar  structure  of  the 
organs  of  voice,  but  upon  practice  and  dexterity.  The  name  is  founded 
upon  the  mistaken  supposition  that  the  voice  proceeds  from  the  belly. 
The  art  of  the  ventriloquist  consists  mainly  in  taking  a  deep  inhalation 
of  breath,  and  then  allowing  it  to  escape  slowly;  the  sounds  of  the  voice 
being  modified  and  muffled  by  means  of  the  muscles  of  the  upper  part  of 
the  throat  and  of  the  palate.  The  ventriloquist  avails  himself  at  the  same 
time  of  means  such  as  are  employed  by  slight-of-hand  performers  to 
mislead  the  attention.  Ventriloquism  is  a  very  ancient  art;  the  Greeks 
ascribed  it  to  the  operation  of  demons,  and  called  ventriloquists  Epaast- 
rimanteis  ( '  'belly-prophets. ' ' ) 

SOME  FACTS  IN  HYDRAULICS. 

A  gallon  of  water  (U.  S.  standard)  weighs  8^  pounds  and  contains 
231  cubic  inches.  A  cubic  foot  of  water  weighs  62  j^  pounds,  and  con- 
tains 1,728  cubic  inches  or  iy2  gallons. 

Doubling  the  diameter  of  a  pipe  increases  its  capacity  four  times. 
Friction  of  liquids  in  pipes  increases  as  the  square  of  the  velocity. 

The  mean  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  is  usually  estimated  at  14.7 
pounds  per  square  inch,  so  that  with  a  perfect  vacuum  it  will  sustain  a 
column  of  mercury  20.9  inches  or  a  column  of  water  33.9  feet  high. 

To  find  the  pressure  in  pounds  per  square  inch  of  a  column  of  water, 
multiply  the  height  of  the  column  in  feet  by  .434.  "  Approximately  we 
say  that  every  foot  elevation  is  equal  to  %  pound  pressure  per  square 
inch;  this  allows  for  ordinary  friction. 

To  find  the  diameter  of  a  pump  cylinder  to  move  a  given  quantity 
of  water  per  minute  (hundred  feet  of  piston  being  the  standard  of  speed), 
divide  the  number  of  gallons  by  four,  then  extract  the  square  root,  and 
the  product  will  be  the  diameter  in  inches  of  the  pump  cylinder. 

To  find  the  quantity  of  water  elevated  in  one  minute  running  at  one 
hundred  feet  of  piston  speed  per  minute:  Square  the  diameter  of  the  water 
cylinder  in  inches  and  multiply  by  four.  Example:  Capacity  of  a  five- 
inch  cylinder  is  desired.  The  square  of  the  diameter  (five  inches)  is 
twenty-five,  which,  multiplied  by  four,  gives  one  hundred,  the  number  of 
gallons  per  minute  (approximately). 

To  find  the  horse  power  necessary  to  elevate  water  to  a  given  height, 
multiply  the  total  weight  of  the  water  in  pounds  by  the  height  in  feet 


JOTTINGS  IN  SCIENCE.  247 

and  divide  the  product  by  33,000  (an  allowance  of  twenty-five  per  cent 
should  be  added  for  water  friction,  and  a  further  allowance  of  twenty- 
five  per  cent  for  loss  in  steam  cylinder). 

The  area  of  the  steam  piston,  multiplied  by  the  steam  pressure,  gives 
the  total  amount  of  pressure  that  can  be  exerted.  The  area  of  the  water 
piston  multiplied  by  the  pressure  of  water  per  square  inch  gives  the  re- 
sistance. A  margin  must  be  made  between  the  power  and  the  resistance 
to  move  the  pistons  at  the  required  speed— say  from  twenty  to  forty  per 
cent,  according  to  speed  and  other  conditions. 

To  find  the  capacity  of  a  cylinder  in  gallons.  Multiplying  the  area 
in  inches,  by  the  length  of  stroke  in  inches,  will  give  the  total  number 
of  cubic  inches;  divide  this  amount  by  231  (which  is  the  cubical  contents 
of  a  U.  S.  gallon  in  inches),  and  the  product  is  the  capacity  in  gallons. 


GENESIS  OF  HELIOGRAPHY.    . 

As  long  ago  as  333  years  before  Christ,  Alexander  the  Great  employed 
mirrors  to  convey  signals  by  the  light  of  the  sun.  Since  the  time  of  the 
great  warrior  the  idea  has  been  reduced  to  a  science  and  called  "  heliog- 
raphy."  The  heliostat,  an  instrument  invented  in  Holland  early  in 
the  eighteenth  century,  and  the  heliograph,  invented  by  Manse  in  1875, 
have  both  been  used  by  the  British  army  in  their  eastern  campaigns. 
The  instruments  mentioned  differ  somewhat  in  construction,  but  the  re- 
sults are  the  same,  no  matter  which  instrument  is  used.  In  both  signals 
are  produced  by  causing  a  reflected  ray  of  the  sun  to  appear  and  disap- 
pear alternately  at  a  distant  point,  the  intervals  of  appearance  and  ob- 
scuration being  carried  in  lengths  so  as  to  produce  the  combination  of 
long  and  short  signals  known  as  the  Morse  alphabet.  In  these  instru- 
ments the  reflecting  body  is  a  glass  mirror,  which  varies  in  size  accord- 
ing to  the  distance  to  which  it  is  desired  to  signal.  A  five-inch  mirror 
has  given  under  favorable  atmospheric  conditions  distinct  signals  that 
could  be  read  sixty  miles  away.  The  heliograph  has  also  been  found  to 
be  of  great  service  in  defining  distant  points  of  large  surveys  and  was 
used  to  a  fine  advantage  in  verifying  the  arc  of  the  meridian  by  the 
astronomers  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  a  few  years  ago. 


THE  ARTESIAN  WELL. 

A  most  valuable  source  of  water  supply  are  the  artesian  wells,  which 
are  perpendicular  borings  into  the  ground,  through  which  water  rises 
from  various  depths,  according  to  circumstances,  above  the  surface  of  the 
soil.  The  possibility  of  success  in  a  particular  district  depends  on  its 
geological  structure.  All  rocks  contain  more  or  less  water.  Arenaceous 
rocks  receive  water  mechanically,  and,  according  to  their  compactness 
and  purity,  part  with  a  larger  or  smaller  proportion  of  it.  A  cubic  yard 
of  pure  sea-sand  can  contain  about  one-third  of  its  bulk  of  water.  It 
would  part  with  nearly  the  whole  of  this  into  a  well  sunk  in  it  and  regu- 
larly pumped  from.  Chalk  and  other  rocks,  composed  of  fine  particles 
closely  compacted  together,  contain  as  large  a  proportion  of  water;  but 
from  the  power  of  capillary  attraction  little  or  none  of  this  water  would 
be  drained  into  a  well  sunk  in  such  rock.  From  the  existence,  however, 
of  numerous  crevices  in  chalk  through  which  the  water  freely  flows, 
and  from  the  general  presence  of  a  larger  quantity  of  water  than  the 
porous  rock  is  able  to  retain,  wells  sunk  in  chalk  often  yield  water. 


248  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

There  is  yet  a  third  class  of  rocks  which  are  perfectly  impervious  to 
water:  such  are  clays,  which  are  absolutely  retentive,  neither  allowing 
water  to  be  obtained  from  them  nor  to  pass  through  them.  The  most 
famous  artesian  well,  perhaps,  is  that  of  Grenelle,  near  Paris,  which 
was  bored  in  1833-41,  and  whose  water  is  brought  from  the  gault  at  a 
depth  of  1,798  feet.  It  yields  516^  gallons  of  water  in  a  minute,  pro- 
pelled thirty-two  feet  above  the  surface;  temperature,  81° "7  F.  An 
artesian  well  bored  at  Pesth  in  1868-79  yields,  at  a  depth  of  3482  feet, 
water  of  a  temperature  of  165°  F.  In  the  United  States  numerous  arte- 
sian wells  have  been  sunk,  some  of  great  depth,  among  which  are  two 
in  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  2,197  and  3,843 X  feet  deep  respectively;  several 
in  Chicago  of  from  700  to  1,200  feet  in  depth;  one  in  Louisville,  Ken- 
tucky, 2,086  feet  deep;  one  in  Columbus,  Ohio,  2,775>£  feet  in  depth, 
with  many  others  from  500  to  2,000  feet  deep. 


LAST  WORD  ON  ELECTRICITY. 

As  to  the  question  of  the  real  nature  of  electricity,  recent  experi- 
ments and  further  knowledge  of  its  properties  rather  open  fresh  avenues 
to  new  hypotheses  than  point  to  the  truth  of  any  one  special  theory. 
Some  identify  electricity  with  energy,  some  with  matter,  and  some  with 
the  subtle  all-pervading  "ether."  At  all  events  it  has  been  computed 
that  in  every  single  cubic  foot  of  ether  there  are  locked  up  10,000  foot- 
tons  of  energy!  The  latest  researches  give  well-founded  hopes  that  this 
inconceivably  vast  storehouse  of  power  will  one  day  be  accessible  to 
man.  And  herein  lies  the  splendid  possibility  of  a  new  and  mighty  suc- 
cessor to  the  decreasing  energy  of  our  coal-fields,  with  the  speedy  ex- 
tinction of  which  alarmists  threaten  us.  By  creating  in  a  room  a  pow- 
erful electrostatic  field  alternating  very  rapidly,  Professor  Nicholas  Tesla 
brought  it  to  such  a  state  that  illuminating  appliances  could  be  placed 
anywhere,  and  kept  lighted  without  being  electrically  connected  with 
anything!  He  suspended  two  sheets  of  metal,  each  connected  with  a 
terminal  of  the  electric  coil,  between  which  an  exhausted  tube,  carried 
any  whither,  remained  always  luminous.  A  true  flame  can  now  therefore 
be  produced  without  chemical  aid — a  flame  yielding  light  and  heat  with- 
out the  consumption  of  material  or  any  chemical  process!  Further, 
these  and  similar  experiments  on  electric  radiation,  which  now  advances 
so  brilliantly  to  the  forefront,  by  Tesla  and  Crookes,  etc.,  point  to  the 
bewildering  possibility  of  telegraphy  without  wires,  without  cables, 
without  posts.  There  is  considerable  evidence  to  show  that,  could  the 
electric  ether-waves  be  obtained  sufficiently  short,  the  rays  would  fall 
within  the  limits  of  visibility,  and  thus  place  the  final  crown  of  proof 
on  the  magnificent  experiments  ot  Hertz  and  others,  who  would  make 
light  an  electric  phenomenon. 

As  regards  the  effect  on  the  human  body  of  alternating  currents  of 
very  high  frequency  (which  at  best  have  a  very  doubtful  reputation)  it 
has  been  found  that,  as  the  rapidity  of  the  alternation  increases,  they 
become,  not  more,  but  less  dangerous.  In  fact,  Tatum  has  shown  that 
their  fatal  effects  are  nearly  inversely  proportionate  to  their  frequency. 
Thus,  with  currents  alternating  about  5,000  per  second,  the  current 
needed  to  become  fatal  is  about  10  times  greater  than  at  the  ordinary  low 
frequency  of  about  120  per  second.  With  still  higher  frequencies  used 
by  Tesla  (up  to  20,000  per  sec.)  the  currents  are  incomparably  less  dan- 
gerous than  at  low  frequencies;  but  still  altogether  harmless. 


PLAIN  LAW  FOR  PLAIN  PEOPLE. 


The  lawless  science  of  our  law, 
That  codeless  myriad  of  precedent, 
That  wilderness  of  single  instances, 
Through  which  a  few,  by  wit  or  fortune  led, 
May  beat  a  pathway  out  to  wealth  and  fame. 

— TENNYSON. 

A  DEFINITION  WITH  A  PURPOSE. 

Blackstone  defines  law  as  the  rules  of  human  action  or  conduct,  but 
what  is  commonly  understood  by  the  term  is  the  civil  or  municipal  regu- 
lations of  a  nation  as  applied  to  a  particular  country.  The  forms  of  law 
which  govern  civil  contracts  and  business  intercourse  are  distinguished 
as  statute  and  common.  Statute  law  is  the  written  law  of  the  land,  as 
enacted  by  State  or  national  legislative  bodies.  The  common  law  is 
grounded  on  the  general  customs  of  England,  and  includes  the  law  of 
nature,  the  law  of  God,  the  principles  and  maxims  of  the  law  and  the  de- 
cisions of  the  superior  courts.  It  overrides  both  the  canon  and  the  civil 
law  where  they  go  beyond  or  are  inconsistent  with  it.  To  the  man  in- 
volved in  litigation  the  best  advice  is  to  go  to  the  best  lawyer  he  can  find. 
But  an  ounce  of  prevention  is  worth  a  pound  of  cure,  and  the  purpose,  of 
the  following  pages  is  to  furnish  the  ounce  of  prevention.  Knowledge 
is  power  in  nothing  so  much  as  in  business  law,  especially  since  the  law 
presumes  that  no  man  is  ignorant  of  the  law. 


BUSINESS  LAW  IN  BRIEF. 
It  is  a  fraud  to  conceal  a  fraud. 
Ignorance  of  the  law  excuses  no  one. 
A  contract  made  on  a  Sunday  is  void. 
A  contract  made  with  a  lunatic  is  void. 
The  act  of  one  partner  binds  all  the  others. 
An  agreement  without  consideration  is  void. 
The  law  compels  no  one  to  do  impossibilities. 
Agents  are  liable  to  their  principals  for  errors. 
Principals  are  liable  for  the  acts  of  their  agents. 
A  receipt  for  money  paid  is  not  legally  conclusive. 
Signatures  made  with  a  lead  pencil  are  good  in  law. 
The  seal  of  a  party  to  a  written  contract  imports  consideration. 
If  no  time  of  payment  is  specified  in  a  note  it  is  payable  on  demand. 

249 


250  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

An  outlawed  debt  is  revived  should  the  debtor  make  a  partial  pay- 
ment. 

A  check  indorsed  by  the  payee  is  evidence  of  payment  in  the  drawer's 
hands. 

A  lease  of  land  for  a  longer  term  than  one  year  is  void  unless  in 
writing. 

Notes  obtained  by  fraud,  or  made  by  an  intoxicated  person,  are  not 
collectable. 

Each  individual  in  a  partnership  is  liable  for  the  whole  amount  of 
the  debts  of  the  firm. 

An  indorser  can  avoid  liability  by  writing  "without  recourse" 
beneath  his  signature. 

A  note  which  does  not  state  on  its  face  that  it  bears  interest,  will  bear 
interest  only  after  due. 

A  contract  made  with  a  minor  cannot  be  enforced  against  him.  A 
note  made  by  a  minor  is  voidable. 

An  indorser  of  a  note  is  exempt  from  liability  if  notice  of  its  dis- 
honor is  not  mailed  or  served  within  twenty -four  hours  of  its  non-pay- 
ment. 

In  case  of  the  death  of  the  principal  maker  of  a  note  the  holder  is 
not  required  to  notify  a  surety  that  the  note  is  not  paid,  before  the  settle- 
ment of  the  maker's  estate. 

If  negotiable  paper,  pledged  to  a  bank  as  security  for  the  payment  of 
a  loan  or  debt,  falls  due,  and  the  bank  fails  to  demand  payment  and  have 
it  protested  when  dishonored,  the  bank  is  liable  to  the  owner  for  the  full 
amount  of  the  paper. 

Sometimes  the  holder  of  paper  has  the  right  to  demand  payment 
before  maturity;  for  instance,  when  a  draft  has  been  protested  for  non- 
acceptance  and  the  proper  notices  served,  the  holder  may  at  once  proceed 
against  the  drawer  and  indorsers. 

Negotiable  paper,  payable  to  bearer  or  indorsed  in  blank,  which  has 
been  stolen  or  lost,  cannot  be  collected  by  the  thief  or  finder,  but  a  holder 
who  receives  it  in  good  faith  before  maturity,  for  value,  can  hold  it  against 
the  owner's  claims  at  the  time  it  was  lost. 

Want  of  consideration — a  common  defense  interposed  to  the  payment 
of  negotiable  paper — is  a  good  defense  between  the  original  parties  to 
the  paper;  but  after  it  has  been  transferred  before  maturity,  to  an  in- 
nocent holder,  for  value,  it  is  not  a  defense. 

If  a  note  or  draft  is  to  be  paid  in  the  State  where  it  is  made,  the  con- 
tract will  be  governed  by  the  laws  of  that  State.  When  negotiable  paper 
is  payable  in  a  State  other  than  that  in  which  it  is  made,  the  laws  of  that 
State  will  govern  it.  Marriage  contracts,  if  valid  where  they  are  made, 
are  valid  everywhere.  Contracts  relating  to  personal  property  are  gov- 
erned by  the  laws  of  the  place  where  made,  except  those  relating  to  real 
estate,  which  are  governed  by  the  laws  of  the  place  where  the  land  is 
situated. 

AGREEMENTS  AND  CONTRACTS. 

A  contract  or  agreement  is  where  a  promise  is  made  on  one  side  and 
assented  to  on  the  other,  or  where  two  or  more  persons  enter  into  en- 
gagement with  each  other  by  a  promise  on  either  side.  In  a  written 


PLAIN  LA  W  FOR  PLAIN  PEOPLE.  251 

contract  assent  is  proved  by  the  signature  or  mark.  In  verbal  agree- 
ments it  may  be  given  by  a  word  or  a  nod,  by  shaking  of  hands,  or  by  a 
sign.  The  old  saw,  "Silence  gives  consent,"  is  often  upheld  in  law. 

The  conditions  of  a  contract,  as  applying  to  individuals,  are:  1.  Age; 
2.  Rationality;  and  3,  as -to  corporations,  the  possession  of  general  or 
special  statutory  powers. 

Persons  under  age  are  incompetent  to  make  contracts,  except  under 
certain  limitations.  Generally  such  persons  are  incapable  of  making 
binding  contracts. 

As  to  rationality,  the  general  principle  of  law  is  that  all  persons  not 
rendered  incompetent  by  personal  disability,  or  by  considerations  of 
public  policy,  are  capable  of  making  a  contract. 

Corporations  have  powers  to  make  contracts  strictly  within  the  limits 
prescribed  by  their  charters,  or  by  special  or  general  statute. 

The  first  step  toward  a  contract  is  the  proposition  or  offer,  which 
may  be  withdrawn  at  any  time  before  it  is  agreed  to.  When  the  proposi- 
tion is  verbal,  and  no  time  is  specified,  it  is  not  binding  unless  accepted 
at  once.  To  give  one  the  option  or  refusal  of  property  at  a  specified 
price,  is  simply  to  give  him  a  certain  time  to  make  up  his  mind  whether 
he  wrill  buy  the  property  or  not.  To  make  the  option  binding  he 
must  accept  within  the  time  named.  The  party  giving  the  option  has 
the  right  to  withdraw  it,  and  sell  the  property  to  another,  at  any  time 
previous  to  its  acceptance,  if  the  offer  is  gratuitous,  and  there  is  no  con- 
sideration to  support  it. 

If  a  letter  of  acceptance  is  mailed,  and  immediately  after  a  letter 
withdrawing  the  offer  is  received,  the  contract  is  binding.  An  acceptance 
takes  effect  from  the  time  it  is  mailed,  not  from  the  time  it  is  received; 
it  must,  however,  be  in  accordance  with  the  original  proposition,  for  any 
new  matter  introduced  would  constitute  a  new  offer.  When  the  offer  is 
accepted,  either  verbally  or  in  writing,  it  is  an  express  assent,  and  is 
binding. 

A  contract  under  a  mistake  of  law  is  not  void.  Everybody  is  pre- 
sumed to  know  the  law.  This,  however,  applies  only  to  contracts  per- 
mitted by  law  and  clear  of  fraud. 

A  refusal  of  an  offer  cannot  be  retracted  without  the  consent  of  the 
second  party.  Once  a  proposition  is  refused,  the  matter  is  ended.  And  no 
one  has  the  right  to  accept  an  offer  except  the  person  to  whom  it  was  made. 

The  consideration  is  the  reason  or  thing  for  which  the  parties  bind 
themselves  in  the  contract,  and  it  is  either  a  benefit  to  the  promisor  or 
an  injury  to  the  other  party.  Considerations  are  technically  divided 
into  valuable  and  good,  and  it  sometimes  happens  that  the  consideration 
need  not  be  expressed,  but  is  implied.  A  valuable  consideration  is  either 
money  or  property  or  service  to  be  given,  or  some  injury  to  be  endured. 
A  promise  to  marry  is  considered  a  valuable  consideration.  A  good  con- 
sideration means  that  the  contract  is  entered  into  because  of  consanguin- 
ity or  affection,  which  will  support  the  contract  when  executed,  but  will 
not  support  an  action  to  enforce  an  executory  contract.  Whether  a 
consideration  is  sufficient  or  not  is  tested  by  its  being  a  benefit  to  the 
promisor  or  an  injury  to  the  other  party.  If  it  has  a  legal  value,  it  makes 
no  difference  how  small  that  value  may  be.  The  promisor  need  not  always 
be  benefited,  as,  for  instance,  the  indorser  of  a  note,  who  is  liable  although 
he  gets  no  benefit.  But  if  a  person  promises  to  do  something  himself 
for  which  no  consideration  is  to  be  received,  there  is  no  cause  of  action 
for  breach  of  the  contract. 


252  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

There  are  several  causes  which  void  contracts,  first  among  which  is 
fraud.  Fraud  is  defined  to  be  ' '  every  kind  of  artifice  employed  by  one  per- 
son for  the  purpose  of  wilfully  deceiving  another  to  his  injury. ' '  No  fraud- 
ulent contract  will  stand  in  law  or  in  equity.  The  party  upon  whom  the 
fraud  has  been  practiced  must  void  the  contract  as  soon  as  he  discovers 
the  fraud,  for  if  he  goes  on  after  having  knowledge  of  the  fraud  he  can- 
not afterwards  void  it.  But  the  one  who  perpetrates  the  fraud  cannot 
plead  that  ground  for  voiding  it.  Contracts  in  restraint  of  trade  are 
void,  as  also  .are  contracts  in  opposition  to  public  policy,  impeding  the 
course^  of  justice,  in  restraint  of  marriage,  contrary  to  the  insolvent  acts, 
or  for  immoral  purposes.  Any  violation  of  the  essential  requisites  of  a 
contract,  or  the  omission  of  an  essential  requisite,  will  void  it. 

DON'T  make  a  contract  with  a  person  of  unsound  mind  or  under  the 
influence  of  liquor,  or  otherwise  under  restraint  of  liberty,  mind  or 
body.  Use  caution  in  making  contracts  with  an  illiterate,  blind  or  dea 
and  dumb  person,  and  see  to  it  that  witnesses  are  present. 

DON'T  put  a  forced  construction  on  a  contract — the  intent  of  the 
parties  is  a  contract. 

DON'T  suppose  that  you  can  withdraw  a  proposition  made  in  writing 
and  sent  by  mail  after  the  party  to  whom  it  was  made  has  mailed  an  un- 
conditional acceptance. 

DON'T  suppose  that  a  conditional  acceptance  of  a  proposition  is 
binding  on  the  party  making  the  proposition. 

DON'T  forget  that  the  courts  will  construe  a  contract  according  to 
the  law  prevailing  where  it  was  made. 

DON'T  forget  that  the  law  says,  "  no  consideration,  no  contract,"  and 
that  the  courts  will  not  enforce  a  contract  which  is  too  severe  in  its  pro- 
visions. 

DON'T  sign  an  agreement  unless  you  have  carefully  weighed  its  pro- 
visions, which  should  all  be  fixed  and  certain. 


NOTES    AND    NEGOTIABLE    PAPER. 

The  superstructure  of  business  as  it  exists  today  rests  on  the  broad 
foundation  of  confidence — the  result  of  what  may  be  called  the  evolution 
of  commerce,  and  the  principal  stages  in  this  evolution  are  an  interest- 
ing study.  First  there  was  only  barter  in  kind,  as  still  practiced  among 
savages — for  example,  the  exchange  of  a  bushel  of  corn  for  a  handful  of 
arrow-heads.  Then  came  the  introduction  of  money  as  a  medium  of  ex- 
change; and  today  we  have  the  substitution  of  negotiable  paper  as  docu- 
mentary evidence  of  indebtedness,  including  promissory  notes,  due  bills, 
drafts,  checks,  certificates  of  deposit,  bills  of  exchange,  bank  bills, 
treasury  notes  (greenbacks),  and  all  other  evidences  of  debt,  the  owner- 
ship of  which  may  be  transferred  from  one  person  to  another. 

The  mere  acknowledgement  of  debt  is  not  sufficient  to  make  negotia- 
ble paper;  the  promise  of  payment  or  an  order  on  someone  to  pay  is  in- 
dispensable. This  promise  must  be  for  money  only.  The  amount  must 
be  exactly  specified.  The  title  must  be  transferable.  This  feature  must 
be  visible  on  the  face  of  the  paper  by  the  use  of  such  words  as  "bearer" 
or  '  'order. ' '  In  some  of  the  States  peculiar  phrases  are  ordered  by  statute, 

as  "Payable  without  defalcation  or  discount,"  or  "Payable  at ," 

naming  the  bank  or  office. 

A  written  agreement,  signed  by  one  person,  to  pay  another,  at  a  fixed 
time,  a  stated  sum  of  money,  is  a  promissory  note.  It  becomes  negotia. 


PLAIN  LA  W  FOR  PLAIN  PEOPLE,  253 

ble  by  being  made  payable  to  an  order  on  some  one  or  to  bearer.  As  it  is 
a  contract,  a  consideration  is  one  of  its  essential  elements.  Yet,  although 
it  be  void  as  between  the  two  first  parties,  being  negotiable  and  coming 
into  the  hands  of  another  person  who  gives  value  for  it,  not  knowing  of 
its  defect,  it  has  full  force  and  may  be  collected. 

The  date  is  of  great  consequence.  In  computing  time  the  day  of 
date  is  not  counted,  but  it  is  the  fixed  point  beginning  the  time  at  the 
end  of  which  payment  must  be  made.  Omission  of  the  date  does  not  de- 
stroy a  note,  but  the  holder  must  prove  to  the  time  of  its  making.  The 
promise  to  pay  must  be  precise  as  to  time  which  the  note  is  to  run.  It 
must  be  at  a  fixed  period,  or  conditional  upon  the  occurrence  of  some- 
thing certain  to  happen,  as  "at  sight"  "five  days  after  sight,"  "on  de- 
mand," "three  months  after  date,"  "ten  days  after  the  death  of  John 
Doe."  The  time  not  being  specified,  the  note  is  considered  "payable  on 
demand." 

The  maker,  the  person  who  promises  and  whose  signature  the  note 
bears,  must  be  competent.  Insane  people  and  idiots  are  naturally,  and 
aliens,  minors  and  married  women  may  be  legally,  incompetent.  The 
maker  is  responsible  and  binds  himself  to  pay  the  amount  stated  on  the 
note  at  its  maturity.  He  need  not  pay  it  before  it  becomes  due,  but 
should  he  do  so  and  neglect  to  cancel  the  note,  he  would  be  again  respon- 
sible if  any  other  person,  without  knowledge  of  such  payment,  acquired 
it  for  value  before  maturity.  Even  a  receipt  for  payment  from  the  first 
payee  would  not  stand  good  against  the  subsequent  holder. 

The  payee  is  the  person  in  whose  favor  the  note  is  drawn — the  legal 
holder,  the  person  to  whom  the  money  must  be  paid.  When  a  note  is 
made  payable  simply  to  bearer,  without  naming  the  payee,  any  one  hold- 
ing the  note  honestly  may  collect. 

A  subsequent  party,  one  who  comes  into  possession  of  the  note  after 
the  original  holder,  has  a  better  claim  than  the  first  one,  for  the  reason 
that  between  the  maker  and  the  first  payee  there  may  have  been,  in  the 
contract,  some  understanding  or  condition  militating  against  the  pay- 
ment when  it  would  become  due,  but  the  third  person,  knowing  nothing  of 
this,  gives  his  value  and  receives  the  note.  The  law  will  always  sustain 
the  subsequent  party. 

The  indorser  is  held  responsible  if  the  maker  fails  to  pay  when  the 
note  arrives  at  maturity.  A  note  payable  to  order  must  be  indorsed  by 
a  holder  upon  passing  it  to  another,  and,  as  value  has  been  given  each 
time,  the  last  holder  will  look  to  his  next  preceding  one  and  to  all  the 
others. 

A  note,  being  on  deposit  as  collateral  security,  becoming  due,  the 
temporary  holder  is  the  payee  and  must  collect. 

An  indorsement  is  a  writing  across  the  back  of  the  note,  which  makes 
the  writer  responsible  for  the  amount  of  the  note.  There  are  various 
forms  of  indorsement: 

1.  In  blank,  the  indorser  simply  writing  his  name  on  the  back  of  the 
note. 

2.  General,  or  in  full,  the  indorser  writing  above  his  signature, 
"Pay "  or  "Pay or  order." 

3.  Qualified,  the  words  "without  recourse"   being   used  after  the 
name  of  the  payee  in  the  indorsement. 

4.  Conditional,  a  condition  being  stated,  as:  "Pay ,  unless 

payment  forbidden  beiore  maturity. ' ' 

5.  Restrictive,  as:  "Pay only." 


254  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

The  blank  indorsement,  the  full  indorsement  and  the  general  in- 
dorsement are  practically  the  same;  each  entitles  the  holder  of  the  note 
to  the  money,  and  to  look  to  the  indorser  for  payment  if  the  maker  of 
the  note  defaults.  It  has  even  been  held  that  in  a  general  indorsement 
the  holder  had  the  right  to  fill  in  the  words  "or  order"  if  he  saw  fit. 
The  qualified  indorsement  releases  the  indorser  from  any  liability  in 
case  the  maker  of  the  note  defaults.  The  conditional  and  restrictive 
indorsement  are  used  only  in  special  cases.  Bach  indorser  is  severally 
and  collectively  liable  for  the  whole  amount  of  the  note  indorsed  if  it  is 
dishonored,  provided  it  is  duly  protested  and  notice  given  to  each.  The 
indorser  looks  to  the  man  who  indorsed  it  before  him,  and  so  back  to 
the  original  maker  of  the  note.  As  soon  as  a  note  is  protested,  it  is 
vitally  necessary  that  notice  should  be  sent  to  each  person  interested  at 
once. 

To  BE  ON  THE  SAFE  SIDE,  it  is  well  to  see  to  it  that  any  note  offered 
for  negotiation — 

Is  dated  correctly; 

Specifies  the  amount  of  money  to  be  paid; 

Names  the  person  to  whom  it  is  to  be  paid; 

Includes  the  words  ''or  order"  after  the  name  of  the  payee,  if  it  is 
desired  to  make  the  note  negotiable; 

Appoints  a  place  where  the  payment  is  to  be  made; 

States  that  the  note  is  made  "for  value  received;" 

And  is  signed  by  the  maker  or  his  duly  authorized  representative. 

In  some  States  phrases  are  required  in  the  body  of  the  note,  such  as, 
"without  defalcation  or  discount;"  but,  as  a  general  thing,  that  fact  is 
understood  without  the  statement. 


PARTNERSHIP. 

The  general  rule  is  that  every  person  of  sound  mind,  and  not  other- 
wise restrained  by  law,  may  enter  into  a  contract  of  partnership. 
There  are  several  kinds  of  partners: 

1.  Ostensible  partners,  or  those  whose  names  are  made  public  as 
partners,  and  who  in  reality  are  such,  and  who  take  ail  the  benefits  and 
risks. 

2.  Nominal  partners,  or  those  who  appear  before  the  public  as  part- 
ners, but  who  have  no  real  interest  in  the  business. 

3.  Dormant,  or  silent  partners,  or  those  whose  names  are  not  known 
or  do  not  appear  as  partners,  but  who,  nevertheless,  have  an  interest  in 
the  business. 

4.  Special,  or  limited  partners,  or  those  who  are  interested  in  the 
business  only  to  the  amount  of  the  capital  they  have  invested  in  it. 

5.  General  partners,  who  manage  the  business,  while  the  capital, 
either  in  whole  or  in  part,  is  supplied  by  a  special  partner  or  partners. 
They  are  liable  for  all  the  debts  and  contracts  of  the  firm. 

A  nominal  partner  renders  himself  liable  for  all  the  debts  and  con- 
tracts of  the  firm. 

A  dormant  partner,  if  it  becomes  known  that  he  has  an  interest, 
whether  creditors  trusted  the  firm  on  his  account  or  not,  becomes  liable 
equally  with  the  other  partners. 

The  regulations  concerning  special  or  limited  partnerships,  in  any 
particular  State  where  recognized,  are  to  be  found  in  the  statutes  of  such 
State;  and  strict  compliance  with  the  statutes  is  necessary  in  order  to 


PLAIN  LA  W  FOR  PLAIN  PEOPLE.  255 

avoid  incurring  the  responsibilities  attaching  to  the  position  of  general 
partner. 

A  person  who  lends  his  name  as  a  partner,  or  who  suffers  his  name 
to  continue  in  the  firm  after  he  has  actually  ceased  to  be  a  partner  thereof, 
is  still  responsible  to  third  persons  as  a  partner. 

A  partner  may  buy  and  sell  partnership  effects;  make  contracts  in 
reference  to  the  business  of  the  firm;  pay  and  receive  money;  draw  and 
indorse,  and  accept  bills  and  notes;  and  all  acts  of  such  a  nature,  even 
though  they  be  upon  his  own  private  account,  will  bind  the  other  part- 
ners, if  connected  with  matters  apparently  having  reference  to  the  busi- 
ness of  the  firm,  and  transacted  with  other  parties  ignorant  of  the  fact 
that  such  dealings  are  for  the  particular  partner's  private  account.  The 
representation  or  misrepresentation  of  any  fact  made  in  any  partnership 
transaction  by  one  partner,  or  the  commission  of  any  fraud  in  such  trans- 
action, will  bind  the  entire  firm,  even  though  the  other  partners  may 
have  no  connection  with,  or  knowledge  of  the  same. 

If  a  partner  sign  his  individual  name  to  negotiable  paper,  all  the 
partners  are  bound  thereby,  if  such  paper  appear  on  its  face  to  be  on 
partnership  account.  If  negotiable  paper  of  a  firm  be  given  by  one 
partner  on  his  private  account,  and  in  the  course  of  its  circulation  pass 
into  the  hands  of  a  bona  fide  holder  for  value,  without  notice  or  know- 
ledge of  the  fact  attending  its  creation,  the  partnership  is  bound  thereby. 

One  partner  cannot  bind  the  firm  by  deed,  though  he  may  by  deed 
execute  an  ordinary  release  of  a  debt  due  the  partnership. 

If  no  time  be  fixed  in  articles  of  copartnership  for  the  commence- 
ment thereof,  it  is  presumed  to  commence  from  the  date  and  execution 
of  the  articles.  If  no  precise  period  is  mentioned  for  continuance,  a 
partner  may  withdraw  at  any  time,  and  dissolve  such  partnership  at  his 
pleasure;  and  even  if  a  definite  period  be  agreed  upon,  a  partner  may, 
by  giving  notice,  dissolve  the  partnership  as  to  all  capacity  of  the  firm 
to  bind  him  by  contracts  thereafter  made.  The  withdrawing  partner 
subjects  himself,  however,  to  a  claim  for  damages  by  reason  of  his  breach 
of  the  covenant. 

The  death  of  a  partner  dissolves  the  partnership,  unless  there  be  an 
express  stipulation  that,  in  such  an  event,  the  representatives  of  the 
deceased  partner  may  continue  the  business  in  connection  with  the  sur- 
vivors for  the  benefit  of  the  widow  and  children. 

A  partnership  is  dissolved  by  operation  of  law;  by  a  voluntary  and 
bona  fide  assignment  by  any  partner  of  his  interest  therein;  by  the  bank- 
ruptcy or  death  of  any  of  the  partners,  or  by  a  war  between  the  coun- 
tries of  which  the  partners  are  subjects. 

Immediately  after  a  dissolution,  notice  of  the  same  should  be  pub- 
lished in  the  papers  and  a  special  notice  sent  to  every  person  who  has  had 
dealings  with  the  firm.  If  these  precautions  be  not  taken,  each  partner 
will  still  continue  liable  for  the  acts  of  the  others  to  all  persons  who 
have  had  no  notice  of  such  dissolution. 

DON'T  enter  into  a  partnership  without  carefully  drawn  articles,  and 
don't  sign  the  articles  until  the  partnership  funds  are  on  deposit. 

DON'T  enter  a  firm  already  established  unless  you  are  willing  to 
become  responsible  for  its  debts. 

DON'T  do  anything  out  of  the  usual  run  of  business  without  the  con- 
sent of  your  partners. 

DON'T  mix  private  matters  with  partnership  affairs,  and  don't  con- 
tinue in  a  partnership  where  trust  and  confidence  are  lacking. 


256  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

DON'T  continue  a  partnership  after  expiration  of  articles,  and  do 
not  make  any  change  without  due  public  notice. 

DON'T  dissolve  a  partnership  without  due  public  notice  or  without 
designating  a  member  to  settle  all  matters  outstanding, 
i —  DON'T  forget  that  a  partner  may  be  called  upon  to  make  good  part- 
nership losses  with  his  individual  property,  and  that  each  partner  may 
be  held  for  the  acts  of  the  other  parners  as  well  as  for  his  own. 

AGENCY   AND  ATTORNEY. 

By  agency  is  meant  the  substitution  of  one  person  by  and  for 
another,  the  former  to  transact  business  for  the  latter.  An  agency  may  be 
established  by  implication — an  express  agreement  with  a  person  that  he 
is  to  become  the  agent  of  another  not  being  necessary — or  verbally,  or 
by  writing.  A  verbal  creation  of  agency  suffices  to  authorize  the  agent 
to  make  a  contract  even  in  cases  where  such  contract  must  be  in  writing. 

Agency  is  of  three  kinds— special,  general  and  professional.  A  spe- 
cial agency  is  an  authority  exercised  for  a  special  purpose.  If  a  special 
agent  exceed  the  limits  of  his  authority,  his  principal  is  not  bound  by 
his  acts. 

A  general  agency  authorizes  the  transaction  ol  all  business  of  a  par- 
ticular kind,  or  growing  out  of  a  particular  employment.  The  principal 
will  be  bound  by  the  acts  of  a  general  agent,  though  the  latter  act  con- 
trary to  private  instructions,  provided  he  keep,  at  the  same  time,  within 
the  general  limits  of  his  authority. 

Professional  agents  are  those  licensed  by  the  proper  authority  to 
transact  certain  kinds  of  business  for  a  compensation.  The  following 
are  among  this  class  of  agents:  1.  Attorneys.  2.  Brokers.  3.  Factors. 
4.  Auctioneers.  5.  Masters  of  ships. 

In  regard  to  the  subject  of  an  agency,  the  general  rule  is  that  what- 
ever a  man  may  do  in  his  own  right  he  may  also  transact  through  an- 
other. Things  of  a  personal  nature,  implying  personal  confidence  on 
the  part  of  the  person  possessing  them,  cannot  be  delegated. 

Infants,  married  women,  lunatics,  idiots,  aliens,  belligerents  and 
persons  incapable  of  making  legal  contracts  cannot  act  as  principals  in 
the  appointment  of  agents.  Infants  and  married  women  may,  however, 
become  principals  in  certain  cases. 

Agency  may  be  terminated  in  two  ways — (1)  by  the  act  of  the  princi- 
pal or  agent;  (2)  by  operation  of  law.  In  the  latter  case  the  termina- 
tion of  the  agency  is  effected  by  lapse  of  time,  by  completion  of  the 
subject-matter  of  the  agency,  by  the  extinction  of  the  subject-matter,  or 
by  the  insanity,  bankruptcy  or  death  of  either  party. 

DON'T  do  through  another  what  would  be  illegal  for  you  to  do 
yourself. 

DON'T  lose  any  time  in  repudiating  illegal  acts  of  your  agent. 

DON'T  make  an  illegal  act  of  your  agent's  your  own  by  accepting 
the  benefit  thereof. 

DON'T  transact  business  through  an  agent  unless  he  can  show  that 
he  stands  in  his  principal's  stead  in  the  matter  in  hand. 

DON'T,  as  agent,  appoint  sub-agents  without  the  consent  of  your 
principal. 

DON'T  go  beyond  your  authority  in  an  agency  uless  you  are  willing 
to  become  personally  responsible. 

DON'T  accept  an  agency  or  act  as  an  attorney  in  fact  in  complicated 
matters  unless  your  powers  are  clearly  defined  in  writing. 


PLAIN  LA  W  FOR  PLAIN  PEOPLE.  257 

LANDLORD    AND    TENANT. 

Leases  for  one  year  or  less  need  no  written  agreement.  Leases  for 
more  than  a  year  must  be  in  writing;  if  for  life,  signed,  sealed  and  wit- 
nessed in  the  same  manner  as  any  other  important  document. 

Leases  for  over  three  years  must  be  recorded.  No  particular  form 
is  necessary. 

If  no  agreement  in  writing  for  more  than  a  year  can  be  produced, 
the  tenant  holds  the  property  from  year  to  year  at  the  will  of  the  land- 
lord. If  there  is  no  agreement  as  to  time,  the  tenant,  as  a  rule,  holds 
from  year  to  year. 

A  tenancy  at  will  may  be  terminated  by  giving  the  tenant  one 
month's  notice  in  writing,  requiring  him  to  remove  from  the  premises 
occupied. 

A  tenant  is  not  responsible  for  taxes,  unless  it  is  so  stated  in  the 
lease. 

The  tenant  may  underlet  as  much  of  the  property  as  he  desires, 
unless  it  is  expressly  forbidden  in  the  lease.  Tenants  at  will  cannot 
underlet. 

A  married  woman  cannot  lease  her  property  under  the  common  law, 
but  this  prohibition  is  removed  by  statute  in  most  of  the  States.  A  hus- 
band cannot  make  a  lease  which  will  bind  his  wife's  property  after  his 
death. 

A  lease  made  by  a  minor  is  not  binding  after  the  minor  has  attained 
his  majority.  It  binds  the  lessee,  however,  unless  the  minor  should 
release  him.  Should  the  minor  receive  rent  after  attaining  his  majority, 
the  lease  will  be  thereby  ratified.  A  lease  given  by  a  guardian  will  not 
extend  beyond  the  majority  of  the  ward. 

A  new  lease  renders  void  a  former  lease. 

In  case  there  are  no  writings,  the  tenancy  begins  from,  the  day  pos- 
session is  taken.  Where  there  are  writings  and  the  time  of  commence- 
ment is  not  stated,  the  tenancy  will  be  held  to  commence  from  the  date 
of  said  writings. 

Leases  on  mortgaged  property,  whereon  the  mortgage  was  given 
prior  to  the  lease,  terminate  when  the  mortgage  is  foreclosed. 

Where  a  tenant  assigns  his  lease,  even  with  the  landlord's  consent, 
he  will  remain  liable  for  the  rent  unless  his  lease  is  surrendered  or  can- 
celled. 

There  are  many  special  features  of  the  law  of  landlord  and  tenant  in 
relation  to  agricultural  tenancy.  Generally  an  outgoing  tenant  cannot 
sell  or  take  away  the  manure.  A  tenant  whose  estate  has  terminated  by 
an  uncertain  event  which  he  could  neither  foresee  nor  control  is  en- 
titled to  the  annual  crop  which  he  sowed  while  his  estate  continued,  by 
the  law  of  emblements.  He  may  also,  in  certain  cases,  take  the  emble- 
ments  or  annual  profits  of  the  land  after  his  !  tenancy  has  ended,  and, 
unless  restricted  by  some  stipulation  to  the  contrary,  may  remove  such 
fixtures  as  he  has  erected  during  his  occupation  for  convenience,  profit 
or  comfort;  for,  in  general,  what  a  tenant  has  added  he  may  remove,  if 
he  can  do  so  without  injury  to  the  premises,  unless  he  has  actually  built 
it  in  so  as  to  make  it  an  integral  part  of  what  was  there  originally. 

The  following  are  immovable  fixtures:  Agricultural  erections,  fold- 
yard  walls,  cart  house,  barns  fixed  in  the  ground,  beast  house,  carpenter 
shop,  fuel  house,  pigeon  house,  pineries  substantially  fixed,  wagon  house, 
box  borders  not  belonging  to  a  gardener  by  trade,  flowers,  trees,  hedges, 

U.  I.— 17 


258  MANUAL  OP  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

ale-house  bar,  dressers,  partitions,  locks  and  keys,  benches,  affixes  to 
the  house,  statue  erected  as  an  ornament  to  grounds,  sun  dial,  chimney 
piece  not  ornamental,  closets  affixed  to  the  house,  conduits,  conserva- 
tory, substantially  affixed,  doors,  fruit  trees  if  a  tenant  be  not  a  nursery- 
man by  trade,  glass  windows,  hearths,  millstones,  looms  substantially 
affixed  to  the  floor  of  a  factory,  threshing  machines  fixed  by  bolts  and 
screws  to  posts  let  into  the  ground. 

DON'T  occupy  premises  until  a  written  lease  is  in  your  possession, 
and  don't  depend  on  promises  of  a  landlord  unless  they  are  part  of  such 
lease. 

DON'T  accept  a  married  woman  as  tenant  unless  the  law  of  the  State 
permit  her  to  make  an  executory  contract. 

DON'T  think  that  you  can  legally  eject  sub-tenants  unless  you  have 
given  them  notice  of  the  tenant's  forfeiture  of  his  lease. 

DON'T  make  such  improvements  in  premises  occupied  by  you  as  the 
law  would  regard  as  immovable  fixtures,  unless  you  are  willing  to  turn 
them  over  to  the  landlord  when  your  lease  expires.  A  building  erected 
on  foundations  sunk  into  the  ground  would  become  part  of  the  realty 
and  thus  belong  to  tlje  landlord. 

DON'T  think,  however,  that  you  have  no  right  to  remove  trade  fix- 
tures erected  by  you. 

DON'T  accept  less  than  thirty  days'  notice  when  you  rent  by  the 
month. 

DON'T  forget  that  where  premises  are  let  for  illegal  use  the  law  will 
not  aid  you  in  collecting  arrears  for  rent. 


IvAW  RELATING  TO  FARMS,  ETC. 

In  a  deed  to  agricultural  property  the  boundaries  should  be  clearly 
determined.  The  question,  What  does  the  farmer  get?  is  answered  by 
these  boundaries,  and  the  deed  to  a  farm  always  includes  the  dwelling 
houses,  barns  and  other  improvements  thereon  belonging  to  the  grantor, 
even  though  these  are  not  mentioned.  It  also  conveys  all  the  fences 
standing  on  the  farm,  but  all  might  not  think  it  also  included  the  fen- 
cing-stuff, posts,  rails,  etc.,  which  had  once  been  used  in  the  fence,  but  had 
been  taken  down  and  piled  up  for  future  use  again  in  the  same  place. 
But  new  fencing  material,  just  bought,  and  never  attached  to  the  soil, 
would  not  pass.  So  piles  of  hop  poles,  stored  away,  if  once  used  on  the 
land,  and  intended  to  be  again  so  used,  have  been  considered  a  part  of 
it,  but  loose  boards  or  scaffold  poles,  merely  laid  across  the  beams  of  a 
barn  and  never  fastened  to  it,  would  not  be,  and  the  seller  of  the  farm 
might  take  them  away.  Standing  trees,  of  course,  also  pass  as  part  ot 
the  land;  so  do  trees  blown  down  or  cut  down,  and  still  left  in  the  woods 
where  they  fell,  but  not  if  cut  and  corded  up  for  sale;  the  wood  has  then 
become  personal  property. 

If  there  be  any  manure  in  the  barnyard  or  in  the  compost  heap  on 
the  field,  ready  for  immediate  use  the  buyer  ordinarily,  in  the  absence 
of  any  contrary  agreement,  takes  that  also  as  belonging  to  the  farm, 
though  it  might  not  be  so  if  the  owner  had  previously  sold  it  to  some 
other  party,  and  had  collected  it  together  in  a  heap  by  itself,  for  such  an 
act  might  be  a  technical  severance  from  the  soil,  and  so  convert  real  into 
personal  estate;  and  even  a  lessee  of  a  farm  could  take  away  the  manure 
made  on  the  place  while  he  was  in  occupation.  Growing  crops  also  pass 
by  the  deed  of  a  farm  unless  they  are  expressly  reserved,  and  when  it  is 


PLAIN  LA  W  FOR  PLAIN  PEOPLE.  259 

not  intended  to  convey  those  it  should  be  so  stated  in  the  deed  itself;  a 
mere  oral  agreement  to  that  effect  would  not  be  in  most  States  valid  in 
law.  Another  mode  is  to  stipulate  that  possession  is  not  to  be  given  un- 
til some  future  day,  in  which  case  the  crops  or  manures  may  be  removed 
before  that  time. 

An  adjoining  road  is,  to  its  middle,  owned  by  the  farmer  whose  land 
is  bound,  unless  there  are  reservations  to  the  contrary  in  the  deeds 
through  which  he  derives  title.  But  this  ownership  is  subject  to  the 
right  of  the  public  to  the  use  of  the  road. 

If.  a  tree  grows  so  as  to  come  over  the  land  of  a  neighbor,  the  latter 
may  cut  away  the  parts  which  so  come  over,  for  he  owns  his  land  and 
all  that  is  above  or  below  it.  If  it  be  a  fruit  tree,  he  may  cut  every 
branch  or  twig  which  comes  over  his  land,  but  he  cannot  touch  the  fruit 
which  falls  to  the  land.  The  owner  of  the  tree  may  enter  peaceably  upon 
the  land  of  the  neighbor  and  take  up  the  branches  and  fruit. 


LIEN  LAWS. 

Any  one  who,  as  contractor,  sub-contractor  or  laborer,  performs 
any  work,  or  furnishes  any  materials,  in  pursuance  of,  or  in  conformity 
with,  any  agreement  or  contract  with  the  owner,  lessee,  agent  or  one  in 
possession  of  the  property,  toward  the  erection,  altering,  improving  or 
repairing  of  any  building,  shall  have  a  lien  for  the  value  of  such  labor 
or  materials  on  the  building  or  land  on  which  it  stands  to  the  extent  of 
the  right,  title  and  interest  of  the  owner,  lessee  or  person  in  possession 
at  the  time  of  the  claimant's  filing  his  notice  with  the  clerk  of  the  county 
court.  Such  lien  is  called  a  rnechanic's  lien. 

The  notice  should  be  filed  within  thirty  days  after  completion  of  the 
work  or  the  furnishing  of  the  materials,  and  should  state  the  residence 
of  the  claimant,  the  amount  claimed,  from  whom  due,  when  due,  and 
to  whom  due,  the  name  of  the  person  against  whom  claimed,  the  name 
of  the  owner,  lessee  or  person  in  possession  of  the  premises,  with  a  brief 
description  of  the  latter. 

Liens  cease  in  one  year  after  the  filing  of  the  notice,  unless  an  action 
is  begun,  or  the  lien  is  continued  by  an  order  of  court. 

The  following  classes  of  persons  are  generally  entitled  to  liens:  1. 
Bailees,  who  may  perform  labor  and  services,  on  the  thing  bailed,  at  the 
request  of  the  bailor.  2.  Innkeepers,  upon  the  baggage  of  guests  they 
have  accommodated.  3.  Common  carriers,  upon  goods  carried,  for  the 
amount  of  their  freight  and  disbursements.  4.  Vendors,  on  the  goods 
sold  for  payment  of  trie  price  where  no  credit  has  been  expressly  prom- 
ised or  implied.  5.  Agents,  upon  goods  of  their  principals,  for  advance- 
ments for  the  benefit  of  the  latter.  6.  All  persons  are  entitled  to  the 
right  of  lien  who  are  compelled  by  law  to  receive  property  and  bestow 
labor  or  expense  on  the  same. 

The  right  of  lien  may  be  waived:  1.  By  express  contract.  2.  By 
neglect.  3.  By  new  agreement.  4.  By  allowing  change  of  possession. 
5.  By  surrendering  possession. 

The  manner  of  the  enforcement  of  a  lien,  whether  it  be  an  innkeep- 
er's, agent's,  carrier's,  factor's,  etc.,  depends  wholly  upon  the  nature  and 
character  of  the  lien. 

DON'T  purchase  real  estate  unless  the  records  have  been  thoroughly 
searched  for  all  liens  known  to  the  law,  or  until  all  notices  of  action 
against  the  same  have  been  discharged. 


260  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

DON'T  think  that  you  have  no  right  to  sell  perishable  property  on 
which  you  have  a  lien.  Your  lien  will  attach  to  the  proceeds. 

DON'T  foreclose  a  lien  without  proper  notice. 

DON'T  make  payments  to  a  contractor  before  you  have  full  knowl- 
edge of  all  liens  filed. 

DON'T  forget  that  liens  take  precedence  according  to  priority,  and 
that  interest  always  runs  on  a  judgment. 


DEEDS— TRANSFER  OP  PROPERTY. 

A  deed  is  a  writing  by  which  lands,  tenements  or  hereditaments  are 
'conveyed,  sealed  and  delivered.  It  must  be  written  or  printed  on  parch- 
ment or  paper;  the  parties  must  be  competent  to  contract;  there  must  be 
a  proper  object  to  grant;  a  sufficient  consideration;  an  agreement  prop- 
erly declared;  if  desired,  it  must  have  been  read  to  the  party  executing 
it;  it  must  be  signed  and  sealed;  attested  by  witnesses,  in  the  absence  of 
any  statute  regulation  to  the  contrary,  properly  acknowledged  before 
a  competent  officer;  and  recorded  within  the  time  and  in  the  office  pre- 
scribed by  the  State  within  executed. 

The  maker  of  a  deed,  is  the  grantor;  the  party  to  whom  it  is  delivered 
the  grantee.  If  the  grantor  have  a  wife,  she  must,  in  the  absence  of  a 
statute  to  the  contrary,  sign  and  acknowledge  the  deed;  otherwise,  after 
the  husband's  death,  she  may  claim  the  use  of  one-third,  during  her 
life. 

By  a  general  warranty  deed  the  grantor  covenants  to  insure  the  lands 
against  all  persons  whatsoever;  by  a  special  warranty  deed  he  warrants 
only  against  himself  and  those  claiming  under  him.  In  deeds  made  by 
executors,  administrators  or  guardians  there  is  generally  no  warranty 
A  quit-claim  deed  releases  all  the  interest  which  the  grantor  has  in  the 
land,  whatever  it  may  be. 

A  deed  of  trust  is  given  to  a  person  called  a  trustee,  to  hold  in  fee 
simple,  or  otherwise,  for  the  use  of  some  other  person  who  is  entitled  to 
the  proceeds,  profits  or  use. 

A  deed  may  be  made  void  by  alterations  made  in  it  after  its  execu- 
tion; by  the  disagreement  of  the  parties  whose  concurrence  is  necessary; 
or  by  the  judgment  of  a  competent  tribunal. 

Interlineations  or  erasures  in  a  deed,  made  before  signing,  should  be 
mentioned  in  a  note,  and  witnessed  in  proper  form.  After  the  acknowl- 
edgement of  a  deed  the  parties  have  no  right  to  make  the  slightest  alter- 
ation. An  alteration  of  a  deed  after  execution,  if  made  in  favor  of  the 
grantee,  vitiates  the  deed.  If  altered  before  delivery,  such  alteration  de- 
stroys the  deed  as  to  the  party  altering  it. 

Abstracts  of  titles  are  brief  accounts  of  all  the  deeds  upon  which 
titles  rest,  and  judgments  and  instruments  affecting  such  titles. 

The  evidences  of  title  are  usually  conveyances,  wills,  orders  or  de- 
crees of  courts,  judgments,  judicial  sales,  sales  by  officers  appointed  by 
law,  acts  of  the  Legislature  and  of  Congress. 

DON'T  accept  a  deed  unless  all  the  following  conditions  are  complied 
with:  1.  It  must  be  signed,  sealed  and  witnessed.  2.  Interlineations 
must  be  mentioned  in  the  certificate  of  acknowledgement.  3.  All  the 
partners  must  join  in  a  deed  from  a  partnership.  4.  A  deed  from  a  cor- 
poration should  bear  the  corporate  seal  and  be  signed  by  officers  desig- 
nated in  the  resolution  of  the  directors  authorizing  it.  5.  A  deed  from 
a  married  woman  should  be  joined  in  by  the  husband.  6.  A  deed  from 


PLAIN  LA  W  FOR  PLAIN  PEOPLE.  261 

an  executor  should  recite  his  power  of  sale.  7.  The  consideration  must 
be  expressed. 

DON'T  deed  property  to  your  wife  direct.  A  deed  to  your  wife  does 
not  cut  off  obligations  contracted  previously. 

DON'T  pay  consideration  money  on  a  conveyance  of  real  estate  until 
the  record  has  been  searched  to  the  moment  of  passing  title,  and  unless 
you  know  of  your  own  knowledge  that  no  judgments,  mortgages  or  tax 
liens  are  outstanding  against  the  property. 

DON'T  delay  in  having  a  deed  or  mortgage  recorded. 

DON'T  attempt  to  give  a  better  title  than  you  have  yourself. 


MORTGAGES. 

A  mortgage  is  a  conveyance  of  property,  either  real  or  personal,  to 
secure  payment  of  a  debt.  When  the  debt  is  paid  the  mortgage  becomes 
void  and  of  no  value.  In  real  estate  mortgages  the  person  giving  the 
mortgage  retains  possession  of  the  property,  receives  all  the  debts  and 
other  profits,  and  pays  all  taxes  and  other  expenses.  The  instrument 
must  be  acknowledged,  like  a  deed,  before  a  proper  public  officer,  and  re- 
corded in  the  office  of  the  county  clerk  or  recorder,  or  whatever  officer's 
duty  it  is  to  record  such  instruments.  All  mortgages  must  contain  a 
redemption  clause,  and  must  be  signed  and  sealed.  The  time  when  the 
debt  becomes  due,  to  secure  which  the  mortgage  is  given,  must  be  plainly 
set  forth  and  the  property  conveyed  must  be  clearly  described,  located 
and  scheduled. 

Some  mortgages  contain  a  clause  permitting  the  sale  of  the  property 
without  decree  of  court  when  a  default  is  made  in  the  payment  either  of 
the  principal  sum  or  the  interest. 

A  foreclosure  is  a  statement  that  the  property  is  forfeited  and  must 
be  sold. 

When  a  mortgage  is  assigned  to  another  person,  it  must  be  for  a  val- 
uable consideration;  and  the  note  or  notes  which  it  was  given  to  secure 
must  be  given  at  the  same  time. 

If  the  mortgaged  property,  when  foreclosed  and  brought  to  sale, 
brings  more  money  than  is  needed  to  satisfy  the  debt,  interest  and  costs, 
the  surplus  must  be  paid  to  the  mortgagor. 

Satisfaction  of  mortgages  upon  real  or  personal  property  may  be 
either — 

1.  By  an  entry  upon  the  margin  of  the  record  thereof,  signed  by  the 
mortgagee  or  his  attorney,  assignee  or  personal  representative,  acknowl- 
edging the  satisfaction  of  the  mortgage,  in  the  presence  of  the  recording 
officer;  or — 

2.  By  a  receipt  endorsed  upon  the  mortgage,  signed  by  the  mortgagee, 
his  agent  or  attorney,  which  receipt  may  be  entered  upon  the  margin  of 
the  record;  or — 

3.  It  may  be  discharged  upon  the  record  thereof  whenever  there  is 
presented  to  the  proper  officer  an  instrument  acknowledging  the  satis- 
faction of  such  mortgage,  executed  by  the  mortgagee,  his  duly  author- 
ized attorney  in  fact,  assignee  or  personal  representative,  and  acknowl- 
edged in  the  same  manner  as  other  instruments  affecting  real  estate. 

Chattel  mortgages  are  mortgages  on  personal  property.  Most  of 
the  rules  applicable  to  mortgages  on  real  estate  apply  also  to  those  on 
personal  property,  though  in  some  States  there  are  laws  regulating  per- 
sonal mortgages.  Any  instrument  will  answer  the  purpose  of  a  chattel 


262  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL   INFORM  A  TION. 

mortgage  which  would  answer  as  a  bill  of  sale,  with  a  clause  attached 
providing  for  the  avoidance  of  the  mortgage  when  the  debt  is  paid. 

A  chattel  mortgage  will  not  cover  property  subsequently  acquired 
by  the  mortgagor.  Mortgages  of  personal  property  should  contain  a 
clause  providing  for  the  equity  of  redemption.  A  mortgagee  may  sell 
or  transfer  his  mortgage  to  another  party  for  a  consideration,  but  such 
property  cannot  be  seized  or  sold  until  the  expiration  of  the  period  for 
which  the  mortgage  was  given.  Mortgages  given  with  intent  to  defraud 
creditors  are  void. 

DON'T  lose  any  time  in  having  a  mortgage  properly  recorded. 

DON'T  pay  installments  on  chattel  mortgages  unless  the  same  are  en- 
dorsed thereon. 

DON'T  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  a  chattel  mortgage  is  a  conditional 
bill  of  sale. 

DON'T  accept  a  chattel  mortgage  the  term  whereof  is  for  more  than 
a  year. 

DON'T  neglect  to  have  a  chattel  mortgage  signed,  sealed  and  wit- 
nessed, and  don't  fail  to  see  to  it  that  the  schedule  contains  every  article 
embraced  under  it. 

DON'T  fail  to  see  to  it  that  goods  or  chattels  mortgaged  to  you  are 
properly  insured. 

DON'T  suppose  that  a  chattel  mortgage  is  valid  when  the  debt  to  be 
secured  by  it  is  not. 

DON'T  give  a  chattel  mortgage  payable  on  demand  unless  you  art 
prepared  to  forfeit  the  chattels  at  any  moment. 

DON'T  think  that  the  destruction  by  fire  or  otherwise  of  the  chattels 
mortgaged  wipes  out  the  debt. 

DON'T  forget  that  foreclosure  in  the  case  of  a  chattel  mortgage  is 
unnecessary  except  to  cut  off  the  claims  of  other  creditors. 


ASSIGNMENTS. 

An  assignment  is  a  transfer  of  property  made  in  writing.  In  effect  it 
is  passing  to  another  person  all  of  one's  title  or  interest  in  any  sort  of 
real  or  personal  property,  rights,  actions  or  estates.  However,  some 
things  are  not  assignable;  an  officer's  pay  or  commission,  a  judge's  sal- 
ary, fishing  claims,  Government  bounties,  or  claims  arising  out  of  frauds 
or  torts.  Personal  trusts  cannot  be  assigned,  as  a  guardianship  or  the 
right  of  a  master  in  his  apprentice. 

Unlike  many  other  legal  devices  the  holder  of  an  assignment  is  not 
bound  to  show  that  a  valuable  consideration  was  given.  The  owner  of 
a  cause  of  action  may  give  it  away  if  he  pleases,  and  in  the  positive  ab- 
sence of  evidence  to  the  contrary  the  court  will  presume  that  the  assign- 
ment was  for  a  sufficient  consideration. 

Proof  will  be  called  for  only  when  it  appears  that  the  assignment 
was  a  mere  sham  or  fraudulent.  No  formality  is  required  by  law  in  an 
assignment.  Any  instrument  between  the  contracting  parties  which 
goes  to  show  their  intention  to  pass  the  property  from  one  to  another 
will  be  sufficient.  It  may  be  proved,  for  instance,  by  the  payee  of  a 
note,  that  he  indorsed  (or  delivered  without  indorsement)  the  note  to 
the  assignee,  and  this  is  sufficient  evidence  of  assignment. 

In  every  assignment  of  an  instrument,  even  not  negotiable,  the  assig- 
nee impliedly  warrants  the  validity  of  the  instrument  and  the  obligation 
of  the  third  party  to  pay  it.  He  warrants  that  there  is  no  legal  defense 


PLAIN  LA  W  FOR  PLAIN  PEOPLE.  263 

against  its  collection  arising  out  of  his  connection  with  the  parties;  that 
all  parties  were  legally  able  to  contract,  and  that  the  amount  is  unpaid. 

An  assignment  carries  with  it  all  the  collateral  securities  and  guar- 
antees of  the  original  debt,  even  though  they  are  not  mentioned  in  the 
instrument. 

Where  property  is  assigned  for  the  benefit  of  creditors,  its  actual 
transfer  to  the  assignee  must  be  made  immediately.  When  an  assign- 
ment is  made  under  the  common  law,  the  assignor  may  prefer  certain 
creditors;  but  in  a  state  where  this  sort  of  an  assignment  is  governed  by 
statute,  no  preference  can  be  shown.  An  assignment  for  the  benefit  of 
creditors  covers  all  of  the  assignor's  property,  wherever  or  whatever  it 
it  may  be,  that  is  not  exempt  from  execution. 

When  insured  property  is  sold  the  insurance  policy  should  be  as- 
signed. This  can  only  be  done  with  the  consent  of  the  insurer,  and  that 
consent  must  be  at  once  obtained. 

Correct  schedules  of  the  property  assigned  should  accompany  and  be 
attached  to  every  assignment. 

INNS,  HOTELS  AND   BOARDING-HOUSES. 

An  inn,  or  hotel,  is  a  place  of  entertainment  for  travelers.  If  an 
innkeeper  opens  his  house  for  travelers,  it  is  an  implied  engagement  to 
entertain  all  persons  who  travel  that  way,  and  upon  this  universal  assump- 
tion an  action  will  lie  against  him  for  damages  if  he,  without  good  rea- 
son, refuses  to  admit  a  traveler. 

Innkeepers  are  responsible  for  the  safe  custody  of  the  goods  of  their 
guests,  and  can  limit  their  liability  only  by  an  express  agreement  or 
special  contract  with  their  guests;  but  if  goods  are  lost  through  negligence 
of  the  owner  himself  the  innkeeper's  liability  ceases.  An  innkeeper 
may  retain  the  goods  of  his  guest  until  the  amount  of  the  guest's  bill  has 
been  paid. 

A  boarding-house  is  not  an  inn,  nor  is  a  coffee-house  or  eating-room. 
A  boarding-house  keeper  has  no  lien  on  the  goods  of  a  boarder  except  by 
special  agreement,  nor  is  he  responsible  for  their  safe  custody.  He  is 
liable,  however,  for  loss  caused  by  the  negligence  of  his  servants.  An 
innkeeper  is  liable  for  loss  without  such  negligence. 

BONDS. 

A  written  instrument  admitting  an  obligation  on  the  part  of  the 
maker  to  pay  a  certain  sum  of  money  to  another  specified  person  at  a 
fixed  time,  for  a  valuable  consideration,  is  called  a  bond.  The  obligor 
is  the  one  giving  the  bond;  the  beneficiary  is  called  the  obligee.  This 
definition  applies  to  all  bonds,  but  generally  these  instruments  are  given 
to  guarantee  the  performance  or  non-performance  of  certain  acts  by  the 
obligor,  which  being  done  or  left  undone,  as  the  case  may  be,  the  bond 
becomes  void,  but  if  the  conditions  are  broken  it  remains  in  full  force. 
As  a  rule,  the  bond  is  made  out  for  a  sum  twice  the  amount  of  any  debt 
which  is  apt  to  be  incurred  by  the  obligor  under  its  conditions,  the  state- 
ment being  set  forth  that  the  sum  named  is  the  penalty,  as  liquidated  or 
settled  damages,  in  the  event  of  the  failure  of  the  obligor  to  carry  out  the 
conditions. 

An  act  of  Providence,  whereby  the  accomplishment  of  a  bond  is  ren- 
dered impossible,  relieves  the  obligor  of  all  liability. 

A  bond  for  the  payment  of  money  differs  from  a  promissory  note 
only  in  having  a  seal. 


264  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION 

BILLS  OF  SALE. 

A  bill  of  sale  is -a  formal  written  conveyance  of  personal  property. 
If  the  property  is  delivered  when  sold,  or  if  part  of  the  purchase  money 
is  paid,  a  written  instrument  is  not  necessary  to  make  the  conveyance, 
but  it  is  convenient  evidence  of  the  transfer  of  title.  But,  to  protect  the 
interests  of  the  purchaser  against  the  creditors  of  the  seller,  the  bill  is 
not  sufficient  of  itself;  there  should  also  be  a  delivery  of  the  property. 
If  an  actual  and  continued  change  of  possession  does  not  accompany  the 
sale  it  is  void  as  against  the  creditors  of  the  seller  and  subsequent  pur- 
chasers and  mortgagees  in  good  faith,  unless  the  buyer  can  show  that 
his  purchase  was  made  in  good  faith,  without  intent  to  defraud,  and  that 
there  was  some  good  reason  for  leaving  the  property  in  the  hands  of  the 
seller.  

CORPORATIONS. 

Several  persons  joining  together  for  the  accomplishment  of  any 
business  or  social  purpose  can  legally  organize  themselves  into  a  corpo- 
ration, a  form  of  partnership  which  combines  the  resources  of  all,  and 
yet  gives  a  limited  pecuniary  liability,  amounting  only  to  the  amount 
of  stock  owned  by  each  stockholder.  In  the  States  the  legislature  of 
each  Commonwealth  enjoys  the  power  of  regulating  the  corporations, 
and  in  the  Territories  this  power  is,  of  course,  vested  in  the  General 
Government.  The  actual  cost  of  organization  amounts  to  something 
less  than  $10,  most  of  which  is  in  fees  to  the  Secretary  of  State.  When 
the  stock  has  been  subscribed,  a  meeting  is  called  and  each  shareholder 
casts  a  vote  for  every  share  which  he  owns  or  holds  a  proxy  for,  for  each 
person  who  is  to  be  elected  director,  or  he  may  give  one  director  as 
many  votes  as  the  number  of  shares  he  is  voting,  multiplied  by  the  num- 
ber of  directors  to  be  elected,  amounts  to,  or  distribute  his  votes  as  he 
chooses.  Thus,  if  he  owns  ten  shares  of  stock  and  there  are  six  direct- 
ors to  be  elected,  he  has  sixty  votes,  which  he  can  give,  either  ten  for 
each  director,  or  twenty  for  each  of  three,  or  sixty  for  one,  or  in  any 
other  way  that  he  sees  fit,  so  that  his  whole  vote  will  not  be  more  than 
sixty  votes.  These  directors  meet  as  soon  after  the  election  as  possible 
and  choose  a  president,  vice-president,  secretary  and  treasurer,  where- 
upon the  corporation  is  ready  for  business. 

The  law  in  all  the  States  on  the  subject  of  incorporating  companies 
is  very  similar,  and  the  necessary  forms  are  to  be  obtained  usually  from 
the  Secretary  of  State. 

LAW    OF    FINDING. 

The  general  rule  is  that  the  finder  has  a  clear  title  against  every  one 
but  the  owner.  The  proprietor  of  a  hotel  or  a  shop  has  no  right  to  de- 
mand property  of  others  found  on  his  premises.  Such  proprietor  may 
make  regulations  in  regard  to  lost  property  which  will  bind  their  em- 
ployes, but  they  cannot  bind  the  public.  The  finder  has  been  held  to 
stand  in  the  place  of  the  owner,  so  that  he  was  permitted  to  prevail  in  an 
action  against  a  person  who  found  an  article  which  the  plaintiff  had 
originally  found,  but  subsequently  lost.  The  police  have  no  special 
rights  in  regard  to  articles  lost,  unless  those  rights  are  conferred  by 
statute.  Receivers  of  articles  found  are  trustees  for  the  owner  or  finder. 
They  have  no  power  to  keep  an  article  against  the  finder,  any  more 
than  the  finder  has  to  retain  an  article  against  the  owner. 


PLAIN  LA  W  FOR  PLAIN  PEOPL  E.  265 

WILIvS    AND    HOW   TO    MAKE   THEM. 

Every  description  of  property,  whether  real  or  personal,  may  be 
given  by  will.  In  the  case  of  persons  dying  owing  debts,  however,  the 
law  gives  to  the  executors  sufficient  of  the  personal  property  of  the 
deceased  to  pay  off  all  existing  indebtedness,  irrespective  of  the  terms 
of  the  will;  and  where  the  personal  property  is  not  sufficient  for  this 
purpose,  real  property  may  be  so  appropriated. 

Property  may  be  bequeathed  by  will  to  all  persons,  including  mar- 
ried women,  infants,  lunatics,  idiots,  etc. 

Wills  may  be  made  by  any  person  not  disqualified  by  age  or  mental 
incapacity.  Generally  speaking,  a  person  must  have  attained  the  age  of 
twenty-one  years  before  he  or  she  can  make  a  valid  will  of  lands,  and 
the  same  age  in  many  States  is  required  for  a  will  of  solely  personal 
property. 

In  New  York  males  of  eighteen  and  females  of  sixteen  are  compe- 
tent to  bequeath  personal  property.  ' '  Sound  and  disposing  mind  and 
memory' '  are  always  essential  to  the  validity  of  any  will.  For  this  rea- 
son idiots,  lunatics,  intoxicated  persons  (during  intoxication)  and  per- 
sons of  unsound  or  weak  minds  are  incompetent  to  make  wills.  A  will 
procured  by  fraud  is  also  invalid,  although  the  testator  be  fully  compe- 
tent to  make  a  valid  will.  All  wills  must  be  in  writing,  except  those 
made  by  soldiers  in  active  service  during  war  and  by  sailors  while  at  sea. 
Such  persons  may  make  a  verbal  or  nuncupative  will,  under  certain 
restrictions  as  to  witnesses,  etc.  No  particular  form  of  words  is  required. 

A  valid  will  must  be  subscribed  or  signed  by  the  testator  or  some 
one  for  him,  in  his  presence  and  at  his  request.  The  signature  must  be 
affixed  in  the  presence  of  each  of  the  witnesses.  In  case  the  will  be 
signed  by  some  one  for  him,  the  testator  must  acknowledge  the  signature 
to  be  his  own  in  presence  of  the  witnesses.  The  testator  must  declare  to 
each  of  the  subscribing  witnesses  that  the  instrument  is  his  "last  will 
and  testament."  This  is  of  the  utmost  importance,  and  is  called  the 
"publication."  There  must  be  at  least  two  (three  are  required  in  some 
of  the  States)  subscribing  witnesses,  who  must  act  as  such  at  the  testa- 
tor's request,  or  at  the  request  of  some  one  in  his  presence.  The  sub- 
scribing witnesses  must  not  be  beneficially  interested  in  the  provisions 
of  the  will.  These  witnesses  must  all  sign  the  will  in  the  presence  of 
the  testator,  and  (in  New  York  and  some  of  the  other  States)  in  the 
presence  of  each  other. 

A  codicil  is  an  appendix  annexed  to  the  will  after  its  execution, 
whereby  the  testator  .makes  some  change  in,  or  addition  to,  his  former 
disposition,  and  must  be  signed,  published  and  attested  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  original  will. 

The  revocation  of  a  will  may  be  express  or  implied — express,  by  the 
execution  of  a  new  and  later  will,  or  by  the  intentional  destruction  of 
the  old  one,  or  by  a  formal  written  revocation,  signed  and  witnessed  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  will  itself.  An  implied  revocation  is  wrought 
by  the  subsequent  marriage  of  the  testator  and  the  birth  of  children,  or 
by  either. 

DON'T  leave  anything  uncertain  in  a  will,  and  don't  neglect  to  de- 
clare it  to  be  your  last  will  and  testament. 

DON'T  make  a  will  without  two  (better  three)  witnesses,  none  of 
whom  must  be  interested  in  it.  See  that  each  witness  writes  his  full 
name  and  address. 


266  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

DON'T  make  a  new  will  unless  you  destroy  or  revoke  the  old  one, 
and  don't  add  a  codicil  unless  it  is  executed  in  the  same  way  as  the  orig- 
inal will. 

DON'T  neglect  to  make  a  new  will  if  you  mortgage  or  sell  property 
devised  or  bequeathed  in  a  prior  one. 

DON'T  make  a  will  which  does  not  provide  for  children  that  may  be 
born. 

DON'T  will  property  to  a  corporation  whose  charter  does  not  permit 
it  to  take  by  devise  or  bequest. 

DON'T  fail  to  say  "bequeath"  for  personal  and  "devise"  for  real 
property. 

THE  RIGHT  OF   DOWER. 

Dower  is  one-third  part  of  the  husband's  estate,  and  in  general  can- 
not be  destroyed  by  the  mere  act  of  the  husband.  Hence,  in  the  sale  of 
real  estate  by  the  husband,  his  wife  must,  with  the  husband,  sign  the 
conveyance  to  make  the  title  complete  to  the  purchaser.  In  the  absence 
of  such  signature  the  widow  can  claim  full  dower  rights  after  the  hus- 
band's death.  Creditors,  also,  seize  the  property  subject  to  such  dowery 
rights. 

The  husband  in  his  will  sometimes  gives  his  wife  property  in  lieu  of 
dowery.  In  this  case  she  may,  after  his  death,  elect  to  take  either  such 
property  or  her  dower,  but  she  cannot  take  both.  While  the  husband 
lives  the  wife's  right  of  dower  is  only  inchoate;  it  cannot  be  enforced. 
Should  he  sell  the  land  to  a  stranger,  she  has  no  right  of  action  or  rem- 
edy until  his  death. 

In  all  cases  the  law  of  the  State  in  which  the  land  is  situated  governs 
it,  and,  as  in  the  case  of  heirship,  full  information  must  be  sought  for  in 
statute  which  is  applicable. 

MARRIAGE   AND   DIVORCE. 

Marriage  may  be  entered  into  by  any  two  persons,  with  the  following 
exceptions:  Idiots,  lunatics,  persons  of  unsound  mind,  persons  related 
by  blood  or  affinity  within  certain  degrees  prohibited  by  law,  infants 
under  the  age  of  consent,  which  varies  in  the  different  States,  and  all 
persons  already  married  and  not  legally  divorced. 

The  violation  of  the  marriage  vow  is  cause  for  absolute  divorce  in  all  the  States 
and  Territories  except  South  Carolina  and  New  Mexico,  which  have  no  divorce  laws. 

Physical  inability  is  a  cause  in  all  the  States  except  California,  Connecticut,  Dakota, 
Iowa,  I,ouisiana,  New  Mexico,  New  York,  South  Carolina,  Texas  and  Vermont.  In 
most  of  these  States  it  renders  marriage  voidable. 

Willful  desertion,  one  year,  in  Arkansas,  California,  Colorado,  Dakota,  Florida, 
Idaho,  Kansas,  Kentucky,  Missouri,  Montana,  Nevada,  Utah,  Wisconsin,  Washington 
and  Wyoming. 

Willful  desertion,  two  years,  in  Alabama,  Arizona,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Iowa,  Michi- 
gan, Mississippi,  Nebraska,  Pennsylvania  and  Tennessee. 

Willful  desertion,  three  years,  in  Connecticut,  Delaware,  Georgia,  Maine,  Mary- 
land, Massachusetts,  Minnesota,  New  Hampshire,  New  Jersey,  Ohio,  Oregon,  Texas, 
Vermont  and  West  Virginia. 

Willful  desertion,  five  years,  in  Virginia  and  Rhode  Island,  though  the  court  may 
in  the  latter  State  decree  a  divorce  for  a  shorter  period. 

Habitual  drunkenness,  in  all  the  States  and  Territories  except  Maryland,  New  Jer- 
sey, New  York,  North  Carolina,  Pennsylvania,  South  Carolina,  Texas,  Vermont,  Vir- 
ginia and  West  Virginia. 

"  Imprisonment  for  felony,"  or  "  conviction  of  felony,"  in  all  the  States  and  Terri- 
tories (with  limitations)  except  Dakota,  Florida,  Maine,  Maryland,  New  Jersey,  New 
Mexico,  New  York,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina  and  Utah. 

Fraud  and  fraudulent  contract,  in  Arizona,  Connecticut,  Georgia,  Idaho,  Kansas, 
Kentucky,  Ohio,  Pennsylvania  and  Washington. 


PLAIN  LA  W  FOR  PLAIN  PEOPLE.  267 

"Cruel  and  abusive  treatment,"  "intolerable  cruelty,"  "extreme  cruelty,"  "repeated 
cruelty,"  or  "inhuman  treatment,"  in  all  the  States  and  Territories  except  New  Jersey, 
New  Mexico,  New  York,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Virginia  and  West  Virginia. 

Failure  by  the  husband  to  provide:  One  year  in  California,  Colorado,  Dakota,  Ne- 
vada and  Wyoming;  two  years  in  Indiana  and  Idaho;  no  time  specified  in  Arizona, 
Idaho,  Massachusetts,  Michigan,  Maine,  Nebraska,  Rhode  Island,  Vermont  and  Wis- 
consin; willful  neglect  for  three  years,  in  Delaware. 

Absence  without  being  heard  from-  Three  years  in  New  Hampshire;  seven  years 
in  Connecticut  and  Vermont,  separation  five  years,  in  Kentucky;  voluntary  separation 
five  years,  in  Wisconsin;  when  reasonably  presumed  dead  by  the  court,  in  Rhode 
Island. 

"Ungovernable  temper,"  in  Kentucky;  "habitual  indulgence  in  violent  and 
ungovernable  temper,"  in  Florida;  "cruel  treatment,  outrages  or  excesses  as  to  ren- 
der their  living  together  insupportable,"  in  Arkansas,  Kentucky,  Louisiana,  Missouri, 
Tennessee  and  Texas;  "indignities  as  render  life  burdensome,"  in  Missouri,  Oregon, 
Pennsylvania,  Tennessee,  Washington  and  Wyoming. 

In  Georgia  an  absolute  divorce  is  granted  only  after  the  concurrent  verdict  of  two 
juries  at  different  terms  of  the  court.  In  New  York  absolute  divorce  is  granted  for  but 
one  cause,  adultery. 

All  of  the  causes  above  enumerated  are  for  absolute  or  full  divorce, 
and  collusion  and  connivance  are  especially  barred,  and  also  condona- 
tion of  violation  of  the  marriage  vow. 

The  courts  of  every  State,  and  particularly  of  New  York,  are  very 
jealous  of  their  jurisdiction  and  generally  refuse  to  recognize  as  valid  a 
divorce  against  one  of  the  citizens  of  the  State  by  the  court  of  another 
State,  unless  both  parties  to  the  suit  were  subject  at  the  same  time  to 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  court  granting  the  divorce. 

PREVIOUS  RESIDENCE;  REQUIRED.— Dakota,  ninety  days;  California, 
Indiana,  Idaho,  Nebraska,  Nevada,  New  Mexico,  Texas  and  Wyoming, 
six  months;  Alabama,  Arizona,  Arkansas,  Colorado,  Illinois,  Iowa,  Kan- 
sas, Kentucky,  Maine,  Mississippi,  Minnesota,  Michigan,  Missouri, 
Montana,  New  Hampshire,  Ohio,  Oregon,  Pennsylvania,  Utah,  Vermont 
(both  parties  as  husband  and  wife),  West  Virginia,  Washington  and  Wis- 
consin, one  year;  Florida,  Maryland,  North  Carolina,  Rhode  Island  and 
Tennessee,  two  years;  Connecticut  and  Massachusetts  (if,  when  married, 
both  parties  were  residents,  otherwise  five  years),  three  years. 

REMARRIAGE — There  are  no  restrictions  upon  remarriage  by  di- 
vorced persons  in  Connecticut,  Kentucky,  Illinois  and  Minnesota.  De- 
fendant must  wait  two  years  and  obtain  permission  from  the  court  in 
Massachusetts.  The  decree  of  the  court  'may  restrain  the  guilty  party 
from  remarrying  in  Virginia.  Parties  cannot  remarry  until  after  two 
years,  except  by  permission  of  the  court,  in  Maine.  In  New  York  the 
plaintiff  may  remarry,  but  the  defendant  cannot  do  so  during  the  plaint- 
iffs lifetime,  unless  the  decree  be  modified  or  proof  that  five  years  have 
elapsed,  and  that  complainant  has  married  again  and  defendant's  con- 
duct has  been  uniformly  good.  Any  violation  of  this  is  punished  as 
bigamy,  even  though  the  other  party  has  been  married.  In  Delaware, 
Pennsylvania  and  Tennessee  no  wife  or  husband  divorced  for  violation 
of  the  marriage  vow  can  marry  the  particeps  criminis  during  the  life  of 
the  former  husband  or  wife,  nor  in  Louisiana  at  any  time;  such  marri- 
age in  Louisiana  renders  the  person  divorced  guilty  of  bigamy. 

RIGHTS    OF    MARRIED    WOMEN. 

Any  and  all  property  which  a  woman  owns  at  her  marriage,  together 
with  the  rents,  issues  and  profits  thereof,  and  the  property  that  comes  to 
her  by  descent,  devise,  bequest,  gift  or  grant,  or  which  she  acquires  by 
her  trade,  business,  labor,  or  services  performed  on  her  separate  account, 
shall,  notwithstanding  her  marriage,  remain  her  sole  and  separate  prop- 


268  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

erty,  and  may  be  used,  collected  and  invested  by  her  in  her  own  name, 
and  shall  not  be  subject  to  the  interference  or  control  of  her  husband,  or 
be  liable  for  his  debts,  unless  for  such  debts  as  may  have  been  contracted 
for  the  support  of  herself  or  children  by  her  as  his  agent. 

A  married  woman  may  likewise  bargain,  sell,  assign,  transfer  and 
convey  such  property,  and  enter  into  contracts  regarding  the  same  on  her 
separate  trade,  labor  or  business  with  the  like  effect  as  if  she  were  un- 
married. Her  husband,  however,  is  not  liable  for  such  contracts,  and 
they  do  not  render  him  or  his  property  in  any  way  liable  therefor.  She 
may  also  sue  and  be  sued  in  all  matters  having  relation  to  her  sole  and 
separate  property  in  the  same  manner  as  if  she  were  sole. 

In  the  following  cases  a  married  woman's  contract  may  be  enforced 
against  her  and  her  separate  estate:  1.  When  the  contract  is  created  in 
or  respecting  the  carrying  on  of  the  trade  or  business  of  the  wife.  2. 
When  it  relates  to  or  is  made  for  the  benefit  of  her  sole  or  separate  estate. 
3.  When  the  intention  to  charge  the  separate  estate  is  expressed  in  the 
contract  creating  the  liability. 

When  a  husband  receives  a  principle  sum  of  money  belonging  to  his 
wife,  the  law  presumes  he  receives  it  for  her  use,  and  he  must  account  for 
it,  or  expend  it  on  her  account  by  her  authority  or  direction,  or  that  she 
gave  it  to  him  as  a  gift. 

If  he  receives  interest  or  income  and  spends  it  with  her  knowledge 
and  without  objection,  a  gift  will  be  presumed  from  acquiescence. 

Money  received  by  a  husband  from  his  wife  and  expended  by  him, 
under  her  direction,  on  his  land,  in  improving  the  home  of  the  family, 
is  a  gift,  and  cannot  be  recovered  by  the  wife,  or  reclaimed,  or  an  account 
demanded. 

An  appropriation  by  a  wife,  herself,  of  her  separate  property  to  the 
use  and  benefit  of  her  husband,  in  the  absence  of  an  agreement  to  repay, 
or  any  circumstance  from  which  such  an  agreement  can  be  inferred,  will 
not  create  the  relation  of  debtor  and  creditor,  nor  render  the  husband 
liable  to  account. 

A  wife  who  causelessly  deserts  her  husband  is  not  entitled  to  the  aid 
of  a  court  of  equity  in  getting  possession  of  such  chattels  as  she  has  con- 
tributed to  the  furnishing  and  adornment  of  her  husband's  house.  Her 
legal  title  remains,  and  she  could  convey  her  interest  to  a  third  party  by 
sale,  and  said  party  would  have  a  good  title,  unless  her  husband  should 
prove  a  gift. 

Wife's  property  is  not  liable  to  a  lien  of  a  sub-contractor  for  materials 
furnished  to  the  husband  for  the  erection  of  a  building  thereon,  where  it 
is  not  shown  that  the  wife  was  notified  of  the  intention  to  furnish  the 
materials,  or  a  settlement  made  with  the  contractor  and  given  to  the  wife, 
her  agent  or  trustee. 

The  common  law  of  the  United  States  has  some  curious  provisions 
regarding  the  rights  of  married  women,  though  in  all  the  States  there  are 
statutory  provisions  essentially  modifying  this  law.  As  it  now  stands 
the  husband  is  responsible  for  necessaries  supplied  to  the  wife  even 
should  he  not  fail  to  supply  them  himself,and  is  held  liable  if  he  turn  her 
from  his  house,  or  otherwise  separate  himself  from  her  without  good 
cause.  He  is  not  held  liable  if  the  wife  deserts  him,  or  if  he  turns  her 
away  for  good  cause.  If  she  leaves  him  through  good  cause,  then  he  is 
liable.  If  a  man  lives  with  a  woman  as  his  wile,  and  so  represents  her, 
even  though  this  representation  is  made  to  one  who  knows  she  is  not,  he 
is  liable  the  same  way  as  if  she  were  his  wife. 


POLITICS  AND  STATECRAFT. 


A  politician,  Proteus-like,  must  alter 
His  face  and  habit;  and  like  water,  seem 
Of  the  same  color  that  the  vessel  is 
That  doth  contain  it,  varying  his  form 
With  the  chameleon,  at  each  object's  change. 

— MASON. 

DEFINITIONS  AND  DETAILS. 

The  Abolition  party  was  born  in  1829. 

Poll  tax  was  known  in  England,  A.D.  1380. 

The  London  Reform  Club  was  established  in  1836. 

A  political  lampoon  was  formerly  termed  a  pasquinade. 

A  close  corporation  is  that  which  fills  its  own  vacancies. 

The  first  French  National  Assembly  was  convened  in  1789. 

There  are  670  members  in  the  British  House  of  Commons. 

"Pairing  oft"  was  first  practiced  in  this  country  in  1839. 

Alderman  was  a  Saxon  office  and  simply  means  elder-man. 

The  first  journals  of  Congress  date  from  September,  1774. 

The  English  local  option  law  is  termed  the  Permissive  Bill. 

In  Germany  the  Reichsrath  is  the  council  of  the  whole  Empire. 

It  was  Abe  Lincoln  who  termed  the  freedmen  "wards  of  the  nation.'* 

Stephen  A.  Douglas  was  the  Little  Giant  of  our  political  history. 

The  name  "Old  Hickory"   was  given  to  Andrew  Jackson  in  1813. 

The  Indian  Territory  was  set  apart  in  1832;  Oklahoma  subtracted 
1889. 

The  familiar  letters  "O.  K."  were  a  party  cry  in  the  campaign  of 
1828. 

The  parliamentary  motion  of  closure  is  "that  the  question  be  now 
put." 

R.  B.  Hayes  said:  "He  serves  his  party  best  who  serves  the  country 
best." 

Sheriff  is  derived  from  shire-reeve,  the  chief  magistrate  of  a  shire  or 
county. 

In  1796  Mr.  C.  C.  Pinskey  said  "millions  for  defence  but  not  one  cent 
for  tribute." 

The  straight-out-Democrats  were  a  party  that  arose  in  1872,  led  by 
Charles  O'Connor. 


270  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

In  Norway  persons  who  have  not  been  vaccinated  are  not  allowed  to 
vote  at  any  election. 

In  the  days  of  Louis  XV  France  was  styled  "an  absolute  monarchy 
tempered  by  songs." 

It  was  Tennyson,  who  pictured  for  us  "the  parliament  of  man,  the 
federation  of  the  world. " 

Cortes  is  the  name  given  in  Spain  and  Portugal  to  the  assembly  of 
representatives  of  the  nation. 

"Me,  too,"  was  a  nickname  given  to  Senator  T.  C.  Platt,  N.  Y.,  as 
being  the  mere  echo  of  Conkling. 

McClellan's  army  nickname  was  Little  Mac.  It  became  national 
in  the  presidential  struggle  of  1864. 

French  chauvinism  and  British  jingoism  have  been  mildly  imitated 
here  as  "the  brilliant  foreign  policy." 

A  phrase  much  used  among  peace-lovers  after  the  civil  war  was:  To 
shake  hands  across  the  bloody  chasm. 

Opportunists  is  a  term  in  French  politics  for  those  who  would  delay 
action  until  a  favorable  chance  arrives. 

It  was  Mr.  Cleveland  who  originated  the  terms  "offensive  parti- 
sanship" and  "innocuous desuetude." 

One  of  Lincoln's  pleas  for  re-election,  in  1864,  was  that  "it  was  not 
best  to  swap  horses  in  crossing  a  stream." 

"I  would  rather  be  right  than  be  president"  was  said  by  Henry 
Clay,  in  1850,  to  Mr.  Preston  of  Kentucky. 

This  very  happy  phrase,  "the  cohesive  power  of  public  plunder,"  is 
but  a  misquotation  from  one  of  Calhoun's  speeches. 

The  phrase  "all  men  are  born  free  and  equal"  is  not  in  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence  but  in  the  Massachusetts  constitution. 

The  phrase  "blocks  of  five"  was  alleged  to  have  been  first  used  by 
W.  W.  Dudley  in  the  Cleveland-Harrison  campaign  of  1888. 

Particularists  is  a  term  applied  in  Germany  to  those  who  wish  to 
preserve  the  distinct  independence  of  the  several  German  states. 

Democracy  is  government  of  the  people  by  themselves;  more 
broadly  the  people  who  desire  to  exercise  sovereignty  either  directly  or 
indirectly. 

Coalition  is  politically  applied  to  the  union  of  two  parties,  or,  as  gen- 
erally happens,  portions  of  parties,  who  agree  to  sink  their  differences 
and  act  in  common. 

The  "Stalwarts"  arose  out  of  the  Republican  Convention  of  1880, 
led  by  Roscoe  Conkling  and  others  who  stood  firmly  (stalwartly)  for  a 
third  term  for  Grant. 

The  oft-quoted  Bulwer-Clayton  Treaty,  concluded  between  England 
and  America,  July  4,  1850,  provided  that  neither  should  have  exclusive 
control  over  the  proposed  Central  American  Ship  Canal  which  passes 
through  Nicaraguan  territory. 

Cumulative  Vote  is  the  system  introduced  into  England  in  1870  by 
which  each  person  has  as  many  votes  as  there  are  candidates,  and  the 
voter  may  give  all  the  votes  to  one  or  distribute  them  as  he  thinks  fit. 
It  is  only  recognized  at  school  board  elections. 


POLITICS  AND  STA  TECRAFT.  271 

A  demagogue  is  a  politician  who  gains  influence  by  flattering  the 
prejudices  or  working  on  the  ignorance  of  the  people.  Originally  one 
who  led  the  people  in  politics. 

The  French  Tiers  Etat  or  "Le  Tiers"  was  the  third  order  of  the  state, 
the  other  two  being  the  noblesse  and  the  clergy.  The  three  orders  com- 
bined form  the  Etats  Generaux. 

The  old  original  "palladium"  was  a  wooden  image  of  Pallas,  said  to 
have  fallen  from  heaven,  and  to  have  been  religiously  guarded  in  Troy, 
as  a  pledge  of  the  safety  of  the  city. 

Secret  service  moneys,  in  the  widest  sense  of  the  term,  include  all 
funds  placed  at  the  disposal  of  ministers  of  state,  to  be  expended  at  their 
discretion,  without  giving  an  account. 

Caesarism  is  the  absolute  rule  of  man  over  man,  with  the  recognition 
of  no  law  divine  or  human  beyond  that  of  the  ruler's  will.  Caesar  must 
be  summus  pontifex  as  well  as  imperator. 

Annexation  is  the  adding  or  joining  to  a  State  of  territory  which  was 
previously  independent  or  in  possession  of  another  power.  It  is  gener- 
ally, though  not  always,  the  result  of  war. 

A  committee  is  a  portion  generally  consisting  of  not  less  than  three 
members  selected  from  a  more  numerous  body,  to  whom  some  special 
act  to  be  performed,  or  investigation  to  be  made,  is  committed. 

Ukase  or  Oukaz  is  a  term  applied  in  Russia  to  all  the  orders  or  edicts, 
legislative  or  administrative,  emanating  from  the  czar  directly  or  from 
the  senate.  The  term  is  not  extended  to  the  order  of  ministers. 

International  arbitration  is  an  effort  to  substitute  arbitration  for  war 
in  international  disputes.  The  International  Arbitration  and  Peace 
Association  was  founded  for  this  end  (October,  1873),  at  Brussels. 

The  term  ironclad  oath  was  applied  to  an  oath  of  office  prescribed 
by  Congress  after  the  close  of  the  civil  war  as  a  safeguard  against  future 
disloyalty  on  the  part  of  citizens  of  the  reconstructed  Southern  States. 

Universal  suffrage  was  adopted  in  France  in  1791,  in  Germany  in  1871, 
and  in  Spain  in  1890,  but  in  Great  Britain,  and  most  European  countries, 
the  suffrage  is  limited  by  a  household  or  other  qualification.  Universal 
suffrage  was  one  of  the  six  points  of  the  charter. 

Comity  of  Nations  is  the  international  courtesy  by  which  effect  is 
given  to  the  laws  of  one  state  within  the  territory  and  against  the  citizens 
of  another  state.  The  surrender  of  W  M.  Tweed,  by  the  Spanish  gov- 
ernment to  our  own,  when  he  was  trying  to  escape  with  his  plunder,  is 
an  instance  of  its  operation. 

Civil  Service  is  a  term  comprising  all  officers  of  the  Government  who 
do  not  belong  to  the  military  or  naval  services  and  are  engaged  in  the 
administration  of  the  civil  affairs  of  the  State,  such  as  the  collection  of 
the  revenue,  the  administration  of  law  and  justice,  the  performance  of 
the  executive  duties  of  the  goverment,  and  the  representation  of  the 
country  abroad. 

The  blue  book  of  the  City  of  New  York  shows  that  there  are  6,724 
persons  paid  by  the  city  for  their  services.  Of  these  2,722,  including  the 
mayor,  aldermen,  heads  of  city  departments  and  teachers  and  other  em- 
ployees of  the  board  of  education  are  exempt  from  civil  service  rules,  and 
4,002  are  included  under  the  rules,  of  whom  2,760  are  appointed  only 
after  competitive  examination. 


272  MANUAL.  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

Among  strange  political  terms  the  "Barnburners"  were  democrats 
who  withdrew  from  their  party  in  1846.  They  opposed  the  formation  of 
all  corporations  because  they  were  afraid  the  United  States  Bank  would 
be  re-established.  The  name  refers  to  the  story  of  the  man  who  burnt 
his  barn  to  get  rid  of  the  rats. 

The  ' '  colonial  system' '  is  a  theory  long  acted  on  by  European  nations, 
that  their  settlements  abroad  were  to  be  treated  as  proprietary  domains, 
exploited  for  the  benefit  of  the  mother-country,  which  did  everything  it 
could  to  import  their  produce  as  cheaply  as  possible,  and  encourage  them 
to  a  large  consumption  of  home  manufactures. 

Entente  Cordiale(Fr.y  "cordial  understanding")  is  a  term  that  origi- 
nated, according  to  Littre\  in  the  French  chamber  of  deputies  in  1840- 
41,  and  which  from  having  been  first  used  especially  to  denote  the  friendly 
relations  and  disposition  existing  between  France  and  Great  Britain  has 
come  to  be  used  in  regard  to  the  amicable  relations  of  other  countries. 

Voting  in  France  is  twofold:  (1.)  Scrutin  d'Arrondissement,  or  the 
single  ballot  system,  whereby  each  arrondissement  (district  of  a  depart- 
ment) returns  its  own  member  for  Parliament;  (2)  Scrutin  de  I/iste,  or 
the  multiple  ballot  system,  whereby  all  the  candidates  offer  themselves 
for  the  department,  and  are  put  upon  the  same  list,  each  elector  having 
as  many  votes  as  there  are  seats  for  the  department. 

Conservative  as  a  term  for  one  of  the  two  great  parties  in  English 
politics,  was  first  used  in  an  article  in  the  Quarterly  for  January  1830, 
and  was  by  Macaulay  in  the  Edinburgh  for  1832  referred  to  as  a  "new 
cant  word."  Nevertheless  it  began  to  supersede  Tory  about  the  time  of 
the  Reform  Bill  controversies.  In  this  country  it  is  applied  to  the  De- 
mocracy because  of  their  jealous  care  for  personal  and  local  rights. 

Closure,  originating  in  the  French  cldture,  is  a  parliamentary  method 
introduced  into  the  English  House  of  Commons  in  1882,  by  which  power 
is  given  to  the  speaker  or  the  chairman  of  committees,  to  close  a  debate 
when  it  seems  to  him  that  the  subject  has  been  discussed,  and  he  is 
authorized  to  do  so  by  a  motion  duly  supported.  The  equivalent  of 
closure  obtains  in  American  usage  through  the  "previous  question." 

The  Hartford  Convention  was  an  assemblage  of  delegates  from  the 
New  England  States,  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  December  15,  1814.  It  sat 
twenty  days  with  closed  doors,  and  as  it  was  supposed  to  be  of  a  treason- 
able character,  it  was  watched  by  a  military  officer  of  the  Government. 
The  convention,  at  rising,  proposed  certain  amendments  to  the  Constitu- 
tion; but  though  no  treasonable  act  was  committed,  and  no  treasonable 
intention  proved,  the  Federalist  party  never  recovered  from  the  odium 
of  its  opposition  to  the  Government,  and  "Hartford  Convention  Federal- 
ists' '  was  long  a  term  of  reproach. 

Non-intercourse  Act  was  passed  by  Congress  February  27,  1809,  sus- 
pending all  trade  between  the  United  States  and  either  France  or  Eng- 
land. The  offence  of  England  was  its  claim  of  the  right  of  search,  which 
compelled  American  vessels  to  surrender  any  British  subjects  who  formed 
part  of  their  crew.  The  offence  of  France  was  the  Continental  system. 
Napoleon,  having  removed  all  obstructions  to  American  trade,  Congress 
renewed  intercourse  with  France  November  2,  1810;  but  the  breaking  out 
of  the  second  American  war  with  Great  Britain  in  May,  1812,  continued 
the  non-intercourse  till  after  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  when  friendly  rela- 
tions were  restored. 


POLITICS  AND  STA  TECRAFT.  273 

The  term  cabal  is  employed  to  denote  a  small,  intriguing,  factious 
party,  united  for  political  or  personal  ends.  It  had  been  previously  used 
to  denote  a  secret  committee  or  cabinet,  when,  during  1667-73,  it  was 
especially  applied  to  Charles  II's  infamous  ministry,  consisting  of  five 
members,  whose  initials,  by  a  strange  coincidence,  made  up  the  word 
CABAI,— viz.,  Clifford,  Ashley  (Shaftesbury),  Buckingham,  Arlington  and 
I/auderdale. 

A  caucus  is  a  private  meeting  of  politicians  to  agree  upon  candidates 
for  an  ensuing  election,  or  to  fix  the  business  to  be  laid  before  a  general 
meeting  of  their  party.  The  term  originated  in  the  United  States,  where 
the  caucus  has  become  a  fixed  fact,  the  "ticket"  for  federal,  state,  and 
municipal  offices,  being  always  decided  upon  by  the  party  leaders.  Of 
late  years  the  system  has  been  introduced  into  England,  but  is  chiefly 
used  by  the  Radicals. 

The  Know-nothings,  or  "Natives"  (1853),  were  a  political  society  in 
the  United  States  of  America  who  declared  that  the  right  of  citizenship 
should  be  restricted  to  "natives,"  or  those  born  of  American  parents  in 
America.  They  were  opposed  to  Catholicism,  as  inconsistent  with  the 
spirit  of  republicanism.  When  asked  any  question  respecting  their  so- 
ciety, their  only  reply  was,  "I  know  nothing."  They  split  on  the  slave 
question  and  died  out  as  a  distinct  party. 

The  casting  vote  is  the  vote  by  which  the  chairman  or  president  of  a 
meeting  is  generally  empowered  to  cast  the  balance  on  the  one  side  or 
the  other,  where  the  other  votes  are  equally  divided.  As  the  position  is 
a  delicate  one,  it  is  usual  for  the  presiding  officer  to  vote  in  such  a  way  as 
to  give  the  body  an  opportunity  to  reconsider  its  decision.  Where  the 
merits  of  the  matter  cannot  be  avoided,  the  casting  vote  may  be  accord- 
ing to  the  conscience  of  him  who  casts  it. 

There  were  six  Secretaries  of  State  who  afterward  became  Presidents, 
namely,  Jefferson,  Madison,  Monroe,  John  Quincy  Adams,  Van  Buren, 
and  Buchanan.  Monroe  was  Secretary  of  War  for  a  short  time  after  he 
had  served  in  the  State  Department,  and  General  Grant  was  Secretary  of 
War  ad  interim.  There  have  been  no  Secretaries  of  the  Treasury,  the 
Navy,  or  the  Interior,  nor  any  Postmasters  or  Attorney  Generals  who 
have  become  President.  Jeff  Davis  was  Secretary  of  War  under  President 
Pierce. 

Not  for  mere  pastime  are  the  so-called  Blue-books,  the  name  popu- 
larly applied  to  the  reports  and  other  papers  printed  by  the  English 
parliament,  because  they  are  usually  stitched  up  in  blue  paper  wrap- 
pers. Some  departments,  however,  issue  their  proceedings  in  drab,  and 
some  in  white  covers.  The  official  books  of  other  governments  corre- 
sponding to  these  blue-books  are  designated  by  the  color  of  their  covers. 
The  principal  are:  France,  yellow;  Germany  and  Portugal,  white;  Italy, 
green;  and  Spain,  red. 

The  Reichstag  is  the  diet  of  the  German  empire.  Since  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  empire  under  the  king  of  Prussia  the  legislative  council 
has  consisted  of  one  representative  to  every  one  hundred  thousand  inhabi- 
tants. As  the  entire  population  is  about  forty-seven  millions,  this  will 
give  four  hundred  and  seventy  members  to  the  legislative  assembly.  The 
delegates  of  the  confederated  governments  form  the  "  Bundesrath,"  and 
whatever  passes  the  two  houses  and  is  signed  by  the  king-emperor  be- 
comes binding  on  all  the  twenty-six  states. 
U.  I.— 18 


274  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

The  cabinet  is  a  council  formed  of  the  chief  ministers  of  state,  who 
formulate  and  carry  out  a  policy.  The  cabinet  was  known  in  England 
as  early  as  1690.  In  the  United  States  the  members  of  the  cabinet  are  the 
heads  of  departments,  who  act  in  an  advisory  relation  to  the  President. 
They  are  the  Secretary  of  State,  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  the  Sec- 
retary of  War,  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior, 
the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  the  Attorney  General,  and  the  Postmaster 
General.  The  salary  of  a  cabinet  officer  is  $8,000. 

The  two  legislative  houses  of  Norway  combined  are  called  the  Stor- 
thing or  Storting.  It  is  elected  once  in  three  years,  and  for  business 
purposes  divides  itself  into  two  chambers— the  Lagthing  and  the  Odels- 
thing  (the  legislative  house  and  the  "house  of  commons").  All  bills 
originate  in  the  Odelsthing,  and  are  sent  up  to  the  Lagthing  for  approval 
or  disapproval.  If  assented  to  they  are  submitted  to  the  king.  If  the 
king  dissents,  they  are  returned  to  the  Storthing  (or  combined  house), 
and  whatever  passes  the  Storthing  thrice  becomes  law,  whether  the  king 
approves  it  or  not. 

A  tariff  is  a  table  of  duties  charged  on  the  imports  or  exports  of  a 
country.  The  word  is  said  to  be  derived  from  the  Moorish  port  of  Tar- 
ifa,  where  duties  were  levied  on  African  commerce.  In  Great  Britain 
the  tariff  imposes  no  export  duties,  and  applies  only  to  import  duties 
levied  for  purposes  of  revenue.  In  the  United  States,  also,  the  term  is 
applied  exclusively  to  import  duties,  which  are  fixed  by  Congress,  and 
levied  for  purposes  of  protection.  The  McKinley  tariff,  placing  a  high 
duty  upon  all  foreign  imported  goods,  with  the  view  of  protecting  native 
manufactures  of  the  United  States,  came  into  operation  October,  1890. 
Protective  tariffs  are  in  operation  in  most  of  the  continental  countries 
Canada,  and  Australia. 

The  Cincinnati  Association  is  a  society  or  order  founded  in  the 
United  States  (1783)  by  the  officers  of  the  War  of  Independence,  "to 
perpetuate  their  friendship,  and  to  raise  a  fund  for  relieving  the  widows 
and  orphans  of  those  fallen  during  the  war."  It  derived  its  name  from 
the  appellation  given  to  those  who,  with  Washington  at  their  head,  had 
left  their  rural  occupations  (like  Lucius  Quintus,  Cincinnatus,  458  B.C.), to 
fight  for  their  country.  The  badge  of  the  society  is  a  bald  eagle,  having 
on  its  breast  a  figure  of  the  Roman  Dictator  receiving  the  military  en- 
signs from  the  senators.  It  is  suspended  by  a  dark  blue  ribbon,  emble- 
matic of  the  union  of  France  and  America.  Motto:  Omnia  relinquit 
servare  rempublicam.  In  several  states  the  order  still  exists,  and  holds 
triennial  meetings  of  its  delegates. 

The  term  "Whig"  in  United  States  history  denotes  those  who  in 
the  colonial  and  revolutionary  periods  were  opposed  to  the  British  rule; 
and  also  it  is  the  name  adopted  in  1834  by  the  survivors  of  the  old  Na- 
tional Republican  party,  after  its  overwhelming  defeat  by  Jackson  in 
1832.  Jackson's  bold  action  in  dismissing  members  of  his  cabinet,  and 
his  relentless  war  upon  the  United  States  Bank,  made  him  in  their  eyes 
a  tyrant  little  less  hateful  than  George  III,  and  the  old  name  of  Whig 
was  chosen  as  expressive  of  their  revolt  against  one-man  power.  Webster, 
Clay,  and  other  National  Republicans  and  old  Federalists  readily  ac- 
cepted the  name,  under  which  they  were  defeated  in  1836,  and  in  1840 
won  their  first  great  victory  in  the  return  of  President  Harrison. 
The  party  died  in  1852,  slain  by  the  hands  of  its  own  dissatisfied  mem- 
bers. 


POLITICS  AND  STA  TECRAFT.  275 

The  Ku-Klux  Klan  (1868-1871)  was  a  secret  society  of  ex-Confederate 
soldiers.  "Ku-Klux"  is  meant  to  represent  the  click  in  cocking  a  rifle. 
The  "Klan"  was  an  offset  of  the  "Loyal  League,"  and  its  ostensible  ob- 
ject was  to  "repress  crime  and  preserve  law  in  the  disturbed  Southern 
States."  In  1871  Congress,  resolved  to  put  down  the  association,  sus- 
pended the  Habeas  Corpus  Act  (under  what  is  generally  called  "The  Ku- 
Klux  Law")  in  nine  counties  of  South  Carolina.  This  law  and  the  em- 
ployment of  the  military  brought  the  "Klan"  to  an  end. 

The  legislative  assembly  of  France  is  divided  into  Right  and  Left. 
The  Right  includes  the  Legitimists,  the  Orleanists,  and  the  Imperialists. 
The  Left  includes  the  Republicans  and  the  Radicals.  The  Legitimists 
are  those  who  favored  the  fortunes  of  the  older  branch  of  the  Bourbon 
family,  represented  till  1883  by  the  Comte  de  Chambord,  who  was  called 
by  them  "Henri  V."  The  Orleanists  favored  the  Louis  Philippe  branch 
of  the  Bourbon  family.  On  the  death  of  the  Comte  de  Chambord,  in 
1883,  the  Legitimists  and  the  Orleanists  became  united.  The  Imperial- 
ists favor  the  family  of  Napoleon.  The  Legitimists  used  to  constitute 
the  "Extreme  Right,"  the  Orleanists  the  "Right  Center."  The  Radicals 
sit  in  the  "Extreme  Left,"  and  the  Republicans  in  the  "Left  Center." 


WHAT  IS  TAMMANY? 

Tammany,  Tamendy,  or  Tammenund  was  an  Indian  chief  of  the 
Delaware  nation  who  lived  about  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
He  was  a  great  friend  of  the  whites,  and  was  famous  in  tradition  for  so 
many  other  virtues  that  in  the  latter  days  of  the  Revolution  he  was  face- 
tiously adopted  as  the  patron  saint  of  the  new  republic.  A  society  called 
the  Tammany  Society  was  founded  in  New  York  city,  May  12,  1789, 
originally  for  benevolent  purposes,  but  it  ultimately  developed  into  a 
mere  political  engine,  becoming  the  principal  instrument  of  the  mana- 
gers of  the  Democratic  party  in  New  York  City.  The  number  of  the 
general  committee  arose  to  over  1,400,  delegates  ultimately  being  sent 
from  each  district  and  precinct;  and  finally  a  central  "  committee  on  or- 
ganization" was  chosen  from  this  unwieldy  body,  whose  chairman  was 
"boss"  of  the  hall.  The  most  notorious  of  these  "  bosses"  was  William 
M.  Tweed,  whose  gigantic  frauds,  and  those  of  the  "ring"  of  which  he 
was  the  chief,  were  finally  exposed  in  1871;  Tweed  was  convicted,  and 
died  in  gaol  while  suits  were  pending  against  him  for  the  recovery  by 
the  city  of  $6,000,000.  This  catastrophe  sadly  crippled  the  power  of 
Tammany,  but  its  influence  in  politics  was  by  no  means  killed  even  then, 
and  it  has  since,  with  its  leaning  towards  a  protective  tariff,  proved  a  con- 
stant source  of  insecurity  and  danger  to  the  Democratic  party  at  large. 
Its  influence  was  thrown  into  the  scale  against  Hancock,  successfully, 
in  1880,  and  against  Cleveland,  unsuccessfully,  in  1884;  and  the  organi- 
zation is  still  strong  enough  to  carry  its  candidate  for  the  mayoralty,  even 
against  a  combination  of  opposing  forces. 


WHEN  ARE  YOU  TWENTY-ONE? 

The  question  sometimes  arises  whether  a  man  is  entitled  to  vote  at 
an  election  held  on  the  day  preceding  the  twenty-first  anniversary  of  his 
birth.  Blackstone,  in  his  "Commentaries,"  book  1,  page  463,  says: 
"  Full  age  in  male  or  female  is  21  years,  which  age  is  completed  on  the 
day  preceding  the  anniversary  of  a  person's  birth,  who,  till  that  time,  is 


276  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

an  infant,  and  so  styled  in  law."  The  late  Chief  Justice  Sharswood,  in 
his  edition  of  Blackstone's  "  Commentaries,"  quotes  Christian's  note  on 
the  above  as  follows:  "If  he  is  born  on  the  16th  d°y  of  February,  1608, 
he  is  of  age  to  do  any  legal  act  on  the  morning  of  the  15th  of  February, 
1629,  though  he  may  not  have  lived  twenty-one  years  by  nearly  48  hours. 
The  reason  assigned  is  that  in  law  there  is  no  fraction  of  a  day;  and  if 
the  birth  were  on  the  last  second  of  one  day  and  the  act  on  the  first  sec- 
ond of  the  preceding  day  twenty-one  years  after,  then  twenty-one  years 
would  be  complete;  and  in  the  law  it  is  the  same  whether  a  thing  is  done 
upon  one  moment  of  the  day  or  another."  The  same  high  authority 
(Sharswood)  adds  in  a  note  of  his  own:  "  A  person  is  of  full  age  the  day 
before  the  twenty-first  anniversary  of  his  birthday." 


ABOUT   STATE   ELECTION. 

State  elections  are  held  in  the  various  States  as  follows:  Alabama 
and  Kentucky,  first  Monday  in  August;  Arkansas,  first  Monday  in  Sep- 
tember; Georgia,  first  Wednesday  in  October;  Louisiana,  the  Tuesday 
after  the  third  Monday  in  April;  Maine,  second  Monday  in  September; 
Oregon,  first  Monday  in  June;  Rhode  Island,  first  Wednesday  in  April; 
Vermont,  first  Tuesday  in  September.  All  others  occur  on  the  Tuesday 
after  the  first  Monday  in  November.  Presidential  elections  are  held  on 
the  Tuesday  after  the  first  Monday  in  November. 

THE  AUSTRALIAN  BALLOT  SYSTEM. 

In  the  New  England  colonies  the  practice  of  secret  voting  was  in 
vogue  from  the  very  first,  and  it  has  now  been  adopted  throughout  the 
United  States.  It  is  prevalent  also  in  the  self-governing  English  colonies 
in  Canada  and  Australia,  and  in  most,  if  not  all,  the  countries  of  Europe 
which  have  adopted  parliamentary  institutions — in  France,  Germany, 
Italy,  etc.  While  it  may  with  substantial  justice  be  maintained  that 
open  voting  is  theoretically  the  best  at  elections  of  every  kind,  on  the 
ground  that  the  suffrage  being  a  public  trust,  it  should  be  openly  and 
manfully  exercised  with  the  full  sense  of  responsibility,  secret  voting  is 
now  generally  regarded  as  practically  the  most  satisfactory  method. 
Though  it  is  not  a  perfect  safeguard  against  bribery  and  intimidation,  it 
has  proved  to  be  very  effective.  Since  its  adoption  elections  have  pro- 
ceeded with  greater  quietness,  order  and  with  comparatively  little  cor- 
ruption. 

The  peculiar  system  of  the  secret  ballot  known  as  the  Australian 
system  took  its  name  from  its  being  practiced  first  .in  New  South  Wales, 
a  prominent  Australian  colony.  Its  distinguishing  feature  is  that  the 
names  of  all  candidates  are  printed  on  one  ticket,  and  that  the  voter 
must  cross  out  the  names  of  all  those  he  does  not  wish  to  vote  for. 

Many  of  our  States  have  adopted  this  system  of  voting,  with  slight 
modifications,  varying  with  the  different  States.  Most  of  them,  how- 
ever, have  adopted  what  is  styled  the  single  or  "blanket"  ballot.  All 
the  names  in  nomination  are  printed  on  one  sheet,  the  voter's  choice  to 
be  indicated  by  marking.  There  are  two  methods  used  of  grouping  the 
names  of  the  candidates.  The  Australian  plan  arranges  the  titles  of  the 
offices  alphabetically,  the  names  of  the  candidates  and  usually  their 
party  connection  being  attached. 

The  other  form  groups  all  names  and  offices  by  parties.  It  is  illus- 
trated by  the  following  diagram  of  a  ballot: 


POLITICS  AND  STATECRAFT.  277 

Democratic.  Republican.  Prohibition.  People's. 

o  o  o  o 

For  Governor.          For  Governor.       For  Governor.     For  Governor. 
D  John  B.  Altgeld.  D  Joseph  W.  Fifer.    D  R.  R.  Sink.    D  N.  M.  Barnett. 
The  voter  of  a  straight  ticket  marks  a  cross  in  the  circle  at  the  head 
of  his  ticket.     The  voter  who  scatters  marks  the  squares  opposite  the 
the  names  of  all  the  candidates  on  the  tickets. 


THE  PRESIDENTIAL  ELECTION. 

The  President  and  Vice- President  of  the  United  States  are  chosen  by 
officials  termed  ' '  Electors ' '  in  each  State,  who  are,  under  existing  State 
laws,  chosen  by  the  qualified  voters  thereof  by  ballot,  on  the  first  Tues- 
day after  the  first  Monday  in  November  in  every  fourth  year  preceding 
the  year  in  which  the  Presidential  term  expires. 

The  Constitution  of  the  United  States  prescribes  that  each  State  shall 
' '  appoint ' '  in  such  manner  as  the  Legislature  thereof  may  direct,  a  number 
of  electors  equal  to  the  whole  number  of  Senators  and  Representatives  to 
which  the  State  may  be  entitled  in  Congress;  but  no  Senator  or  Representa- 
tive or  person  holding  an  office  of  trust  or  profit  under  the  United  States 
shall  be  an  elector.  The  Constitution  requires  that  the  day  when  elect- 
ors are  chosen  shall  be  the  same  throughout  the  United  States.  At  the 
beginning  of  our  Government  most  of  the  electors  were  chosen  by  the 
Legislatures  of  their  respective  States,  the  people  having  no  direct  par- 
ticipation in  their  choice;  and  one  State,  South  Carolina,  continued  that 
practice  down  to  the  breaking  out  of  the  Civil  War.  But  in  all  the  States 
now  the  Presidential  electors  are,  under  the  direction  of  State  laws, 
chosen  by  the  people. 

The  manner  in  which  the  chosen  electors  meet  and  ballot  fora  Presi- 
dent and  Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  is  provided  for  in  Article 
XII  of  the  Constitution.  The  same  article  prescribes  the  mode  in  which 
the  Congress  shall  count  the  ballots  of  the  electors,  and  announce  the 
result. 

The  procedure  of  the  two  houses,  in  case  the  returns  of  the  election 
of  electors  from  any  State  are  disputed,  is  provided  in  the  "Electoral 
Count ' '  act,  passed  by  the  Forty-ninth  Congress. 

The  Constitution  defines  who  is  eligible  for  President  of  the  United 
States,  as  follows: 

No  person  except  a  natural-born  citizen,  or  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States  at  the  time  of  the  adoption  of  this  Constitution  shall  be  eligible  to 
the  office  of  President;  neither  shall  any  person  be  eligible  to  that  office 
who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the  age  of  35  years. 

The  qualifications  for  Vice-President  are  the  same. 

The  "Electoral  Count"  act  directs  that  the  Presidential  electors 
shall  meet  and  give  their  votes  on  the  second  Monday  in  January  next 
following  their  election.  It  fixes  the  time  when  Congress  shall  be  in 
session  to  count  the  ballots  as  the  second  Wednesday  in  February  suc- 
ceeding the  meeting  of  the  electors. 

The  Presidential  succession  is  fixed  by  chapter  4  of  the  acts  of  the 
Forty-ninth  Congress,  first  session.  In  case  of  the  removal,  death,  resig- 
naion  or  inability  of  both  the  President  or  Vice-President,  then  the  Sec- 
retary of  State  shall  act  as  President  until  the  disability  of  the  President 
or  Vice-President  is  removed  or  a  President  is  elected.  If  there  be  no 
Secretary  of  State,  then  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  will  act ;  and 


278  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

the  remainder  of  succession  is:  The  Secretary  of  War,  Attorney-General, 
Postmaster-General,  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  and  Secretary  of  the  Interior. 
The  acting  President  must,  upon  taking  office,  convene  Congress,  if  not 
at  the  time  in  session,  in  extraordinary  session,  giving  twenty  days' 
notice.  

HOW  TO  BECOME  A  CITIZEN. 

The  right  to  vote  comes  from  the  State,  and  is  a  State  gift.  Natura- 
lization is  a  Federal  right,  and  is  a  gift  of  the  Union,  not  of  any  one 
State.  In  nearly  one  half  the  Union  aliens  who  have  declared  intentions 
vote  and  have  the  right  to  vote  equally  with  naturalized  or  native-born 
citizens.  In  the  other  half  only  actual  citizens  may  vote.  The  Federal 
naturalization  laws  apply  to  the  whole  Union  alike,  and  provide  that  no 
alien  male  may  be  naturalized  until  after  five  years'  residence.  Even 
after  five  years'  residence  and  due  naturalization  he  is  not  entitled  to 
vote  unless  the  laws  of  the  State  confer  the  privilege  upon  him,  and  he 
may  vote  in  one  State  (Minnesota)  four  months  after  landing,  if  he  has 
immediately  declared  his  intention,  under  United  States  law,  to  become 
a  citizen. 

The  conditions  under  and  the  manner  in  which  an  alien  may  be  ad- 
mitted to  become  a  citizen  of  the  United  States  are  prescribed  by  Sections 
2165-74  of  the  Revised  Statutes  of  the  United  States. 

DECLARATION  OF  INTENTION.— The  alien  must  declare  upon  oath  before  a  Circuit 
or  District  Court  of  the  United  States,  or  a  District  or  Supreme  Court  of  the  Territories, 
or  a  court  of  record  of  any  of  the  States  having  common  law  jurisdiction,  and  a  seal  and 
clerk,  two  years  at  least  prior  to  his  admission,  that  it  is,  bonafide,  his  intention  to 
become  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  and  to  renounce  forever  all  allegiance  and  fidelity 
to  any  foreign  prince  or  State,  and  particularly  to  the  one  of  which  he  may  be  at  the 
time  a  citizen  or  subject. 

OATH  ON  APPLICATION  FOR  ADMIISSON.— He  must,  at  the  time  of  his  application 
to  be  admitted,  declare  on  oath,  before  some  one  of  the  courts  above  specified,  "that  he 
will  support  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  and  that  he  absolutely  and  entirely 
renounces  and  abjures  all  allegiance  and  fidelity  to  every  foreign  prince,  potentate, 
State  or  sovereignty,  and  particularly,  by  name,  to  the  prince,  potentate,  State  or  sov- 
ereignty of  which  he  was  before  a  citizen  or  subject,  "which  proceedings  must  be  recorded 
by  the  clerk  of  the  court. 

CONDITIONS  FOR  CITIZENSHIP. — If  it  shall  appear  to  the  satisfaction  of  thecourt  to 
which  the  alien  has  applied  that  he  has  resided  continuously  within  the  United  States 
for  at  least  five  years,  and  within  the  State  or  'i  erritory  where  such  court  is  at  the  time 
held  one  year  at  least;  and  that  during  that  time  "he  has  behaved  as  a  man  of  good 
moral  character,  attached  to  the  principles  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  and 
well  disposed  to  the  good  order  and  happiness  of  the  same, ".he  will  be  admitted  to 
citizenship. 

TITLES  OF  NOBILITY. — If  the  applicant  has  borne  any  hereditary  title  or  order  of 
nobility,  he  must  make  an  express  renunciation  of  the  same  at  the  time  of  his  ap- 
plication. 

SOLDIERS.— Any  alien  of  the  age  of  twenty-one  years  and  upwards,  who  has  been  in 
the  armies  of  the  United  States  and  has  been  honorably  discharged  therefrom,  may  be- 
come a  citizen  on  his  petition,  without  any  previous  declaration  of  intention,  provided 
that  he  has  resided  in  the  United  States  at  least  one  year  previous  to  his  application, 
and  is  of  good  moral  character. 

MINORS.— Any  alien  under  the  age  of  twenty-one  years  who  has  resided  in  the 
United  States  three  years  next  preceding  his  arriving  at  that  age,  and  who  has  con- 
tinued to  reside  therein  to  the  time  he  may  make  application  to  be  admitted  a  citizen 
thereof,  may,  after  he  arrives  at  the  age  of  twenty-one  years,  and  after  he  has  resided 
five  years  within  the  United  States,  including  the  three  years  of  his  minority,  be  ad- 
mitted a  citizen:  but  he  must  make  a  declaration  on  oath  and  prove  to  the  satisfaction 
of  the  court  that  for  two  year*  next  preceding  it  has  been  his  bonafide  intention  to  be- 
come a  citizen. 

CHILDREN  OF  NATURALIZED  CITIZENS.— The  children  of  persons  who  have  been 
duly  naturalized,  being  under  the  age  of  sixteen  years  at  the  time  of  the  naturalization 
of  their  parents,  shall,  if  dwelling  in  the  United  States,  be  considered  as  citizens  thereof. 


POLITICS  AND  STA  TE CRAFT.  279 

CITIZENS'  CHILDREN  WHO  ARE  BORN  ABROAD.— The  children  of  persons  who  now 
are  or  have  been  citizens  of  the  United  States  are,  though  born  out  of  the  limits  and  ju- 
risdiction of  the  United  States,  considered  as  citizens  thereof. 

PROTECTION  ABROAD  TO  NATURALIZED  CITIZENS.  —  Section  2000  of  the  Revised 
Statutes  of  the  United  States  declares  that  "all  naturalized  citizens  of  the  United  States, 
while  in  foreign  countries  are  entitled  to  and  shall  receive  from  this  Government  the 
same  protection  of  persons  and  property  which  is  accorded  to  native-born  citizens." 


Codifyi 
8. 


PARLIAMENTARY    LAW    CONDENSED. 
The  following  will  be  found  useful  as  a  guide  to  parliamentarians: 

LISTS    OF  MOTIONS  ARRANGED   ACCORDING  TO   THEIR  PURPOSE 
AND  EFFECT. 

\Letters  refer  to  rules  below.'} 

ing  or  amending. 
To  amend  or  to  substitute,  or  to  divide  the  question  .......  K 

To  refer  to  committee. 

7.    To  commit  (or  recommit)  ...................................       .,  D 

Deferring  action. 

6.    To  postpone  to  a  fixed  time  ..............................  C 

4.  To  fay  on  the  table  ..........................................  AEG 

Suppressing  or  extending  debate. 

5.  For  the  previous  question  ..................................  A        E       M 

To  limit,  or  close,  debate  ...................................  A        M 

To  extend  limits  of  debate  .................................  A 

Suppressing  the  question. 

Objection  to  consideration  of  question  ......................  A  H        M        N 

9.    To  postpone  indefinitely  ..................................  D        E 

4.     To  lay  upon  the  table        ..................   ...........  A        E        G 

To  bring  up  a  question  the  second  time. 

T    ~         o-,^..    j  debatable  question  .....  .................  D  E         F         I 

To  reconslder   1  undebatable  question  .....................  A  E        F         I 

Concerning  Orders.  Rules,  etc. 

3.    For  the  orders  of  the  day....     .............................  A  E       H       N 

To  make  subject  a  special  order  ............................  M 

To  amend  the  rules  .......................  .................  M 

To  suspend  the  rules  .......................................  A  E        F        M 

To  make  up  a  question  out  of  its  proper  order  ..............  A        E 

To  take  from  the  table  ..................................  -----  A        E        G 

Questions  touching  priority  of  business  .....................  A 

Questions  of  privilege. 

Asking  leave  to  continue  speaking  after  indecorum  ........  A 

Appeal  from  chair's  decision  touching  indecorum  ..........  A  E        H         I, 

Appeal  from  chair's  decision  generally  ....................  E        H         L 

Question  upon  reading  of  papers  ...........................  A         E 

Withdrawal  of  a  motion  ....................................  A         E 

Closing  a  meeting. 

2.    To  adjourn  (in  committees,  to  rise)  ,  or  to  take  a  recess,  j  A        T?         w 
without  limitation  .............  ,  ......................  \ 

1.    To  fix  the  time,to  which  to  adjourn  ......................  B 

ORDER  OF  PRECEDENCE.—  The  motions  above  numbered  1  to  9  take  precedence  over 
all  others  in  the  order  given,  and  any  one  of  them,  except  to  amend  or  substitute,  is  in 
order  while  a  motion  of  a  lower  rank  is  pending. 

RULE  A.  Undebatable,  but  remarks  may  be  tacitly  allowed. 

RULE  B.  Undebatable  if  another  question  is  before  the  assembly. 

RULBC.  Limited  debate  allowed  on  propriety  of  postponement  only. 

RULB  D.  Opens  the  main  question  to  debate.  Motions  not  so  marked  do  not  allow 
of  reference  to  main  question, 

RULB  E.  Cannot  be  amended.  Motion  to  adjourn  can  be  amended  when  there  is  no 
other  business  before  the  house. 

RULE  F.  Canno*  be  reconsidered. 

RULE  G.  An  affirmative  vote  cannot  be  reconsidered. 

RULB  H.  In  order  when  another  has  the  floor. 

RULE  I.  A  motion  to  reconsider  may  be  moved  and  entered  when  another  has  the 
floor,  but  the  business  then  before  the  house  may  not  be  set  aside.  This  motion  can 
only  be  entertained  when  made  by  one  who  voted  originally  with  the  prevailing  side. 


280  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

When  called  up  it  take"  precedence  of  all  others  which  may  come  up,  excepting  only 
motions  relating  to  adjournment 

Rule  K.  A  motion  to  amend  an  amendment  cannot  be  amended. 

RULE  I,.  When  an  appeal  from  the  chair's  decision  results  in  a  tie  vote,  the  chair  is 
sustained. 

RULE  M.  Requires  a  two-thirds  vote  unless  special  rules  have  been  enacted, 

RULE  N.  Does  not  require  to  be  seconded. 

GENERAL,  RUL.ES. 

No  motion  is  open  for  discussion  until  it  has  been  stated  by  the  chair. 

The  maker  of  a  motion  cannot  modify  it  or  withdraw  it  after  it  has  been  stated  by 
the  chair,  except  by  general  consent. 

Only  one  reconsideration  of  a  question  is  permitted. 

A  motion  to  adjourn,  to  lay  on  the  table,  or  to  take  from  the  table,  cannot  be  re- 
newed unless  some  other  motion  has  been  made  in  the  interval. 

On  motion  to  strike  out  the  words,  "Shall  the  words  stand  part  of  the  motion?"  un- 
less a  majority  sustain  the  words,  they  are  struck  out. 

On  motion  for  previous  question,  the  form  to  be  observed  is,  "Shall  the  main  ques- 
tion be  now  put?"  This,  if  carried,  ends  debate. 

On  an  appeal  from  the  chair's  decision,  "Shall  the  decision  be  sustained  as  the  rul- 
ing of  the  house?"  the  chair  is  generally  sustained. 

On  motion  for  orders  of  the  day,  "Will  the  house  now  proceed  to  the  orders  of 
the  day?"  This,  if  carried,  supersedes  intervening  motions. 

When  an  objection  is  raised  to  considering  questions,  "Shall  the  question  be  con- 
sidered?" objections  maybe  made  by  any  member  before  debate  has  commenced,  but 
not  subsequently. 

WOMAN    SUFFRAGE. 

The  following  is  a  statement  of  the  Woman  Suffrage  movement,  cor- 
rected to  January  1,  1893.  Thirty-two  States  and  Territories  -  a  majority 
of  the  Union — have  given  women  some  form  of  suffrage. 

WYOMING. — Women  have  voted  on  the  same  terms  with  men  since 
1870.  The  convention  in  1889,  to  form  a  State  Constitution,  unanimously 
inserted  a  provision  securing  them  suffrage.  This  Constitution  was  rati- 
fied by  the  voters  at  a  special  election  by  about  three-fourths  majority. 
Congress  admitted  the  State  July  10,  1890. 

WASHINGTON. — Women  voted  in  the  Territory  for  five  years,  till  ex- 
cluded by  a  decision  of  the  Territorial  Supreme  Court,  which  court  was 
not  elected  by  the  people  nor  responsible  to  them.  In  adopting  a  State 
Constitution,  the  question  of  allowing  women  to  vote  was  submitted 
separately  to  vote  of  the  men.  It  was  not  carried.  Many  women  claim 
that  they  were  illegally  excluded,  and  are  seeking  to  regain  suffrage. 

KANSAS. — Women  have  suffrage  in  all  municipal  elections.  About 
60,000  voted  last  year. 

UTAH.— Women  voted  in  this  Territory  until  excluded  by  the  Ed- 
munds law.  They  have  organized  in  large  numbers  to  demand  the  re- 
peal of  this  law.  The  State  Constitution  of  1884  gave  suffrage  to  women. 

School  suffrage  exists,  on  various  terms,  in  Arizona,  Colorado,  Dela- 
ware, Idaho,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Kansas,  Kentucky,  Massachusetts,  Michi- 
gan, Minnesota,  Nebraska,  New  Hampshire,  New  Jersey,  New  York, 
North  Dakota,  Oklahoma,  Oregon,  South  Dakota,  Texas,  Vermont, 
Washington  and  Wisconsin.  Women  can  vote  for  trustees  of  the  State 
University  in  Illinois,  and  for  county  superintendents  in  Minnesota. 

MONTANA.— The  State  Constitution  guarantees  women  the  power  to 
vote  on  local  taxation. 

NEW  YORK. — Women  can  vote  at  waterworks  elections,  and  on 
questions  of  local  improvements;  also  for  Assembly  District  School 
Commissioners  in  the  rural  districts  once  in  three  years. 

PENNSYLVANIA.—  Women  vote  on  local  improvements,  by  signing  or 
refusing  to  sign  petitions. 


POLITICS  AND  STATECRAFT.  281 

NEW  JERSEY. — Women  can  vote  at  elections  for  sewers  and  other  im- 
provements. 

SOUTHERN  STATES. — Delaware  has  municipal  woman  suffrage  in 
Wilmington  and  many  other  places.  Louisiana  admits  women  to  vote 
on  the  question  of  running  railroads  through  parishes.  Tennessee  on  in- 
corporation of  cities  and  annexation  thereto.  Mississippi  on  fence  ques- 
tions under  the  stock  law.  Arkansas  and  Missouri  by  signing  or  refusing 
petitions  on  liquor  license.  Kentucky,  widows  whose  children  attend 
school  vote.  Texas  women  in  many  counties  vote  by  signing  or  refusing 
to  sign  petitions  for  school  officers. 


PARTIES  THAT  ELECTED  PRESIDENTS. 

Au,  PARTIES,  2 — Washington,  Monroe. 

FEDERAL,  2— John  Adams,  John  Q.  Adams. 

OLD  REPUBLICANS,  2— Jefferson,  Madison. 

DEMOCRATS,  6 — Jackson,  Van  Buren,  Polk,  Pierce,  Buchanan, 
Cleveland. 

WHIGS,  4— Harrison,  Tyler,  Taylor,  Fillmore. 

NEW  REPUBLICANS,  7 — Lincoln,  Johnson,  Grant,  Hayes,  Garfield, 
Arthur,  Harrison. 

THE  FUGITIVE  SLAVE  LAW. 

The  constitution  of  the  United  States  of  America  having  recognized 
slavery,  or  "service,"  as  it  was  termed,  provided  that  persons  held  to 
service  or  labor  in  one  State,  under  the  laws  thereof,  and  escaping  into 
anotner,  should  be  delivered  up,  on  claim  of  the  party  to  whom  such 
service  or  labor  might  be  due.  An  act  passed  by  congress  in  1793,  pro- 
viding for  the  reclamation  of  fugitives,  was  superseded  by  a  more  string- 
ent act  in  1850,  containing  many  obnoxious  provisions;  a  larger  fee,  for 
instance,  was  paid  to  the  judicial  officer  when  the  person  arrested  was 
adjudged  to  be  a  slave  than  when  he  was  declared  free;  and  all  citizens 
were  required,  when  called  upon,  to  render  the  officers  personal  assist- 
ance in  the  performance  of  their  duties.  Any  assistance  rendered  to  a 
fugitive,  or  obstruction  offered  to  his  arrest  was  penal,  and  many  persons 
were  remanded  under  the  act;  but  the  increased  hostility  to  slavery 
which  it  engendered  actually  led  to  assistance  being  given  in  a  larger 
number  of  escapes  than  ever  before,  mainly  through  the  organization 
known  as  the  "  underground  railroad."  The  act  was  repealed  after  the 
outbreak  of  the  civil  war;  and,  since  slavery  has  been  abolished,  the  con- 
stitutional provision  has  lost  all  importance. 


CONGRESS    AND   ITS    DUTIES. 

The  American  Congress  is  divided  into  the  Senate  and  the  House  of 
Representatives,  a  division  which  was  made -because  our  Government 
was  founded  upon  the  model  of  England,  whose  Parliament  consists  of 
a  House  of  Peers  and  a  House  of  Commons.  The  Senate  is  supposed  to 
play  the  same  part  in  American  legislation  which  the  House  of  Peers 
does  in  Britain.  It  is  a  sort  of  governor  in  the  machinery  of  the  body 
politic  which  exerts  a  conservative  and  prudent  influence  on  law-mak- 
ing. The  Senate  originally,  although  that  meaning  has  been  largely 
neglected,  meant  the  conclave  of  the  sovereign  States  of  the  Union,  a 
council  which  was  to  look  more  closely  after  the  general  and  external 


282  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

affairs  of  the  confederacy,  while  the  House  of  Representatives  was  to 
represent  the  people  of  the  whole  Union.  This  meaning,  it  has  been 
said  above,  has  been  largely  lost  in  the  course  of  time,  but  the  fiction 
remains,  and  the  division  of  the  powers  of  Government  between  the  two 
bodies  illustrates  the  purpose  which  the  fathers  of  the  Government  had 
in  the  original  separation  into  two  Houses. 

THE  SENATE. — The  Senate  consists  of  two  Senators  from  each  State 
of  the  Federal  Union.  These  Senators  are  chosen  by  the  Legislatures  of 
the  respective  States  and  hold  office  for  six  years.  There  was  a  strong 
effort  made  at  the  time  of  the  drafting  of  the  Constitution  to  extend  the 
term  for  life,  but  this  was  believed  to  savor  too  much  of  aristocracy,  and 
after  long  debate  six  years  was  agreed  upon  as  a  compromise  measure. 
The  pay  of  Senators  is  $5,000  per  year.  The  Senate  is  presided  over  by 
the  Vice-President,  and  when  he  has  for  any  cause  vacated  his  office  a 
President  pro  tempore  of  the  Senate  is  elected.  There  are  now  (1893) 
eighty-six  Senators.  *  All  impeachments  are  tried  by  the  Senate,  and 
when  the  President  of  the  United  States  is  on  trial  the  Chief  Justice  of 
the  Supreme  Court  must  preside.  The  Senate  must  approve  of  treat- 
ies made  with  foreign  governments  by  the  President  before  they  can  be- 
come binding,  and  the  consent  of  the  Senate  is  necessary  to  the  appoint- 
ments to  all  the  great  offices  of  the  State  made  by  the  President.  The 
Senate  is  the  only  permanent  body  in  the  United  States  Government, 
the  elections  being  always  so  ordered  that  two-thirds  of  the  Senators 
hold  over. 

THE  HOUSE.— In  the  early  days  of  the  Federal  Union  the  only  legis- 
lative body  was  the  Continental  Congress,  which  exercised  both  the 
executive  and  legislative  functions  of  government,  and  which  occasion- 
ally performed  judicial  duties  also.  The  old  Congress  piloted  the  nation 
through  the  Revolutionary  war,  but,  although  effective  for  its  original 
purpose,  it  was  not  able  for  the  work  which  fell  upon  its  shoulders  under 
the  articles  of  confederation.  The  articles  themselves  were  unsuited  to 
the  land,  and  in  a  little  while  it  became  evident  that  the  United  States 
experiment  would  end  in  disaster  and  disappointment  unless  something 
was  done  to  give  it  shape  and  direction. 

The  man  that  had  led  the  Continental  Army  to  glory  and  freedom 
through  the  Revolution  again  came  forward  and  preserved  by  his  wise 
statesmanship  the  Republic  which  his  military  genius  had  founded.  At 
the  call  of  George  Washington  the  American  Constitution  was  born,  and 
the  keystone  of  the  Constitution  is  the  House  of  Representatives.  This 
body  is  the  brain  of  the  nation;  on  its  floor  all  the  momentous  issues  of 
the  Republic  have  been  settled;  no  higher  office  can  a  citizen  win  than 
a  seat  in  the  council  of  the  Nation,  none  greater  in  the  influence  which 
it  wields,  not  for  America  alone,  but  for  the  future  of  the  human  race. 

The  number  of  Representatives  is  decided  by  the  census;  which  is 
taken  every  ten  years.  As  soon  as  this  is  done  Congress  decides  upon 
the  number  of  Representatives  for  the  ensuing  decade.  The  number 
»ince  the  establishment  of  the  Constitution  has  been  as  follows: 

1789—1793..  65 

1793-1803 105 

1803—1813   149 

1813—1823.. ....189 

1823-1833 213 

1833—1843 240 

These  Congressmen  are  paid  $5,000  a  year,  with  certain  additions  in 
the  shape  of  mileage,  stationery,  etc. ,  etc.  The  qualifications  of  a  Rep- 
resentative are  fully  explained  in  the  Constitution, 


1843—1853 223 

1853-1863 237 

1863—1873 243 

1873—1883 293 

1883-1893...  ..  325 


MUSIC  AND  THE  FINE  ARTS. 


The  beings  of  the  mind  are  not  of  clay, 

Essentially  immortal,  they  create 
And  multiply  .in  us  a  brighter  ray, 

And  more  belov'd  existence. 

—BYRON. 

STRAY  HINTS  ON  ART  AND  ARTISTS. 

Byron  had  no  ear  for  music. 

Pope  preferred  a  street  organ  to  Handel's  Messiah. 

The  piano  was  unknown  before  the  eighteenth  century. 

"Art  lies  in  concealing  art,"  is  a  phrase  credited  to  Ovid. 

"  It  was  in  Greece  that  sculpture  first  became  an  ideal  art." 

Rococo  now  applies  to  whatever  is  fantastic  in  decorative  art. 

It  was  Schelling  who  described  architecture  as  "frozen  music." 

Emanuel  Bach  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  writer  for  the  pianoforte. 

The  name  "Painter  of  Nature"  was  given  to  the  French  poet  Bel- 
lean. 

The  harp  is  mentioned  in  Genesis  (iv.  21),  and  is  still  in  use  and 
favor. 

Sir  W.  Scott  was  wholly  ignorant  of  pictures  and  quite  indifferent 
to  music. 

In  melodrama,  strictly  defined,  music  is  always  introduced  into  the 
dialogue. 

Of  late  the  term  "fine  arts"  has  become  limited  to  painting  and 
sculpture. 

The  art  of  cameo  cutting  reached  its  highest  perfection  in  Greece 
and  Rome. 

The  English  artist  Hogarth  said  that  "genius  is  nothing  but  labor 
and  diligence." 

Giovanni  Cimabue  of  Florence  (1240-1300)  is  called  the  Father  of 
Modern  Painters. 

Goethe  has  said  that  "the  first  and  last  thing  required  of  genius  is 
the  love  of  truth." 

Stradivarius,  who  did  so  much  to  perfect  the  violin,  lived  in  the 
seventeenth  century. 

Frescoes  are  of  very  great  antiquity  and  have  been  found  in  Egypt, 
at  Pompeii  and  elsewhere. 

283 


284  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

When  beauty  and  grace  are  combined  with  utility  and  strength, 
architecture  becomes  a  fine  art. 

Opus  is  a  title  given  to  each  separate  production  of  a  composer. 
They  are  numbered  in  succession. 

"Music  hath  charms  to  soothe  the  savage  breast, "  not  "beast"— is 
the  true  quotation  from  Congreve. 

Centuries  before  our  Longfellow,  Chaucer  had  written:  "the  lyfe  so 
short,  the  crafte  so  long  to  lerne."  . 

It  was  Raphael  who  did  most  ' '  to  define  the  true  limits  and  the  true 
capabilities  of  purely  decorative  art." 

The  patron  saint  of  "artists  and  smiths"  is  St.  Eloi  (588-659),  master 
of  the  mint  in  the  reign  of  Clotaire  II. 

The  finest  specimens  of  Peruvian  masonry  extant  are  to  be  found  in 
the  ruins  of  Cuzco,  an  old  capital  of  the  state. 

The  place  where  the  chorus  stood  in  the  Greek  theatre  has  given  us 
a  word  that  now  refers  to  the  musicians — orchestra. 

The  nimbus  or  halo  painted  around  the  heads  of  holy  personages, 
is  claimed  to  have  been  derived  from  later  Greek  art. 

Renaissance  is  the  name  specifically  given  to  the  revival  of  the  clas- 
sic style  of  art  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries. 

As  a  portrait  painter  Van  Dyok  is  second  only  to  Titian.  His  "Chil- 
dren of  Charles  I,"  in  the  Dresden  gallery,  is  well  known. 

The  general  term  "  gem  sculpture"  refers  to  designs  worked  upon 
precious  stones,  as  cameos,  or  cut  into  the  surface  as  intaglios. 

Michelangelo  was  a  giant  in  sculpture,  painting  and  architecture. 
All  his  work  is  marked  by  "a  mysterious  and  awful  grandeur." 

Egypt  reached  the  zenith  of  her  political  greatness  and  her  archi- 
tecture its  highest  development  between  1600  B.C.  and  1300  B.C. 

Greek  paintings  were  executed  in  distemper  with  glue,  milk,  or  white 
of  eggs,  and  on  wood,  clay,  plaster,  stone,  parchment  and  canvas. 

For  richness  of  coloring,  beauty  of  form,  the  portrayal  of  the  sensu- 
ous and  the  painting  of  the  human  face,  few  have  surpassed  Titian. 

Flamboyant  was  a  style  of  Gothic  architecture  (1500-1600)  in  which 
the  tracery  of  windows,  panels,  etc.,  had  a  wave  or  flame-like  form. 

The  "Statuesque"  school  of  French  artists  was  that  founded  by  Da- 
vid (1748-1825),  who  was  himself  called  the  Painter  of  the  Revolution. 

The  cathedral  of  St.  Mark's  at  Venice,  with  its  many  rich  mosaics, 
is  considered  by  some  one  of  the  most  remarkable  buildings  in  the 
world. 

The  Laocoon,  a  masterpiece  of  the  Rhodian  school  [323-146  B.C.], 
"is  said  to  express  physical  pain  and  passion  better  than  other  existing 
groups." 

The  Temple  of  Karnac,  an  imposing  ruin,  is  a  striking  example  of 
the  grandeur,  the  grace  and  the  magnitude  of  many  of  the  Egyptian 
temples. 

Corot,  Millet  and  Bougereau  are  among  the  best  of  the  modern 
French  school,  which  to-day  is  enjoying  a  position  it  never  before 
attained. 


MUSIC  AND  THE  FINE  ARTS,  285 

The  grand  decorations  of  the  Sistine  Chapel  ceiling  were  the  work 
of  five  years,  and  form  a  characteristic  masterpiece  of  Michel  Angelo. 

In  the  twenty-first  verse  of  the  fourth  chapter  of  Genesis  we  read 
that  Jubal  was  "the  father  of  all  such  as  handle  the  harp  and  organ." 

The  clavichord  is  an  obsolete  musical  instrument  of  the  same  type 
as  the  harpsichord  and  spinet.  A  claviharp  is  a  harp  struck  with  keys 
like  a  piano. 

There  are  five  orders  of  architecture:  the  Tuscan,  Doric,  Ionic,  Cor- 
inthian and  Composite,  of  which  the  Tuscan  and  Composite  are  Roman 
and  the  other  three  Greek. 

Though  in  its  earliest  days  Christianity  in  its  asceticism  was  hostile 
to  art,  still  we  find  many  of  the  highest  forms  of  mediaeval  art  and 
architecture  in  the  Church. 

The  finest  ancient  marble  was  that  from  Paros,  called  Parian;  the 
next  best  were  from  Mount  Pentelicus  and  Hymettus,  near  Athens.  The 
finest  modern  marble  is  from  Carrara. 

Bach,  Handel,  Haydn,  Mozart,  Beethoven,  Weber,  Chopin,  Meyer- 
beer and  Mendelssohn,  who  are  still  without  peers  in  the  music  of  Ger- 
many, all  lived  and  died  within  a  century. 

The  oldest  existing  statue  is  one  of  wood,  admirably  modeled,  col-1 
ored,  and  with  eyes  of  crystal.  It  is  of  a  man  named  Ra-em-ke,  an 
Egyptian,  and  dating  from  about  B.  c.  4000. 

The  early  representations  of  Christ  in  painting  were  purposely  de- 
void of  all  attraction;  in  the  eighth  century  Adrian  I.  decreed  that  Christ 
should  be  represented  as  beautiful  as  possible. 

The  mosaics  in  the  Church  of  St.  Mark,  in  Venice,  are  the  finest  in 
the  world.  They  cover  40,000  square  feet  of  the  upper  walls,  ceilings, 
and  cupolas,  and  are  all  laid  on  a  gold  ground. 

In  these  great  works  of  the  Italian  painters  it  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  the  masters  furnished  the  cartoons,  while  the  details  were 
painted  by  pupils,  many  of  whom  in  turn  became  masters. 

Rembrandt  van  Ryn  raised  the  Dutch  school  to  its  highest  develop- 
ment in  realistic  art.  Perfect  command  of  light  and  shade,  picturesque 
effect  and  truth  to  nature  marks  all  the  work  of  Rembrandt. 

"The  Girl  I  Left  Behind  Me"  has  been  played  and  sung  in  England 
since  1760.  Its  original  name  was  "Brighton  Camp."  It  is  an  Irish 
air,  but  who  composed  either  the  words  or  the  music  is  now  unknown. 

The  Caryatides  were  figures  of  Greek  women  used  in  architecture  to 
support  entablatures.  They  were  first  used  by  Praxiteles  to  perpetuate 
the  disgrace  of  Carya,  who  sided  with  the  Persians  in  the  battle  of  Ther- 
mopylae. 

The  opposite  art  term  to  relief  is  intaglio,  and  means  the  repre- 
sentation of  a  subject  by  hollowing  it  out  in  a  gem  or  other  substance,  so 
that  an  impression  taken  from  the  engraving  presents  the  appearance  of 
a  bas-relief. 

The  candelabrum  is  properly  a  candlestick,  but  is  regularly  used 
also  for  a  lamp-stand.  Often  from  three  to  ten  feet  high,  it  may  be  of  great 
variety  of  form  and  may  be  made  of  marble,  bronze,  and  the  precious 
metals.  The  bronze  candelabra  of  the  Renaissance  are  also  notable  art 
objects. 


286  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

Byzantine  architecture  was  the  style  which  was  developed  by  the 
Byzantine  artists  from  Christian  symbolism.  Its  main  features  were  the 
circle,  dome,  and  round  arch,  and  its  chief  symbols,  the  lily,  cross,  ves- 
ica  and  nimbus. 

In  the  Vatican  at  Rome  there  is  a  marble  statue  with  natural  eye- 
lashes, the  only  one  with  this  peculiarity  in  the  world.  It  represents 
Ariadne  sleeping  on  the  Island  of  Naxos  at  the  moment  when  she  was 
deserted  by  Theseus. 

The  camera  obscura  (lit.  "a  dark  chamber"),  early  described  by 
Giambattista  della  Porta  in  his  "Magia  Naturalis,"  received  a  new  inter- 
est in  the  hands  of  Daguerre,  when  it  became  the  principal  instrument 
used  in  photography. 

The  concertina  is  a  musical  instrument  invented  in  1829  by  Wheat- 
stone,  the  electrician,  the  sounds  of  which  are  produced  by  free  vibrating 
reeds  of  metal,  as  in  the  accordion.  The  scale  of  the  concertina  is  very 
complete  and  extensive. 

In  St.  John's  College,  Oxford,  is  preserved  a  portrait  of  Charles  I, 
in  which  the  engraver's  lines,  as  they  seem  to  be,  are  really  microscopic 
writing,  the  face  alone  containing  all  the  book  of  Psalms,  with  the 
creeds  and  several  forms  of  prayers. 

Though  Hogarth,  the  father  of  the  English  school  of  painting,  was 
successful  as  a  portrait  painter,  it  was  those  famous  series  of  satires  on 
the  follies  of  people  in  general  and  of  Londoners  in  particular  that 
placed  him  among  the  "immortals." 

The  Greeks  employed  music,  no  doubt  simple  in  form,  in  their 
dramas.  The  chorus  sang,  or  rather  "intoned  poetry,"  between  scenes, 
and  was  a  very  important  adjunct  of  the  play,  as  it  was  often  the  only 
means  of  showing  the  action  of  the  plot. 

Alto,  in  music,  is  properly  the  same  as  counter  tenor,  the  male  voice 
of  the  highest  pitch  (now  principally  falsetto),  and  not  the  lowest  female 
voice,  which  is  properly  contralto,  though  in  printed  music  the  second 
part  in  a  quartet  is  always  entitled  alto. 

People  love  pictures.  That  is  apparent  to  every  thoughtful  man 
who  visits  an  art  gallery.  It  may  be  true  that  comparatively  few  under- 
stand all  that  the  artists  have  said,  but  it  is  equally  true  that,  in  general, 
the  people  derive  delight  from  the  works  of  art. 

Dillettante  in  its  original  sense  is  synonymous  with  an  amateur,  or 
lover  of  the  fine  arts.  It  is  often  used  as  a  term  of  reproach,  to  signify 
an  amateur  whose  taste  lies  in  the  direction  of  what  is  trivial  and  vulgar, 
or  of  a  critic  or  connoisseur  whose  knowledge  is  mere  affectation  and 
pretence. 

The  Cyclopean  walls  was  a  name  given  to  masonry  built  of  large 
irregular  stones,  closely  fitting,  but  unhewn  and  uncemented.  They 
were  attributed  to  Strabo's  Cyclopes,  who  were  probably  mythical,  and 
many  of  them  still  exist  in  Greece  (as  at  Mycenae  and  Tiryus),  Italy  and 
elsewhere. 

Artists  say  that  the  next  great  school  will  appear  in  America  and 
rule  the  artistic  world  with  a  more  imperial  power  than  the  French  school 
exercises  today.  When  one  reflects  that  the  art  of  a  nation  is  but  the 
expression  of  the  inner  feeling  of  its  people  he  is  constrained  to  accept 
the  prophecy  as  true. 


MUSIC  AND  THE  FINE  ARTS.  287 

Madonna,  an  Italian  word  meaning  "  My  L/ady,"  is  used  as  the  gen- 
eric title  for  works  of  art,  generally  paintings,  representing  the  Virgin, 
or  the  Virgin  with  the  Infant  Christ.  Legend  credits  St.  L/uke  with 
having  painted  the  first  Madonna,  a  portrait  put  on  the  canvas  from  life, 
and  with  having  carved  the  image  of  the  Virgin  in  the  Santa  Casa  at 
Loreto. 

Serenade  (Ital.  serenata)  was  originally  music  performed  in  a  calm 
night;  hence  an  entertainment  of  music  given  by  a  lover  to  his  mistress 
under  her  window — especially  in  Spain  and  Italy.  A  piece  of  music 
characterized  by  the  soft  repose  which  is  supposed  to  be  in  harmony  with 
the  stillness  of  night  is  sometimes  called  a  serenade,  more  usually  a 
nocturne. 

Tableaux  vivants,  or  living  pictures,  are  representations  of  works  of 
painting  and  sculpture,  or  of  scenes  from  history  or  fiction,  by  living 
persons.  They  are  said  to  have  been  invented  by  Madame  de  Genlis, 
when  she  had  charge  of  the  education  of  the  children  of  the  Duke  of 
Orleans.  They  were  long  common  in  theatres,  as  they  are  now  in  pri- 
vate circles. 

In  the  fine  arts  a  cartoon  is  a  design  on  strong  paper  of  the  full 
size  of  a  work  to  be  afterwards  executed  in  fresco,  oil  color,  or  tapestry; 
and  prepared  in  order  that  the  artist  may  adjust  the  drawing  and  compo- 
sition of  his  subject  where  alterations  can  be  readily  effected.  The  de- 
sign when  completed  is  transferred,  by  tracing  or  pouncing,  to  the  sur- 
face finally  to  be  worked  on. 

We  apply  the  term  Moorish,  or  Moresque,  to  the  special  form  of 
Saracenic  architecture  developed  by  the  Moors  in  Spain.  Its  character- 
istics were  the  horseshoe  arch,  the  slender  column,  minarets,  mosques, 
lattice-work,  and  gorgeous  coloring.  The  principle  examples  are  the 
mosque  of  Cordova  (eighth  century),  and  the  palace  of  the  Alhambra  at 
Granada  (fourteenth  century). 

Castanets  is  the  name  of  a  musical  instrument  of  percussion  in  the 
form  of  two  hollow  shells  of  ivory  or  hard  wood,  which  are  bound 
together  by  a  band  fastened  on  the  thumb,  and  struck  by  the  fingers  to 
produce  a  trilling  sound  in  keeping  with  the  rhythm  of  the  music.  The 
castanets  were  introduced  into  Spain  by  the  Moors,  and  are  much  used 
as  an  accompaniment  to  dances  and  guitars. 

The  term  bird's-eye  view  is  applied  generally  to  modes  of  perspective 
in  which  the  eye  is  supposed  to  look  down  upon  the  objects  from  a  con- 
siderable height.  In  sketching  or  drawing  a  locality  for  military  or 
economical  purposes,  this  kind  of  perspective  is  always  used.  The  great 
difficulty  is  to  represent  at  the  same  time  the  relative  heights  of  moun- 
tains and  steepness  of  acclivities.  But  the  more  usual  kind  of  bird's-eye 
view  differs  from  the  common  perspective  picture  only  in  the  greater 
height  of  the  horizontal  line. 

Soprano  (Ital.)  is  the  highest  species  of  voice.  Its  average  range  ex- 
tends from  C  below  the  treble  stave  to  A  above  it;  but  the  greatest  variety 
in  compass  and  quality  is  found.  The  highest  compass  on  record  is  that  of 
Agujari,  which  on  the  testimony  of  Mozart  reached  to  C  in  altissimo  (three 
octaves).  Music  for  this  voice  is  now  written  with  the  G  or  treble  clef; 
but  in  German  full  scores  the  old  soprano  clef,  C  on  the  first  line,  is  still 
used.  The  mezzo-soprano  has  a  somewhat  lower  range,  usually  from  A 
beneath  the  treble  stave  to  F  on  the  fifth  line. 


288  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

Foreshortening  is  a  term  in  painting  or  drawing,  applied  to  signify 
that  a  figure,  or  a  portion  of  a  figure,  which  is  intended  to  be  viewed  by 
the  spectator  directly  or  nearly  in  front,  is  so  represented  as  to  convey  the 
notion  of  its  being  projected  forward;  and,  though  by  mere  comparative 
measurement  occupying  a  much  smaller  space  on  the  surface,  yet  to  give 
the  same  idea  of  length  or  size  as  if  it  had  been  projected  laterally. 

Genre-painting  is  a  term  in  art  which  originally  indicated  simply 
any  class  or  kind  of  painting,  and  was  always  accompanied  by  a  distinct- 
ive adjective  or  epithet,  as  genre  historique,  "historical  painting,"  or 
genre  du  pay  sage,  "landscape  painting."  The  term  genre  is  now  limited 
to  scenes  from  familiar  or  rustic  life  and  to  all  figure  pictures  which  from 
•the  homeliness  of  their  subjects  do  not  attain  to  the  dignity  of  historical 
art. 

Improvisatori  is  an  Italian  term,  designating  poets  who  without  pre- 
vious preparation  compose  on  a  given  theme,  and  who  sometimes  sing 
and  accompany  their  voice  with  a  musical  instrument.  The  talent  of 
improvisation  is  found  in  races  in  which  the  imagination  is  more  than 
usually  alert,  as  among  the  ancient  Greeks,  the  Arabs,  and  in  many  tribes 
of  negroes.  In  modern  Europe  it  has  been  almost  entirely  confined  to 
Italy. 

Great  schools  can  spring  only  from  a  profound  popular  delight  in 
expressions  of  beauty  and  truth.  Art  is  not  primarily  didactic — not 
essentially  religious  or  theoretical — but,  rather,  ethical,  and  delight  is  a 
moral  quality.  Thus  the  measure  of  a  nation's  advancement  in  regard 
to  its  ethical  conceptions  is  an  accurate  measure  of  its  love  of  art  and 
of  its  capability  to  achieve  great  things  in  color,  in  marble  and  in 
architecture. 

Perhaps  it  is  too  much  to  ask  that  the  people  read  all  that  artists 
write.  Granted  that  they  do  not,  there  still  remains  the  fact  that  their 
hearts  delight  in  expressions  of  truth,  which  their  minds  as  yet  do  not 
grasp.  And  from  such  popular  delight  in  things  of  intrinsic  nobility 
came  that  sincerity  which  made  it  possible  for  Ghiberti,  the  Florentine, 
to  fashion  "The  Gates  of  Paradise."  And  from  the  spirit  of  the  people 
the  great  American  school  of  art  is  to  spring. 

The  term  pre-Raphaelite  has  been  applied  to  a  body  of  artists,  poets, 
and  literary  men  who  combined  together  (1850)  to  advocate,  by  precept 
and  example,  a  return  to  nature  in  art.  Their  subsequent  success  and 
influence  was  largely  owing  to  the  support  they  received  from  the  pen 
of  John  Ruskin.  The  name  was  adopted  because  they  looked  upon  Ra- 
phael as  "the  first  traitor  to  religious  art, "  since  he  idealized  his  crea- 
tions past  recognition,  and  was  the  founder  of  what  they  deemed  the 
"illusory"  style. 

The  word  caricature  is  used  to  express  either  a  pictorial  or  a  de- 
scriptive representation,  in  which,  while  a  general  likeness  is  retained, 
peculiarities  are  exaggerated  so  as  to  make  the  person  or  thing  ridicu- 
lous. Although  sometimes  applied  to  literary  descriptions,  the  word 
caricature,  when  used  alone,  is  generally  understood  to  relate  to  de- 
sign. Caricature  being  a  natural  expression  of  natural  feelings,  must  be 
as  old  as  man  himself,  and  possibly  the  eccentric  markings  found  on 
rocks  and  in  caves  are  not  entirely  due  to  bad  drawing,  but  were  in- 
tended in  certain  cases  to  ridicule  the  artist's  enemies.  Examples  of  cari- 
cature have  been  found  in  the  art  of  the  Egyptians,  the  Greeks,  and  the 
Romans. 


MUSIC  AND  THE  FINE  ARTS.  289 

The  Facade  (Fr.)  is  the  exterior  front  or  face  of  a  building.  This 
term,  although  frequently  restricted  to  classic  architecture,  may  be  ap- 
plied to  the  front  elevation  of  a  building  in  any  style.  It  is,  however, 
generally  used  with  reference  to  buildings  of  some  magnitude  and  pre- 
tension; thus,  we  speak  of  the  front  of  a  house,  and  the  facade  of  a  pal- 
ace.  The  back  elevation  of  an  important  building  is  called  the  rear 
fa£ade,  and  a  side  elevation  the  lateral  facade.  The  sides  of  a  court,  or 
cortile  are  also  called  facades,  and  are  distinguished  as  north,  south,  etc., 
fa£ades. 

Relief,  as  distinguished  from  "sculpture  in  the  round,"  is  one  of  the 
oldest  forms  of  mural  decoration,  and  in  many  cases  is  a  subordinate  de- 
partment of  architectural  art  rather  than  a  branch  of  sculpture  proper. 
It  is  low  relief  (bas-relief,  basso-rilievo),  middle  (mezzo-rilievo),  and  high 
relief  (alto-rilievo)  according  as  the  carved  figures  project  very  little,  in 
a  moderate  degree,  or  in  a  very  considerable  degree  from  the  background. 
The  ancient  Egyptians  practiced  a  peculiar  kind  of  low  relief  and  in- 
taglio combined.  The  wall-sculptures  of  Assyria  and  Babylonia  are  mostly 
in  very  low  relief. 

Dissolving  views  are  pictures  painted  upon  glass,  and  made  to  appear 
of  great  size  and  with  great  distinctness  upon  a  wall  by  means  of  a  magic 
lantern  with  strong  lenses  and  an  intense  oxyhydrogen  light,  and  then — 
by  removal  of  the  glass  from  the  focus,  and  gradual  increase  of  its  dis- 
tance—apparently dissolved  into  a  haze,  through  which  a  second  picture 
is  made  to  appear  by  means  of  a  second  slide,  at  first  with  a  feeble,  and 
afterwards  with  a  strong  light.  Subjects  are  chosen  to  which  such  an 
optical  illusion  is  adapted,  such  as  representations  of  the  same  object  or 
landscape  at  different  periods. 

The  art  of  painting  manuscripts  with  miniatures  and  ornaments 
termed  "illumination,"  is  one  of  the  most  remote  antiquity.  The  Egyp- 
ian  papyri  containing  portions  of  the  Ritual  or  "Book  of  the  Dead"  are 
ornamented  with  veritable  drawings  and  colored  pictures.  Except  these 
papyri,  no  other  manuscripts  of  antiquity  were,  strictly  speaking,  illu- 
minated; such  Greek  and  Roman  manuscripts  of  the  first  century  as  have 
reached  the  present  day  being  written  only.  It  was  in  the  middle  ages, 
and  in  the  hands  of  ecclesiastical  scholars  or  copyists,  that  the  art  of  illum- 
ination touched  its  highest  development. 

The  Elgin  Marbles  are  a  celebrated  collection  of  ancient  sculptures, 
brought  from  Greece  by  the  seventh  Earl  of  Elgin,  then  ambassador  to 
the  Porte,  and  acquired  from  him  by  the  nation  for  the  British  Museum 
in  1816  at  the  sum  of  $175,000.  Early  in  the  century  he  obtained  a  fir- 
man to  examine,  measure,  and  remove  certain  stones  with  inscriptions 
from  the  Acropolis  of  Athens,  then  a  Turkish  fortress.  His  agents,  on 
the  strength  of  this  firman,  removed  the  so-called  Elgin  Marbles,  packed 
before  Elgin's  recall  in  1803,  but  not  finally  conveyed  to  England  till 
1812.  They  are  said  to  have  cost  the  ambassador  upwards  of  $370,000. 


THE  LARGEST  STATUE  ON  RECORD. 

"Liberty,"  Bartholdi's  statue,  presented  to  the  United  States  by  the 
French  people  in  1885,  is  the  largest  statue  ever  built.  Its  conception  is 
due  to  the  great  French  sculptor  whose  name  it  bears.  It  is  said  to  be  a 
likeness  of  his  mother.  Eight  years  were  consumed  in  the  construction 
of  this  gigantic  brazen  image.  Its  weight  is  440,000  pounds,  of  which 
U.  I.— 19 


290  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

146,000  pounds  are  copper,  the  remainder  iron  and  steel.  The  chief  part 
of  the  iron  and  steel  was  used  in  constructing  the  skeleton  frame  work 
for  the  inside.  The  mammoth  electric  light  held  in  the  hand  of  the 
giantess  is  305  feet  above  tide- water.  The  height  of  the  figure  is  152^ 
feet;  the  pedestal  91  feet,  and  the  foundation  52  feet  and  10  inches.  Forty 
persons  can  find  standing-room  within  the  mighty  head,  which  is  14^ 
feet  in  diameter.  A  six-foot  man,  standing  on  the  lower  lip,  could  hardly 
reach  the  eyes.  The  index  finger  is  8  feet  in  length  and  the  nose  3% 
feet.  The  Colossus  of  Rhodes  was  a  pigmy  compared  with  this  latter 
day  wonder.  

SOME  MARVELOUS  PAINTINGS. 

The  following  brief  notes  on  a  few  wonderful  creations  of  the  brush 
will  be  perused  with  general  interest: 

Quentin  Matsys,  the  Dutch  painter,  painted  a  bee  so  well  that  the 
artist  Mandyn  thought  it  a  real  bee  and  proceeded  to  brush  it  away  with 
his  handkerchief. 

Parrhasios  painted  a  curtain  so  admirably  that  even  Zeuxis,  the 
artist,  mistook  it  for  real  drapery. 

Zeuxis,  a  Grecian  painter,  painted  some  grapes  so  well  that  birds 
came  and  pecked  at  them,  thinking  them  real  grapes. 

Apelles  painted  Alexander's  horse  Bucephalus  so  true  to  life  that 
some  mares  came  up  to  the  canvas  neighing,  under  the  supposition  that 
it  was  a  real  animal. 

Velasquez  painted  a  Spanish  admiral  so  true  to  life  that  when  King 
Felipe  IV  entered  the  studio,  he  mistook  the  painting  for  the  man,  and 
began  reproving  the  supposed  officer  for  neglecting  his  duty,  in  wasting 
his  time  in  the  studio,  when  he  ought  to  have  been  with  his  fleet. 

Apelles,  being  at  a  loss  to  paint  the  foam  of  Alexander's  horse, 
dashed  his  brush  at  the  picture  in  a  fit  of  annoyance,  and  did  by  accident 
what  his  skill  had  failed  to  do. 

The  same  tale  is  told  of  Protogenes,  who  dashed  his  brush  at  a  pict- 
ure, and  thus  produced  "  the  foam  of  a  dog's  mouth,"  which  he  had  long 
been  trying  in  vain  to  represent. 


STORY  OF  THE  "ART  DIVINE." 

The  cradle  of  the  divine  art  was  Egypt.  The  Hebrews  took  with 
them  to  Palestine  the  songs  they  had  learned  there,  and  many  of  the 
hymns  of  the  early  Christian  Church  were  necessarily  old  Temple  melo- 
dies. Ambrose,  Archbishop  of  Milan  (374),  and  after  him  Pope  Gregory 
the  Great  (590),  were  the  fathers  of  music  in  the  Western  Church.  Har- 
monies were  introduced  in  the  ninth  century;  the  present  musical  nota- 
tion was  invented  by  Guido  Aretino  (d.  1055);  counterpoint  was  perfected 
by  the  Belgian  Josquin  Despres  (d.  1521)  and  the  Italian  Palestrina 
(1555);  and  Italian  opera  was  founded  in  1600.  The  influence  of  the 
Italian  school  spread  all  over  Europe;  but  in  the  sixteenth  century  Eng- 
land had  a  national  school  of  her  own,  comprising  such  names  as  Tallis, 
Farrant,  and  Orlando  Gibbons.  Among  the  great  composers  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  were  Monteverde  in  Italy,  Lully  in  France,  and  Purcell  in 
England.  In  the  eighteenth  century  music  made  enormous  advances, 
especially  in  Germany.  Church  music  attained  to  its  highest  develop- 
ment under  Bach,  the  oratorio  under  Handel  (1685—1759),  the  opera  under 
Mozart  and  Gluck,  and  orchestral  music  under  Haydn  and  Beethoven 


MUSIC  AND  THE  FINE  ARTS.  291 

(1770-1827).  The  nineteenth  century  has  been  illustrated  by  such  names 
as  Mendelssohn,  Weber,  Meyerbeer,  Auber,  Schubert,  Spohr,  Schumann, 
Chopin,  Rossini,  Bellini,  Verdi;  and  in  England,  Sterndale,  Bennett  and 
Macfarren.  Of  the  later  German  school  the  chief  exponents  have  been 
Wagner  (1813-83)  and  Liszt  (d.  1886).  Other  leading  composers  are 
Gounod,  in  France;  Boito,  in  Italy;  Rubinstein  and  Brahms,  in  Germany; 
Dvorak,  in  Bohemia,  Grieg,  in  Scandinavia,  and  Sullivan,  Mackenzie, 
Stanford  and  Cowen,  in  England. 


THE  PORTLAND  VASE. 

The  Portland  Vase  was  a  celebrated  ancient  Roman  glass  vase  or 
cinerary  urn  found  during  the  pontificate  of  Urban  VIII.  (1623-44)  in  a 
marble  sarcophagus  (of  Alexander  Severus,  it  is  thought,  and  his  mother 
Mammaea)  in  the  Monte  del  Grano,  near  Rome.  It  was  at  first  deposited 
in  the  Barberini  Palace  at  Rome,  and  hence  it  is  sometimes  called  the 
Barberini  Vase.  It  was  bought  in  1770  by  Sir  William  Hamilton,  and  in 
1787  by  the  Portland  family,  who  in  1810  deposited  it  in  the  British 
Museum,  where  it  is  now  shown  in  the  "Gold  Room."  The  ground  of 
the  Portland  Vase  is  of  dark  blue  glass,  and  the  figure  subjects  which 
adorn  it  are  cut  in  cameo  style  in  an  outer  layer  of  opaque  white  glass. 
In  the  official  British  Museum  Guide  (1890)  it  is  stated  that  the  compo- 
sition is  supposed  to  represent  on  the  obverse  Thetis  consenting  to  be  the 
bride  of  Peleus,  in  the  presence  of  Poseidon  and  Eros;  on  the  reverse, 
Peleus  and  Thetis  on  Mount  Pelion.  On  the  bottom  of  the  vase  is  a  bust 
of  Paris.  The  vase  was  broken  to  pieces  by  a  lunatic  in  1845,  but  the 
fragments  were  very  skillfully  united  again.  The  Portland  Vase  is  ten 
inches  high,  and  is  the  finest  specimen  of  an  ancient  cameo  cut-glass  vase 
known.  There  are  only  two  others  of  similar  character  which  approach 
it  in  beauty — viz.  an  amphora  in  the  Naples  Museum  and  the  Auldjo 
Vase.  But  fragments  of  the  same  kind  of  glass  exist  with  work  upon 
them  quite  as  fine.  In  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  Josiah  Wedg- 
wood, the  famous  potter  made  fifty  copies  in  fine  earthenware  of  the 
Portland  Vase,  which  were  originally  sold  at  twenty-five  guineas  each. 
One  of  these  now  fetches  $1,000. 


THE  IMPRESSIONISTS. 

Impressionism  made  its  first  public  appearance  in  the  Salon  of  1867. 
Founded,  it  is  claimed,  by  Edouard  Manet,  its  aim  is  to  rid  art  of  the 
trammels  of  tradition  and  to  look  at  nature — and  to  portray  her — in  a 
fresh  and  original  manner.  Therefore  conventionalities  in  lighting, 
grouping,  etc.,  are  carefully  avoided,  while  personal  and  immediate 
"impressions"  of  nature  must  be  rendered  with  absolute  truth.  In  the 
words  of  one  of  their  ablest  exponents,  they  hold  that  the  eye  of  the 
painter  '  'should  abstract  itself  from  memory,  seeing  only  that  which  it 
looks  upon,  and  that  as  for  the  first  time,  and  the  hand  should  become 
an  impersonal  abstraction,  guided  only  by  the  will,  oblivious  of  all  prev- 
ious cunning. ' '  In  the  works  of  most  of  the  impressionists  little  selection 
of  subject  or  care  for  beauty  of  color,  form,  or  expression  is  visible;  and 
their  art,  touching  as  it  would  seem  by  an  instinctive  preference  on  some 
of  the  most  unlovely  aspects  of  the  nineteenth  century  existence,  dealing 
with  the  life  of  the  jockey  and  the  ballet-girl,  and  portraying  the  worst 
atrocities  of  modern  costume,  has  frequently  fallen  into  dire  depths  of 


292  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

ugliness  and  vulgarity.  Certain  points  of  resemblance  to  the  aims  and 
methods  of  the  impressionists  are  to  be  found  in  the  works  of  such  able 
painters  as  J.  M.  Whistler  and  J.  S.  Sargent,  and  still  more  distinctly  in 
those  of  several  of  the  younger  Paris-trained  English  painters  who  have 
exhibited  in  the  Suffolk  Street  Gallery  and  in  the  Nineteenth  Century 
Art  Club.  

THE  GREAT  MASTERS  AND  GREAT  SCHOOLS. 
The  chief  schools  of  painting  are  the  Florentine,  founded  on  the 
Byzantine  school,  its  principal  painters  being  Cimabue(  1240-1 300),  Giotto 
(1276-1336),  Leonardo  da  Vinci  (1452-1520),  Michael  Angelo  Buonarotti 
(1474-1564),  Carlo  Dolci  (1616-86);  the  Flemish—].  Van  Eyck  (1366-1441), 
Quentin  Matsys  (1460-1529),  Breughel  (1565-1625),  P.  P.  Rubens  (1577- 
1640),  Vandyck  (1599-1641),  Snyders  (1579-1657),  Hobbima  (1611-70),  Ten- 
niers,  jun.,  (1610-94),  Rosa  Bonheur  (1822),  the  Umdrian,  its  chief  expon- 
ent being  P.  Perugino  (1446-1524);  the  Venitian— Giorgione  (1477-1511), 
Sebastian  del  Piomno  (1485-1547),  Titian  (1477-1576),  Paul  Veronese  (1532- 
88),  Tintoretto  (1512-94);  the  Roman— Raphael  (1483-1520),  Paolo  Peru- 
gino (1446-1524),  Giulio  Romano  (1492-1546),  Canaletti  (1697-1768);  the 
German— Hans  Holbein  (1495-1543),  Sir  Peter  Lely  (1617-80),  Sir  Godfrey 
Kneller  (1648-1723),  P.  von  Cornelius (1787-1867),  F.  Overbeck(  1789-1869), 
W.  Kaulbach  (1805-74);  the  Lombardian—Correggio  (1494-1534),  Perme- 
giano  (1503-40),  Annibal  Caracci  (1568-1609),  Guido  (1575-1642),  thetfolo- 
gnese-Vomemcho  (1581-1641),  Guercino  (1590-1666);  the  Dutch— Both 
(1600-50),  Paul  Potter  (1625-54),  A.  Cuyp  (1606-72),  A.  Van  der  Velde 
(1635-72),  Rembrandt  (1606-74),  G.  Douw  (1630-80),  Mieris  (1635-81),  Ruys- 
dael  (1636-81),  I.  Van  Ostade  (1621-49),  A.  Van  Ostade  (1610-85),  Berghem 
(1624-85),  Wouvermans  (1620-88),  W.  Van  der  Velde  (1633-1707),  Huysum 
(1682-1749),  and  more  recently  L.  Alma  Tadema  (1836),  Schotel,  Scholf- 
hart,  Van  Os,  Van  Stry,  Ommeganck,  Josef  Israels,  Mesdag,  Mans  and 
others;  the  English—  Walter  Dobson  (1610-46),  Sir  J.  Thornhill  (1676-1732), 
William  Hogarth  (1697-1764),  J.  Mortimer  (1739-79),  R.  Wilson  (1714-82), 
Gainsborough  (1727-88),  Sir  J.  Reynolds  (1723-92),  Romney  (1734-1802), 
George  Morland  (1763-1804),  Barry  (1741-1806),  Opie  (1761-1807),  Benja- 
min West  (1738-1820),  H.  Raeburn  (1786-1823),  J.  Ward  (1779-1859),  Fuseli 
(1741-1825),  J.  Constable  (1776-1837),  D.  Wilkie  (1785-1841),  Haydon  (1786- 
1846),  Collins  (1788-1847),  Etty  (1787-1849),  Turner  (1775-1851),  Mulready 
(1786-1863),  Sir  C.  L.  Eastlake  (1793-1865),  T.  Creswick  (1811-69),  Maclise 
(1811-70),  Sir  G.  Hayter  (1792-1871),  Sir  E.  Landseer  (1802-73),  E.  M. 
Ward  (1816-79),  R.  Redgrave  (1804),  W.  P.  Frith  (1819),  J.  Faed  (1820), 
T  Faed  (1826),  H.  S.  Marks  (1829),  J.  E.  Millais  (1829),  Sir  F.  Leighton 
(1830),  Vicat  Cole  (1833),  G.  D  Leslie  (1835),  E.  J.  Poynter  (1836),  E. 
Armitage  (1817),  Edwin  Long  (1839-91),  P.  H.  Calderon  (1833),  T.  S. 
Cooper  (1803),  F.  Holl  (1845),  F.  Goodhall  (1822),  Birket  Foster  (1812), 
Sir  John  Gilbert  (1817),  H.  Herkomer  (1849),  J.  C.  Horsley  (1817),  W.  Q. 
Orchardson  (1835),  W.  W.  Ouless,  (1848)  G.  F.  Watts  (1820),  Marcus 
Stone  (1840),  John  Pettie  (1839),  E.  J.  Gregory  (1850),  J.  Mac  Whirter 
(1839),  C.  Val  Prinsep  (1836),  J.  S.  Lucas  (1849),  B.  W.  Leader  (1831). 
Among  English  painters  the  Pre-Raphaelite  movement,  which  com- 
menced in  1849,  as  a  protest  against  conventionalism  in  idea  as  well  as 
execution  in  art,  numbered  among  its  principal  exponents  J.  E.  Millais, 
Holman  Hunt  (1827),  G.  D.  Rossetti  (1828-82),  F.  Madox  Brown  (1821), 
McNeil  Whistler  (1834),  and  E.  Burne-Jones  (1833);  the  French— Jean 
Cousin (1501-89),  LeSeur  (1617-55),  N.  Pousin  (1594-1665),  Claude  Lorraine 


MUSIC  AND  THE  FINE  ARTS.  293 

(1600-82),  Le  Brun  (1619-90),  Watteau  (1684-1721),  C.  J.  Vernet  (1714-89), 
David  (1748-1825),  A.  C.  H.  Vernet  (1758-1836),  J.  E.  H.  Vernet  (1789- 
1863),  De  la  Croix  (1798-1863),  Gericault  (1774-1829),  J.  D.  A.  Ingres  (1781- 
1867),  Scheffer  (1795-1858),  Paul  Delaroche  (1797-1856),  Decamps  (1803- 
66), Corot  (1796-1875),  Millet  (1815-75),  Regnault  (1843-71),  B.  Lepage  (1848- 
84),  Meissonier  (1815-91),  Gerome  (1824),  Bougereau  (1835),  Constant 
(1845),  Gustave  Dore*  (1833-83);  the  Spanish— Velasquez  (1599-1660),  Mu- 
rillo  (1618-85);  the  Neapolitan— Salvator  Rosa  (1615-73),  and  the  Ameri- 
tfm-Malbone  (1777-1807),  Copley  (1738-1815),  C.  W.  Peale  (1741-1827), 
Gilbert  C.  Stuart  (1756-1828),  J.  Trumbull  (1756-1843),  W.  Allston  (1779- 
1843),  Thomas  Cole  (1801-48),  Rembrandt  Peale  (1778-1860),  W.  M.  Hunt 
(1824-79),  W.  Page  (1811-85),  D.  Huntingdon  (1816),  S.  R.  Gifford 
(1823-80),  Eastman  Johnson  (1824),  Elihu  Vedder  (1836),  Bierstadt  (1830). 
Russian  art,  dormant  since  the  Byzantine  period,  has  during  the  last 
forty  years  produced  Swedomsky  Verestchagin  (1842)  and  Kramskoe. 
Scandinavian  art  has  been  represented  in  modern  times  by  Uhde  and 
Edelfeldt.  

THE  SYMBOLISM  OF  COLORS. 

White  was  the  emblem  of  light,  religious  purity,  innocence,  faith, 
joy  and  life.  In  the  judge,  it  indicates  integrity;  in  the  sick,  humility; 
in  the  woman,  chastity. 

Red,  the  ruby,  signifies  fire,  divine  love,  heat  of  the  creative  power, 
and  royalty.  White  and  red  roses  express  love  and  wisdom.  The  red 
color  of  the  blood  has  its  origin  in  the  action  of  the  heart,  which  corre- 
sponds to,  or  symbolizes,  love.  In  a  bad  sense  red  corresponds  to  the 
infernal  love  of  evil,  hatred,  etc. 

Blue,  or  the  sapphire,  expresses  heaven,  the  firmament,  truth  from  a 
celestial  origin,  constancy  and  fidelity. 

Yellow,  or  gold,  is  the  symbol  of  the  sun,  of  the  goodness  of  God,  of 
marriage  and  faithfulness.  In  a  bad  sense  yellow  signifies  inconstancy, 
jealousy  and  deceit. 

Green,  the  emerald,  is  the  color  of  the  spring  of  hope,  particularly  of 
the  hope  of  immortality  and  of  victory,  as  the  color  of  the  laurel  and  palm. 

Violet,  the  amethyst,  signifies  love  and  truth,  or  passion  and  suffering. 
Purple  and  scarlet  signify  things  good  and  true  from  a  celestial  origin. 

Black  corresponds  to  despair,  darkness,  earthliness,  mourning,  nega- 
tion, wickedness  and  death. 

THE  ORGAN  IN  AMERICA. 

Until  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  little  interest  was  taken 
in  organ-building  in  America.  The  erection  of  the  great  organ  in  the 
Music  hall,  Boston,  by  a  German  builder,  Walcker,  of  Wiirtemberg, 
gave  the  first  impetus  to  public  interest  in  the  matter.  There  are  now 
several  good  organ-makers,  and  one  of  them,  Roosevelt,  has  invented 
"the  automatic  adjustable  combination,"  which  enables  the  player  to 
place  any  required  combination  of  stops  under  immediate  control,  and 
to  alter  such  combinations  as  frequently  as  desired.  By  his  construction 
of  the  wind-chest,  also,  each  pipe  has  its  own  valve,  actuated  by  com- 
pressed air.  Among  the  largest  organs  in  America  are  the  organ  of  the 
Catholic  cathedral,  Montreal,  of  the  cathedral  of  the  Holy  Cross,  Boston, 
which  possesses  eighty-three  stops;  the  Music  Hall,  Cincinnati,  with 
ninety-six  stops  and  four  manuals,  and  the  Tremont  Temple,  Bostonr 
with  sixty-five  stops. 


294 


MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 


MEANINGS  OF   MUSICAL   TERMS. 


ACf  ELLERANDO,  or  ACCEL.  Quicken  the 
time  gradually. 

ADAGIO.    Very  slow. 

AD  LIBITUM,  or  AD  LIB.    At  will. 

AFFETTUOSO.    Affecting,  with  pathos. 

AGITATO.    Agitated. 

AL  FINE.    To  the  end. 

ALLEGRETTO.  Somewhat  cheerful,  but 
not  so  quick  as  A  llegro. 

ALLEGRO.    Quick. 

AL  SEGNO.  To  the  sign,  signifying  that 
the  performer  must  go  back  to  the  sign, 
:S:,  and  play  from  that  mark  to  the 
word  Fine. 

AMOROSO.    Lovingly. 

ANDANTE.    Somewhat  slow. 

ANDANTINO.  Not  quite  so  slow  as  An- 
dante. 

ANIMATO.    In  an  animated  style. 

A  POCO  A  POCO.     Little  by  little. 

ARIA.     An  air  or  song. 

ASSAI.     Very,  extremely. 

A  TEMPO.    In  the  regular  time. 

Bis.    Twice  (repeat;. 

BRILLANTE.     Brilliant. 

CALANDO.  Diminishing  gradually  in  tone 
and  speed. 

CANTABILE.    In  a  graceful,  singing  style. 

CON  MOTO.     In  agitated  style;  with  spirit. 

CON  SPIRITO.     With  quickness  and  spirit. 

CODA.  A  few  bars  added  to  terminate  a 
composition. 

COLLA  VOCE.     With  the  voice  or  melody. 

CON  BRIO.    With  brilliancy. 

CON  EXPRESSIONE.    With  expression. 

CRESCENDO,  or  CRES.  Gradually  increase 
the  volume  of  tone. 

DA  CAPO,  or  D.  C.  Repeat  from  the  be- 
ginning to  the  word  Fine. 

DECRESCENDO,  or  DECRES.  Gradually  di- 
minish the  volume  of  tone. 

DELICATO.     Delicately. 

DEL  SEGNO.    See  Segno. 

DIMINUENDO,  or  DIM.  Same  as  Decres- 
cendo. 

DOLCE,  or  DOL.    In  a  sweet,  smooth  style. 

DOLOROSO.    In  a  mournful,  pathetic  style. 

E.    And. 

\  With  expression. 

•FINE.    The  end. 

FORTE,  or  F.    Loud. 

FORTISSIMO,  or  FF.    Very  loud. 

FORZANDO,  or  Fz.  Signifies  that  the  note 
is  to  be  given  peculiar  emphasis  or  force. 

FORZA.    Force. 

Fuoco.    With  fire. 

GRAVE.    Extremely  slow. 

GRAZIOSO.    In  a  graceful,  elegant  style. 

IMPROMPTU.  An  extemporaneous  produc- 
tion. 

L.  H.    Left  hand. 

LARGHETTO.  Slow  and  solemn,  but  less 
so  than  Largo. 

LARGO.    Very  slow  and  solemn. 

LEGERAMENTE.     Lightly,  gaily. 

LENTANDO.    Slower  by  degrees. 

LEGATO.  In  a  smooth  and  connected  man- 
ner. 

LENTO.    In  a  slow  time. 


Loco.    Place,  play  as  written, 

MAESTOSO.    Majestic  and  dignified. 

MARTELLATO.    Struck  with  force. 

MENO.    Less. 

MEZZO,  or  M.  Neither  loud  nor  soft — me 
dium. 

MEZZO  FORTE,  or  MF.    Rather  loud. 

MEZZO  PIANO,  or  MP.    Rather  soft. 

MOD  ERATO.    Moderate. 

MOLTO.    Very. 

Mosso.     Movement. 

*MOTO,  or  CON  MOTO.  With  agitation  and 
earnestness. 

MORENDO.     Dying  away. 

NON  TROPPO.     Not  too  much. 

OBLIGATO.     Cannot  be  omitted. 

OTTAVA,  or  SVA.    An  octave  higher. 

PATETICO.    Pathetically. 

PASTORALE.    A  soft  and  rural  movement. 

PIANO,  or  P.    Soft. 

PIANISSIMO,  or  PP.     Very  soft. 

Piu.    Very. 

Poco.    A  little,  somewhat. 

POMPOSO.    Pompous,  grand. 

PRESTO.     Very  quick. 

PRESTISSIMO.    As  quick  as  possible. 

QUASI.    As  if. 

RALLENTANDO,  or  RALL.  A  gradual  dimi- 
nution of  tone  and  retarding  of  move- 
ment. 

RELIGIOSO.    In  a  solemn  style. 

RITARDANDO,  or  RiTAR.,  or  RIT.  Gradu- 
ally slower. 

RINFORZANDO,  or  RF.  With  additional 
force. 

RITENUTO.     Hold  back  the  time  at  once. 

SCHERZANDO.     Playfully. 

SEGUE.    Continue  as  before. 

SERIA.    Seriously. 

SEMPRE.    Throughout — always. 

SEMPLICE.     In  a  simple,  unaffected  style. 

SEGNO,  or  :S:.  Sign;  as,  A I  Segno,  to  the 
sign;  Dal  Segno,  repeat  from  the  sign  to 
the  word  Fine. 

SENZA.    Without. 

SFORZANDO.    Emphasized. 

SINCOPATO.     Forced  out  of  time. 

SMORZANDO.    Smoothed,  decreased. 

SOAVE.    Soft  and  delicate. 

SOTTO  VOCE.     In  an  undertone. 

SOSTENUTO.  In  a  smooth,  connected  style. 

SPIRITO,  or  CON  SPIRITO.    With  spirit. 

STACCATO.     Detached,  short. 

TEMPO.    In  time. 

TEMPO  DI  MARCIA.     In  marching  time. 

TEMPO  DI  VALSE.     In  waltz  time. 

TEMPO  PRIMO.     In  the  original  time. 

TRILLANDO.  Shaking  on  a  succession  of 
notes. 

TRANQUILLO.     Tranquilly. 

TUTTO  FORZA.    As  loud  as  possible. 

VELOCE.     With  velocity. 

ViGOROSO.     Boldly,  vigorously. 

VIVACE.  With  extreme  briskness  and 
animation. 

Vivo.    Animated,  lively. 

VOLTI  SUBITO.  Turn  over  the  pages 
quickly. 

ZELOSO.    With  zeal. 


SIDE-LIGHTS  ON  HISTORY. 


Here  is  the  moral  of  all  human  tales; 
'Tis  but  the  same  rehearsal  of  the  past, 
First  freedom,  and  then  glory — when  that  fails, 
Wealth,  vice,  corruption — barbarism  at  last, 
And  history,  with  all  her  volumes  vast, 
Hath  but  one  page. 

—BYRON. 

INFLUENCES  FOR  GOOD  OR  EVIL. 

The  word  Khedive  signifies  lord. 

Quebec  is  termed  the  Gibraltar  of  America. 

Bismarck  was  called  the  ' '  Boot  of  Prussia. ' ' 

The  life  of  Napoleon  III.  was  attempted  six  times. 

Potsdam  has  been  called  the  Versailles  of  Prussia. 

Byron  terms  the  era  of  Napoleon  I.  the  age  of  bronze. 

El  Almirante,  without  any  proper  name,  refers  to  Columbus. 

Washington  first  called  New  York  State  "the  seat  of  empire." 

The  Greek  Herodotus,  450  B.  c.,  is  called  the  Father  of  History. 

James  I.  of  England  was  termed  the  Wisest  Fool  in  Christendom. 

The  '  third  house' '  of  a  legislature  is  a  term  applied  to  the  lobby. 

Machiavelli  is  spoken  of  by  the  Florentines  simply  as  "II  segretario." 

The  so-called  Paradise  of  Europe  is  the  valley  of  the  Arno,  in  Tuscany. 

Pandours  were  the  fierce,  irregular  troops  of  Austria  some  fifty  years 
ago. 

Knight  service  in  feudal  times  was  held  to  amount  to  forty  days  per 
year. 

The  Rubicon  was  a  small  stream  that  divided  cis-alpine  Gaul  from 
Italy. 

In  recent  European  history  the  term  fourth  estate  applies  to  the 
press. 

The  younger  squirearchy  of  Prussia  are  what  constitute  the"Yunker" 
party. 

To  Patrick  Henry  we  owe  the  phrase,  '  'give  me  liberty  or  give  me 
death." 

The  term  "nation  of  shopkeepers"  was  applied  to  England  by  Na- 
poleon. 

Orange  is  a  petty  principality  in  Avignon,  owned  by  the  Nassau 
family. 


296  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

Mehemed  Ali,  pacha  of  Egypt  (1760-1841),  was  the  "Napoleon  of 
the  East." 

Khaled,  Mahommed's  lieutenant,  was  called  by  Orientals  the  "Sword 
of  God." 

Emancipation  of  slaves  took  place  in  all  Britain's  colonies  on  August 
28,  1833. 

Shah  is  but  an  abbreviation  of  the  larger  title  Shah-in-Shah,  King 
of  Kings. 

'  'Well-beloved"  was  a  title  given  to  a  most  licentious  king,  I/ouis  XV. 
of  France. 

Dibdin's  famous  sea  songs  were  written  to  promote  loyalty  in  the 
British  navy. 

There  are  ten  republics  in  South  America  and  two  in  North — Europe 
has  only  two. 

The  French  King  Clovis  (481-511)  was  the  first  entitled  Eldest  Son 
of  the  Church. 

Mossbacks  is  defined  as  a  sobriquet  for  the  remnants  of  the  ante- 
bellum Democracy. 

Jayhawkers  was  a  name  for  guerillas  or  bushrangers  during  the  Kan- 
sas troubles  of  1856. 

Frederick  I.,  emperor  of  Germany  (1121-1152),  was  the  one  called 
Barbarossa  (Red-beard). 

It  was  the  first  Napoleon  who  said  '  'there  is  but  one  step  from  the 
sublime  to  the  ridiculous. ' ' 

The  States  of  the  Church  are  often  referred  to,  since  1077  A.  D.,  as 
the  Patrimony  of  St.  Peter. 

Monsieur  de  Paris  was  a  name  given  to  the  public  executioner  dur- 
ing the  French  Revolution. 

"There  is  a  higher  law  than  the  Constitution"  is  a  phrase  from  one 
ofW.  H.  Seward's  speeches. 

Black  Watch  was  a  name  given  to  the  forty-second  regiment  (High- 
landers) of  British  infantry. 

The  Sailor  King  was  a  name  applied  to  William  IV.  of  England.    He 
had  served  long  in  the  navy. 

The  Kings  of  Muscovy,  Sweden,  Denmark,  Poland  and  Hungary  all 
became  Christians  in  990  A.  D. 

In  Germany  the  term  "reptile  bureaucracy"  applies  to  certain  journal- 
ists in  receipt  of  government  pay. 

Great  universities  date  from:  Paris,  1109;  Oxford,  1150;  Cambridge, 
1209;  Glasgow,  1450;  Dublin,  1591. 

Mrs.  O'Leary's  cow  is  the  famous  animal  that  is  believed  to  have 
started  the  great  Chicago  fire  of  1871. 

A  yellow  flag  denotes  quarantine;  a  black  flag  indicates  a  pirate;  a 
red  flag,  defiance;  a  white  flag,  truce. 

The  "Terror"  applied  to  the  period  in  French  history  (1793-1794) 
just  prior  to  the  death  of  Robespierre. 

It  is  440  years  since  the  Christian  church  of  Santa  Sophia  became 
the  chief  Mahommedan  mosque  of  the  Turks. 


SIDE-LIGHTS  ON  HISTORY.  297 

Panslavism  means  the  union  of  all  the  Slavic  nations  into  one:  Rus- 
sia, Poland,  Hungary,  Bohemia,  Bulgaria,  etc. 

The  "  Iron"  crown  of  Lombardy,  now  held  by  Humbert  of  Italy,  is 
in  reality  a  splendidly  bejewelled  golden  crown. 

There  is  no  Emperor  of  Germany;  the  true  title  is  either  German 
Emperor  or  "Emperor  of  the  German  Kingdoms." 

"The  Primrose  League"  of  England  was  founded  in  1883,  in  memory 
of  Earl  Beaconsfield.  It  has  now  1,000,000  members. 

The  Covenanters  were  Scotchmen  who  bound  themselves  together 
in  1638  and  took  up  arms  to  resist  the  introduction  of  the  Episcopalian 
liturgy  into  the  Scottish  Church. 

Court  Jesters  were  persons  who  were  kept  in  the  households  of  princes 
and  lesser  dignitaries  to  furnish  amusement  by  their  real  or  affected 
folly,  and  hence  commonly  called  Court  Fools. 

Condottieri  are  bands  of  mercenaries,  ready  to  serve  under  any 
leader.  They  were  common  in  Europe  during  the  middle  ages  and  took 
a  considerable  part  in  the  endless  feuds  of  the  Italian  states. 

The  Chambre  Ardente  was  an  extraordinary  French  tribunal  which 
frequently  sentenced  to  death  "by  fire."  It  was  used  to  investigate 
poisoning  cases  after  the  execution  of  the  Marchioness  of  Brinvilliers. 

The  round  table  is  the  subject  of  one  of  the  legends  in  connection 
with  King  Arthur,  who,  it  is  said,  dined  at  a  circular  table  capable  of 
seating  150  of  his  bravest  followers,  termed  Knights  of  the  Round  Table. 

Vinegar  will  not  split  rocks,  so  Hannibal  could  not  thus  have  made 
his  way  through  the  Alps.  Nor  will  it  dissolve  pearls,  so  that  the  story 
of  Cleopatra  drinking  pearls  melted  in  vinegar  must  have  been  a  fiction. 

The  original  Electors  of  Germany,  who  chose  the  Kaiser,  were  the 
king  of  Bohemia,  duke  of  Saxony,  margrave  of  Brandenburg,  count 
palatine  of  the  Rhine,  and  the  archbishops  of  Mayence,  Treves  and  Co- 
logne. 

Dacoits  are  robbers  of  Northern  India  and  Burmah,  who  make  raids 
in  armed  bands.  They  gave  great  trouble  to  the  occupying  force  in  the 
annexation  of  Burmah,  but  have  practically  been  exterminated  by  the 
British  army. 

The  Dannebrog  is  the  oldflag  of  the  Danes,  and  also  the  name  of  an 
order  of  knighthood  said  to  have  been  instituted  in  1219.  The  jewel  is  a 
copy  of  the  flag:  a  white  enameled  gold  cross,  suspended  by  a  white  ribbon 
edged  with  red. 

Jacobins  were  the  members  of  a  political  club  which  exercised  a 
great  influence  during  the  French  Revolution.  It  was  originally  called 
the  Club  Breton,  and  was  formed  at  Versailles,  when  the  States-general 
assembled  there  in  1789. 

Formerly,  in  England,  branding  was  a  method  of  punishment,  but 
was  abolished  (1829)  in  the  reign  of  George  IV.  It  was  performed  with 
a  red-hot  iron  on  the  face,  hand  or  other  part  of  the  body.  Branding  in 
the  British  Army  abolished,  1879. 

In  Roman  history  there  were  two  famous  coalitions  of  three  men 
each,  called  triumvirates,  formed  for  ruling  the  state:  (1)  Between  Julius 
Caesar,  Pompey  and  Crassus  (50  B.C.);  (2)  between  Octavius  Caesar, 
Mark  Antony  and  Lepidus  (43  B.C.) 


298  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

The  Italian  city,  Venice,  is  often  called  the  "Bride  of  the  Sea," 
from  the  ancient  ceremony  of  the  doge  marrying  the  city  to  the  Adri- 
atic by  throwing  a  ring  into  it,  pronouncing  these  words,  "We  wed 
thee,  O  sea,  in  token  of  perpetual  dominion." 

It  is  not  generally  known  that  the  four  kings  of  a  pack  of  cards  are 
Charlemagne  (the  Franco-German  king},  David  (the  Jewish  king],  Alex- 
ander (the  Macedonian  king},  and  Caesar  (the  Roman  king}.  These  four 
kings  are  representatives  of  the  four  great  monarchies. 

The  Young  England  Party  was  a  party  formed  during  the  corn-law 
agitation  of  1842-46.  It  consisted  of  young  Tory  aristocrats,  prominent 
among  whom  was  I/ord  John  Manners,  who  advocated  a  return  to  a 
modified  feudalism.  Disraeli  lent  the  party  his  support. 

The  Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  formed  July  12,  1806,  was  a  fed- 
eration of  the  Germanic  States,  formed  by  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  whose 
disastrous  Russian  campaign  (1812)  caused  the  dissolution  of  the  Con- 
federation, the  Germanic  Confederation  taking  its  place. 

The  Decemvirs  were  men  who  drew  up  a  code  of  Roman  laws,  and 
who,  in  451  B.C.,  had  the  whole  government  of  Rome  in  their  hands. 
They  were  successful  in  their  administration  till  the  incident  of  Appius 
Claudius  and  Virginia  led  to  the  appointment  of  consuls. 

The  triple  expression,  Liberty,  Equality,  Fraternity  (Liberte,  Egal- 
ite,  Fraternite),  as  the  motto  of  the  French  Republic,  dates  from  the  time 
of  the  first  revolution.  Equality,  it  should  be  noted,  merely  means 
equality  before  the  law  and  the  absence  of  class  privileges. 

•  An  Africander  is  a  descendant  of  European  parents  born  in  South 
Africa.  An  association  called  the  Africander- Bond  was  formed  in  Cape 
Colony  after  the  Transvaal  war,  the  object  of  which  was  the  consolida- 
tion and  extension  of  the  Dutch  population  in  South  Africa. 

The  Young  Ireland  Party  was  an  Irish  patriotic  party  which  came 
to  the  front  in  1848,  shortly  after  O'ConnelPs  death.  They  had  resort  to 
physical  force,  and  several  of  their  leaders,  including  Smith  O'Brien, 
John  Mitchell  and  Thomas  Francis  Meagher,  were  transported. 

Concordat  is  a  term  sometimes  applied  to  secular  treaties,  but  gener- 
ally employed  to  denote  an  agreement  made  between  the  pope,  as  the 
head  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  a  secular  government,  on  mat- 
ters which  concern  the  interests  of  its  Roman  Catholic  subjects. 

The  Vendean  rising  in  La  Vendee,  a  maritime  department  of  France, 
on  the  Atlantic,  in  favor  of  the  Bourbons  (1793),  was  eventually  sup- 
pressed by  General  Hoche  (1796).  Georges  Cadoudal,  the  last  Vendean 
chief,  was  executed  (1804)  for  his  share  in  a  plot  against  the  life  of  Napo- 
leon, when  first  consul. 

Sicilian  Vespers  is  the  designation  of  the  massacre  of  the  French 
which  began  at  Palermo,  at  vespers,  on  Easter  Monday,  March  30,  1282. 
The  insurrection  spread  to  the  rest  of  the  island,  and  ended  in  the  over- 
throw of  the  government  of  Charles  of  Anjou  and  the  establishment  of 
the  dynasty  of  Aragon. 

Of  deep  historic  significance  were  the  Bulgarian  Atrocities,  a  title 
given  to  an  insurrection  which  in  1876  broke  out  in  Bulgaria  and  was 
repressed  with  horrible  cruelties,  raising  a  wave  of  indignation  through- 
out Europe.  Mr.  Gladstone  published  an  article,  "  Horrors  in  Bulgaria," 
in  September  of  that  year. 


SIDE-LIGHTS  ON  HISTORY.  299 

The  Illuminati  was  a  name  given  to  several  societies  or  sects,  but  par- 
ticularly to  the  Order  of  the  Illuminati,  a  secret  society  founded  by 
Adam  Weishaupt  at  Ingolstadt,  Bavaria,  1776.  It  was  deistic  and  repub- 
lican in  principle,  and  spread  very  widely  throughout  Europe.  Sup- 
pressed in  Bavaria,  1784. 

The  oft-denounced  French  instrument,  called  by  historians  the  lettre 
de  cachet,  was  a  sealed  letter,  in  virtue  of  which  the  obnoxious  person 
named  therein  might  be  arrested  and  sent  either  to  prison  or  into  exile, 
without  trial  or  even  being  informed  of  the  nature  of  his  offence.  This 
infamous  tyranny  was  abolished  by  the  revolution. 

The  Council  of  Ten  was  a  secret  tribunal  of  the  Republic  of  Venice, 
armed  with  unlimited  powers  (1310)  in  watching  over  the  safety  of  the 
state.  It  punished  at  discretion  all  secret  enemies  of  the  Republic.  At 
first  it  was  prorogued  annually,  but  in  1325  it  was  made  perpetual,  and 
continued  as  long  as  the  Venetian  Republic  endured. 

The  Continental  System  was  the  name  given  to  Napoleon's  plan  for 
shutting  England  out  from  all  connection  with  the  continent  of  Europe. 
This  system  began  with  Napoleon's  famous  "Berlin  Decree"  of  November 
21,  1806,  which  declared  the  British  Islands  in  a  state  of  blockade,  and 
prohibited  all  commerce  and  correspondence  with  them. 

A  representation  of  the  half-moon  with  the  horns  turned  upwards, 
called  a  crescent,  is  often  used  as  an  emblem  of  progress  and  success. 
It  was  the  emblem  of  the  Greek  before  it  became  that  of  the  Turkish 
rule;  but  it  was  not  adopted  by  the  Turks  from  the  Greeks,  as  is  often 
said.  It  had  been  used  by  them  hundreds  of  years  before  in  Central  Asia. 

What  is  termed  historically  the  "Boston  Tea-party"  (December  16, 
1773)  consisted  of  those  citizens  of  Boston  who,  disguised  as  Indians, 
boarded  the  three  English  ships  which  had  just  come  into  the  harbor, 
and  threw  into  the  sea  several  hundred  chests  of  tea,  by  way  of  protest 
against  English  taxation  of  America  without  a  representation  in  parlia- 
ment. 

Iconoclasts  (Gr.  eikon,  "an  image,"  and  klazo,  "I  break"),  was  the 
name  used  to  designate  those  in  the  Church  from  the  eighth  century 
downwards,  who  have  been  opposed  to  the  use  of  sacred  images  (i.  e.  of 
statues,  pictures,  and  other  sensible  representations  of  sacred  objects),  or 
at  least  to  the  paying  of  religious  honor  or  reverence  to  such  representa- 
tions. The  iconoclast  movement  had  its  commencement  in  the  Eastern 
Church. 

Anti-semites,the  modern  opponents  of  the  Jews  in  Russia,  Roumania, 
Hungary  and  Germany.  In  these  countries  the  Jews  are  found  in  great 
numbers,  and  their  constantly  increasing  wealth  and  influence  excite 
popular  jealousy  and  alarm.  Brutal  outrages  were  inflicted  upon  the 
Jews  in  Russia  and  Hungary  in  1881-4,  and  anti-semitic  leagues  were 
formed  in  1881  to  restrict  the  liberty  of  Jews  in  Germany  and  other 
countries. 

Abdication  is  the  resignation  of  any  office,  political  or  otherwise. 
It  implies  the  surrender  of  powers  previously  conferred  or  inherited,  and 
is  generally  the  result  of  a  desire  on  the  part  of  the  person  abdicating 
for  retirement  from  public  to  private  life.  The  use  of  the  word  is  con- 
fined to  the  surrender  of  dignities  and  emoluments  of  importance,  and 
is  thus  distinguished  from  the  term  ' '  resignation' '  as  applied  to  the  petty 
offices  of  life. 


300  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

Tribunes  of  the  people  were  first  appointed  at  Rome  on  the  succes- 
sion of  the  plebs  to  Mons  Sacer  (494  B.  c.).  The  number,  at  first  two,  was 
ultimately  increased  to  ten.  Their  peculiar  function  was  to  look  after  the 
interests  of  the  plebs  as  opposed  to  those  of  the  patricians.  In  the  course 
of  time  the  tribunes  of  the  people  became  the  most  important  officers  in 
the  state. 

The  carte  blanche  was  a  "blank  paper"  authenticated  with  an  author- 
itative signature,  and  intrusted  to  some  one  to  be  filled  up  as  he  may 
think  best.  Thus  in  1649  Charles  II.  tried  to  save  his  father's  life  by 
sending  from  the  Hague  to  the  Parliament  a  signed  carte  blanche  to 
be  filled  up  with  any  terms  which  they  would  accept  as  the  price  of 
his  safety. 

The  "cap  of  liberty"  worn  in  the  Roman  states  by  manumitted 
slaves,  was  made  of  red  cloth.  Those  who  wore  it  were  called  "pileati," 
i.e.  wearers  of  the  "pileus."  In  revolutionary  e*meutes  at  Rome  the 
pileus  was  sometimes  hoisted  on  a  spear.  After  the  murder  of  Caesar, 
Brutus  and  his  rebels  adopted  the  red  cap  as  a  token  of  their  republican 
sentiments. 

The  national  badge  of  France  since  1789  has  been  the  tricolor.  It 
consists  of  the  Bourbon  white  cockade,  and  the  blue  and  red  cockade  of 
fhe  city  of  Paris  combined.  It  was  Lafayette  who  devised  this  symboli- 
cal union  of  king  and  people,  and  when  he  presented  it  to  the  nation, 
"Gentlemen,"  said  he,  "I  bring  you  a  cockade  that  shall  make  the  tour 
of  the  world." 

The  famous  retreat  of  the  ten  thousand  occurred  B.  c.  401-399.  It  was 
conducted  by  Xenophon,  the  historian,  who  had  joined  the  expedition 
of  Cyrus.  In  the  battle  of  Cunaxa  Cyrus  lost  his  life,  and  the  Greeks  were 
left  without  a  leader.  Xenophon  volunteered  to  lead  them  back  to  Greece 
and  has  left  a  historical  narrative  of  this  famous  retreat,  called  '  'Xeno- 
phon' s  Anabasis." 

All  youthful  readers  know  about  the  buccaneers,  a  name  given  to 
the  celebrated  associations  of  piratical  adventurers,  who,  from  the  com- 
mencement of  the  second  quarter  of  the  sixteenth  century  to  the  end  of 
the. seventeenth,  maintained  themselves  in  the  Caribbean  seas,  at  first 
by  systematic  reprisals  on  the  Spaniards,  latterly  by  less  justifiable  and 
indiscriminate  piracy. 

The  Montagnards  were  a  party  in  the  first  French  Revolution  under 
the  leadership  of  Robespierre.  They  occupied  in  the  Convention  the 
most  elevated  seats  called  La  Montague,  in  opposition  to  the  Plaine,  or 
the  lowest  seats  occupied  by  the  moderate  party  called  the  Girondins. 
The  Mountain  party  overthrew  the  Girondists  on  May  31,  1793,  but  was 
in  turn  overthrown  "le  9  Thermidor,  An  //,"  when  Robespierre  met  with 
his  downfall  (1794).  Both  the  Mountain  and  the  Plain  were  left  of  the 
speaker. 

Thugs  is  the  name  for  a  religious  fraternity  in  India,  which,  profess- 
edly in  honor  of  the  goddess  Kali,  the  wife  of  Siva,  was  addicted  to  the 
committal  of  murders,  and  lived  upon  the  plunder  obtained  from  its 
victims.  Banding  together  in  gangs,  they  assumed  the  appearance  of 
ordinary  traders,  and  insinuating  themselves  into  the  confidence  of  un- 
suspecting fellow-travelers,  killed  them  by  strangling.  They  were  bound 
together  by  bloody  oaths,  and  carried  on  systematic  assassination  on  a 
large  scale. 


SIDE-LIGHTS  ON  HISTOR  Y.  301 

Blood-money  was  the  money  paid  by  press-gangs  to  anyone  who  in- 
formed them  of  a  man  who  had  deserted  from  the  naval  service,  or  who 
was  instrumental  in  giving  up  a  deserter  to  the  press-gang.  The  deserter 
ought  to  have  been  a  sailor,  but  in  a  "hot-press"  landsmen  were  often 
kidnapped.  "Blood-money"  now  means  money  paid  to  a  person  for  in- 
forming against  a  felon. 

The  flag  of  the  prophet,  or  "Sanjak-Sheriff,"  is  the  sacred  banner  of 
the  Mahommedans.  Originally  the  white  turban  of  the  Koreish,  capt- 
ured by  Mahommed.  Subsequently  a  green  flag  was  substituted,  being 
the  curtain  which  hung  before  the  door  of  Ayesha,  one  of  the  prophet's 
wives.  It  is  preserved  most  carefully  in  a  chapel  of  the  seraglio,  and 
watched  over  by  several  emirs. 

The  Hanseatic  League  was  a  trades-union  to  protect  merchandise 
from  pirates  and  the  pillage  of  nobles.  It  began  with  the  three  towns  of 
Hamburg,  Bremen,  and  Liibeck,  but  ultimately  contained  eighty -five 
trading  towns.  The  league  was  divided  into  four  colleges,  viz.  Liibeck, 
Cologne,  Brunswick,  and  Dantzig.  Of  these  Liibeck  was  the  chief,  and 
presided  in  all  the  conferences. 

The  Calvinists  of  the  Cevennes,  after  the  Revocation  Bdict, 
took  up  arms  under  their  leaders  Cavalier  and  Roland,  and  defeated 
the  French  troops  sent  against  them  by  Louis  XIV.  again  and  again. 
At  last  the  Duke  of  Berwick  extirpated  them  and  desolated  the  whole 
province  of  the  Cevennes  in  1705.  They  were  called  Camisards  from 
the  camise  or  smock  which  they  wore. 

The  carmagnole  was  a  revolutionary  dress  worn  in  France,  especially 
during  the  reign  of  terror.  It  consisted  of  a  blouse,  a  red  cap,  and  a 
tricolored  girdle.  The  term  is  applied  also  to  a  street  dance,  in  which 
men,  women  and  children  promiscuously  took  hold  of  hands,  danced  in 
a  ring,  ran  butting  down  the  street,  broke  into  small  parties,  and  danced 
vehemently  like  Bedlamites,  till  ready  to  drop. 

The  Vikings  were  the  piratical  Northmen  who  infested  the  coasts  of 
the  British  Islands  and  of  France  in  the  eighth,  ninth  and  tenth  centu- 
ries. This  word  is  quite  unconnected  with  "king,"  being  derived  from 
the  Scandinavian  vik,  "a  bay"  (the  same  which  appears  in  the  names 
Lerwick,  Berwick,  etc.),  and  this  class  of  marauders  were  so  called 
because  their  ships  put  off  from  the  bays  and  fiords. 

Breaking  on  the  wheel  is  a  mode  of  capital  punishment  formerly  in 
use  in  various  European  countries.  In  France  it  was  abolished  at  the 
Revolution  (1789),  but  it  is  said  to  have  been  inflicted  in  Prussia  so  late 
as  1841.  The  victim  was  placed  upon  a  wheel,  his  arms  and  legs  ex- 
tended along  the  spokes,  and,  as  the  wheel  was  turned  rapidly  round, 
his  limbs  were  broken  by  the  executioner  with  a  hammer  or  iron  bar. 
The  French  word  rou£  ( "  a  rake' ' )  is  derived  from  this  form  of  capital 
punishment. 

The  salic  law  was  the  code  of  the  Salian  Franks,  introduced  into 
France  (Gaul)  by  the  Franks.  It  contained  four  hundred  articles,  chiefly 
concerning  debt,  theft,  murder,  and  battery,  the  penalty  in  every  case 
being  a  fine.  The  most  famous  article  of  the  code  is  Title  Ixii.  6,  accord- 
ing to  which  only  males  could  succeed  to  the  Salic  land  or  lod,  i.e.  to  the 
lands  given  for  military  service.  In  1316,  at  the  death  of  Louis  le  Hutin, 
the  law  was  extended  to  the  crown,  and  continued  to  be  observed  to  the 
end  of  the  monarchy. 


302  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

A  comparatively  new  term  is  "boycotting,"  the  system  of  combining 
to  hold  no  relations,  social  or  commercial,  with  a  neighbor,  in  order  to 
punish  him  for  differences  in  political  opinion — a  kind  of  social  excom- 
munication. It  was  first  formulated  by  Mr.  Parnell,  the  Irish  leader,  at 
Bnnis,  on  19th  September,  1880,  and  derived  its  name  from  one  of  the 
first  victims,  Captain  Boycott,  a  Mayo  factor  and  farmer. 

The  Guelfs  were  dukes  of  Bavaria,  who  contended  with  the  house  of 
Hohenstauffen  for  pre-eminence.  From  a  mere  German  feud  the  con- 
tention advanced  to  a  long  and  bitter  struggle  between  the  civil  and 
spiritual  powers.  The  Guelfs  were  the  pope's  party,  and  labored  to  set 
the  pope  above  the  crowned  princes.  The  Ghibellines  were  the  im- 
perial or  civil  party,  and  tried  to  set  the  kaiser  above  the  pope. 

Daimios,  the  old  territorial  nobles  of  Japan,  who,  before  the  revolu- 
tion of  1871,  enjoyed  almost  absolute  power  within  their  own  domains, 
paying  little  more  than  nominal  allegiance  to  the  mikado.  At  the  restor- 
ation of  the  mikado,  however,  they  were  obliged  to  surrender  their  castles 
and  muster-rolls  to  the  government,  who  took  away  their  privileges  and 
relieved  them  of  the  duty  of  paying  allowances  to  their  retainers. 

The  ceremony  of  wedding  the  Adriatic  to  the  doge  of  Venice  was 
instituted  in  1174 by  pope  Alexander  III.,  who  gave  the  doge  a  gold  ring 
from  his  own  finger  in  token  of  the  victory  achieved  by  the  Venetian 
fleet  at  Istria  over  Frederick  Barbarossa.  The  pope,  in  giving  the  ring, 
desired  the  doge  to  throw  a  similar  one  into  the  sea  every  year  on  Ascen- 
sion-Day in  commemoration  of  this  event.  The  doge's  brigantine  was 
called  Bucentaur. 

The  praetorian  guard  was  originally  the  cohorts  of  the  praetor,  then 
the  imperial  guard.  They  received  higher  pay  than  other  soldiers,  and 
enjoyal  several  important  privileges.  There  were  originally  nine  prae- 
torian cohorts;  Vitellius  increased  the  number  to  sixteen,  Septimus  Sev- 
erus  further  increased  the  number.  For  many  years  they  acted  as  dic- 
tators, and  their  insolence,  want  of  discipline,  avidity  and  insubordina- 
tion became  proverbial. 

The  spirit  or  pugnacity  of  the  British  nation  is  well  expressed  by  the 
term  British  Lion,  as  opposed  to  John  Bull,  which  symbolizes  the  sub- 
stantiality, obstinacy,  and  solidity  of  the  British  nation,  with  all  its  pre- 
judices and  national  peculiarities.  To  rouse  John  Bull  is  to  tread  on  his 
corns,  to  rouse  the  British  Lion  is  to  blow  the  war-trumpet  in  his  ears. 
The  British  Lion  also  means  the  most  popular  celebrity  of  the  British 
nation  for  the  time  being. 

The  "carbonari"  were  secret  societies  which  flourished  both  in  Italy 
and  France  at  the  beginning  of  this  century.  The  aim  of  the  societies  was 
the  overthrow  of  the  despotic  and  reactionary  governments  then  exist- 
ing. Originating  in  Italy,  while  under  the  rule  of  the  Bonapartes,  they 
took  their  name  from  the  trade  of  charcoal  burning  pursued  in  that  part 
of  Italy.  There  were  four  grades  with  mystic  rites  of  initiation.  The 
system  lived  till  about  1848. 

The  Templars  were  a  famous  military  order,  which,  like  the  Hospit- 
allers and  the  Teutonic  Knights,  owed  its  origin  to  the  Crusades.  In  the 
year  1119  two  comrades  of  Godfrey  de  Bouillon,  Hugues  de  Payen  and 
Geoffroi  de  Saint-Adhe'mar,  bound  themselves  and  seven  other  French 
knights  to  guard  pilgrims  to  the  holy  places  from  the  attacks  of  the 
Saracens,  taking  before  the  patriarch  of  Jerusalem  solemn  vows  of  chast- 
ity, poverty,  and  obedience. 


SIDE-LIGHTS  ON  HISTOR  Y.  303 

The  well  known  decoration  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  belongs  to  an 
order  of  merit  instituted  by  Napoleon  in  1802  as  a  recompense  for  military 
and  civil  services.  It  was  ostensibly  founded  for  the  protection  of  re- 
publican principles  and  the  laws  of  equality,  every  social  grade  being 
equally  eligible.  The  constitution  and  incidents  of  the  order  have  been 
repeatedly  changed  by  the  successive  executive  powers  of  France  during 
the  course  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

The  Great  Fire  or  "The  Great  Fire  of  London  "  occurred  in  1666, 
the  year  after  the  Plague,  which  it  put  an  end  to.  It  broke  out  at  a  bake 
house  near  London  Bridge.  Only  six  persons  perished  in  the  fire;  though 
six  hundred  streets,  thirteen  hundred  houses,  eighty  churches,  St.  Paul's 
Cathedral,  the  Custom-house,  Guildhall,  and  four  stone  bridges  were 
destroyed.  The  people,  to  the  number  of  two  hundred  thousand,  camped 
out  in  the  fields  of  Islington  and  Highgate. 

Fermiers  generaux  was  the  name  given  in  France,  before  the  Revo- 
lution of  1789,  to  a  privileged  association  who  "farmed"  the  public  rev- 
enues. It  was  a  shocking  jobbery,  the  fermiers  being  selected  either  by 
the  minister  of  finance  (who  made  his  selection  for  a  money  consideration) 
or  by  the  king's  mistresses.  The  number  was  forty  but  rose  to  sixty  a 
little  before  the  revolution.  These  farmers  paid  the  king  a  fixed  sum  and 
made  what  profit  they  could  out  of  the  taxpayers. 

Sans-culottes  was  a  name  of  contempt  given  to  the  democrats  in  the 
French  Revolution ;  as  much  as  to  say,  they  were  only  the  tag-rags  or 
rag-a-muffins  of  society.  Subsequently  they  gloried  in  the  name  and  even 
affected  negligence  of  dress,  going  about  in  a  blouse,  red  cap,  and  wooden 
shoes.  The  red  nightcap  adorned  with  a  tricolored  cockade  was  called 
the  "bonnet  roug"."  Blouse=blooze.  The  Sans-culottes  had  a  host  of 
songs  and  a  dance  (called  the  Carmagnole)  of  their  own. 

It  was  in  1879,  under  the  auspices  of  the  late  Mr.  Parnell,  that  the 
Irish  national  movement  called  the  "Land  League"  was  set  on  foot,  with 
the  stated  object  of  purchasing  the  land  of  Ireland  for  the  Irish  people. 
Large  sums  of  money  were  subscribed  for  its  equipment,  chiefly  in 
America,  but  it  was  suppressed  in  1881,  on  the  allegation  of  outrages  com- 
mitted against  landlords.  It  was  succeeded  by  the  National  League,  still 
existing,  and  to  both  may  be  largely  credited  the  present  standing  of  the 
Home  Rule  agitation. 

The  seat  occupied  by  the  French  monarch  at  the  sessions  of  parlia- 
ment was  called  the  bed  of  justice,  and  historically  signified  a  solemn 
session,  at  which  the  king  attended  to  overrule  the  acts  of  parliament  or 
to  enforce  upon  it  acts  that  it  had  rejected.  This  was  instituted  upon 
the  theory  of  the  old  constitution  that  the  authority  of  parliament,  being 
vested  in  the  crown,  was  merely  delegated,  and  that  with  the  presence 
of  the  king  the  delegated  power  ceased.  The  last  bed  of  justice  was 
held  by  Louis  XVI.  at  Versailles  in  1787. 

The  Chartists  were  a  body  of  the  English  people  who,  on  the  pas- 
sage of  the  Reform  Bill  (1832),  demanded  the  People's  Charter,  the 
points  of  which  were:  (1)  Universal  Suffrage;  (2)  Vote  by  Ballot;  (3) 
Annual  Parliaments;  (4)  Payment  of  Members;  (5)  Abolition  of  Property 
Qualification;  (6)  Equal  Electoral  Districts.  Great  demonstrations  and 
damage  done  in  1838-9.  After  demonstration  and  presentation  of  peti- 
tion April  10,  1848,  the  movement  subsided,  although  the  government 
had  meanwhile  dealt  severely  with  some  of  the  leaders. 


304  MANUAL  OP  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

According  to  the  legend,  "Thundering  Legion"  was  the  popular 
name  given  to  the  twelfth  legion  of  the  Roman  arm}"  after  the  defeat  of 
the  Quadi  (174  A.D.).  The  legion  being  shut  up  in  a  defile  and  reduced 
to  great  straits  for  want  of  water,  the  Christian  soldiers  united  in  prayer; 
and,  in  answer  to  their  prayers,  not  only  was  rain  sent,  which  enabled 
the  Romans  to  quench  their  thirst,  but  the  rain  was  followed  by  a  fierce 
storm  of  hail,  with  thunder  and  lightning,  which  threw  the  enemy  into 
disorder  and  enabled  the  Romans  to  gain  a  complete  victory. 

Jacobites  (from  the  Lat.  Jacobus,  "James")  was  the  name  given  after 
the  Revolution  of  1688  to  the  adherents  of  the  exiled  Stuarts— James  II., 
(1633-1701)  and  his  son  and  two  grandsons,  James  Francis  Edward,  the 
Chevalier  de  St.  George  (1688-1766),  Charles  Edward  (1720-88),  and 
Henry  Benedict,  Cardinal  York  (1725-1807).  Those  adherents  were 
recruited  from  the  Catholics,  the  Nonjurors,  the  High  Churchmen  and 
Tories  generally,  discontented  and  place-seeking  Whigs,  the  Episco- 
palians and  Highlanders  of  Scotland  and  the  great  body  of  the  Irish 
people. 

The  Independents  or  Puritans  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I,  were  called 
"Roundheads."  The  royalists  were  nicknamed  "The  Cavaliers."  The 
former  wore  their  hair  short,  and  dressed  with  great  simplicity;  the  latter 
wore  their  hair  flowing  over  their  shoulders,  and  dressed  showily  and 
expensively.  The  two  came  into  collision  about  the  expulsion  of  the 
bishops  from  the  House  of  Lords.  The  Roundheads  insisted  on  their 
expulsion,  and  the  severance  of  the  clergy  from  all  secular  and  state  of- 
fices. It  was  in  this  brawl  that  the  two  parties  gave  each  other  the  nick- 
names of  Roundheads  and  Cavaliers. 

The  Doomsday  Book,  or  ' '  Domesday  Book' '  (1085-1086),  was  a  sta- 
tistical survey  of  that  part  of  England  which  was  under  the  sway  of 
William  the  Conqueror.  So  called,  probably,  because  it  was  of  authority 
in  all  dooms,  i.e.,  judgments  in  disputed  questions  which  afterwards 
arose  on  matters  contained  therein.  It  was  anciently  known  as  the 
"Liber  de  Wintonia"  (Book  of  Winchester),  because  at  one  time  it  was 
preserved  in  the  royal  treasury  of  that  city  under  three  locks  and  keys. 
It  was  printed  and  published  in  1783  in  two  folio  volumes.  In  1816  two 
supplementary  volumes  were  published. 

The  "  £a  ira  "  (  "It  will  go  on  !  ")was  a  popular  song  which  arose  in  the 
fever  of  the  French  Revolution.     It  receives  its  name  from  its  refrain: 
Ah !  ?a  ira,  $a  ira,  $a  ira ! 
Les  aristocrates  a  la  lanterne  I 

Like  the  Marseillaise,  the  Carmagnole  and  the  Chant  du  Depart  it 
became  a  French  national  song,  and  was  styled  the  Carillon  National. 
The  words,  which  are  worthless  rubbish  enough,  were  due  to  a  street 
singer  named  Ladre  ;  the  melody  to  Becourt,  a  stage-drummer.  The  song 
was  prohibited  by  the  Directory  in  1797. 

In  England  there  were  anciently  two  ordeals — one  of  water  and  the 
other  of  fire.  The  water  ordeal  was  for  the  laity,  and  the  fire  ordeal  for 
the  nobility.  If  a  noble  was  accused  of  a  crime,  he  or  his  deputy  was 
tried  by  ordeal  thus:  He  had  either  to  hold  in  his  hand  a  piece  of  red- 
hot  iron,  or  had  to  walk  blindfold  and  barefoot  over  nine  red-hot  plough- 
shares laid  lengthwise  at  unequal  distances.  If  he  passed  the  ordeal 
unhurt,  he  was  declared  innocent;  if  not,  he  was  accounted  guilty.  This 
method  of  punishment  arose  from  the  notion  that  "God  would  defend 
the  right,"  even  by  miracle,  if  needs  be. 


SIDE-LIGHTS  ON  HISTORY.  305 

Guillotine,  the  instrument  of  decapitation  introduced  during  the 
French  Revolution  by  the  Convention,  and  named  after  its  supposed  in- 
ventor, Joseph  Ignace  Guillotin,  a  physician,  who,  however,  was  only 
the  person  who  first  proposed  its  adoption.  It  was  erected  and  first  em- 
ployed to  execute  a  highwayman  on  the  Place  de  Greve,  Paris,  25th 
April,  1792.  It  is  composed  of  two  upright  posts,  grooved  on  the  inside, 
and  connected  at  the  top  by  a  cross-beam.  In  these  grooves  a  sharp  iron 
blade,  having  its  edge  cut  obliquely,  descends  by  its  own  weight  on  the 
neck  of  the  victim,  who  is  bound  to  a  board  laid  below. 

Conspicuous  among  diplomatic  assemblies  was  the  Berlin  Congress 
(1878),  consisting  of  the  representatives  of  die  six  great  powers  and 
Turkey,  who  met  to  discuss  the  Eastern  question  arising  out  of  the 
Treaty  of  San  Stefano  previously  made  between  Russia  and  Turkey.  The 
Berlin  Congress  resulted  in  the  signing  of  the  Berlin  Treaty.  Representa- 
tives of  the  various  countries  besides  the  resident  ambassadors:  England, 
Lord  Beaconsfield  and  the  Marquis  of  Salisbury;  Germany,  Fiirst  Bismarck 
(president);  Austria,  Count  Andrassy;  France,  M.  Waddington;  Russia, 
Prince  Gortschakoff;  Italy,  Count  Corti;  Turkey,  Caratheodori  Pasha. 

The  "Triple  Alliance"  is  the  name  by  which  various  treaties  are 
known:  (1)  A  treaty  concluded  in  1668  at  the  Hague  between  England, 
Holland,  and  Sweden,  having  for  its  object  the  protection  of  the  Span- 
ish Netherlands  and  the  checking  of  the  conquests  of  L,ouis  XIV  (2) 
An  alliance  concluded  in  1717  between  Britain,  Prance,  and  Holland 
against  Spain.  (3)  Between  Britain,  Russia,  and  Austria  in  1795.  (4) 
Between  Germany,  Austria,  and  Italy,  formed  and  confirmed  between 
1883  and  1887.  This  superseded  the  "alliance  of  the  three  emperors" 
(Dreikaiserbund]  between  William  I.  of  Germany,  Francis  Joseph  of 
Austria,  and  Alexander  II.  of  Russia,  1872-84. 

Among  the  Persians,  the  usual  mode  of  punishment  is  the  bastinado, 
from  which  men  of  the  highest  rank  are  not  exempt.  It  is  inflicted 
with  very  great  severity,  frequently  so  as  to  render  the  sufferer  almost  a 
cripple  for  life.  The  victim  is  thrown  upon  his  face,  each  foot  is  passed 
through  a  loop  of  strong  cord  attached  to  a  pole,  which  is  raised  horizon- 
tally by  men,  who,  twisting  it  around,  tighten  the  ropes  and  render  the 
feet  immovable.  Two  executioners  then  strike  the  soles  alternately  with 
switches  of  the  pomegranate  tree,  well  steeped  in  water  to  render  them 
supple.  A  store  of  these  switches  is  generally  ready  for  use  in  the  pond 
which  adjoins  the  courtyards  of  the  houses  of  the  great.  The  punish- 
ment frequently  lasts  an  hour,  or  until  the  unfortunate  victim  faints  from 
pain. 

The  Iron  Crown  of  Lombardy  is  not  an  iron  crown,  but  a  magnificent 
gold  diadem,  containing  a  narrow  iron  band  about  three-eighths  of  an 
inch  broad,  and  one-tenth  of  an  inch  in  thickness.  This  band  was  made 
out  of  a  nail  given  to  Constantine  by  his  mother,  and  said  to  be  one  of 
the  nails  used  in  the  crucifixion.  The  outer  circlet  of  the  crown  is  of 
beaten  gold,  set  with  large  rubies,  emeralds  and  sapphires,  and  the  iron 
band  is  within  this  circlet.  The  first  Lombard  king  crowned  with  it  was 
Agilulph,  at  Milan,  in  591.  Charlemagne  was  crowned  with  it  in  774; 
Friederich  III.,  in  1452;  Karl  V.,  in  1530;  and  Napoleon  I.,  May  23,  1805, 
crowned  himself  with  it  as  "  King  of  Italy"  in  Milan  Cathedral.  It  was 
given  up  to  Victor  Emmanuel  on  the  conclusion  of  peace  with  Austria  in 
1866.  The  motto  on  the  crown  is  "  God  has  given  it  me;  beware  who 
touches  it." 

U.  I.— 20 


306  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

Filibuster  is  a  corrupt  spelling  of  the  French  flibustier,  Called  in 
English  a  buccaneer.  Filibusters  were  piratical  seamen,  resolved  to 
force  their  way  into  the  New  World,  jealously  guarded  by  the  Spanish. 
The  most  famous  were  Morgan  (a  Welshman),  who  took  Panama  in 
1670;  Pierre  Legrande,  of  Dieppe,  who,  with  twenty-eight  men,  took  the 
ship  of  a  Spanish  admiral;  Nau  1'Olonnais,  Michael  le  Basque,  who  made 
themselves  masters  of  Vera  Cruz  in  1683;  and  Monbars  the  Exterminator, 
who,  in  1683,  took  Vera  Cruz.  After  the  accession  of  William  III.  the 
French  flibustiers  and  the  English  buccaneers  were  in  deadly  antagonism; 
but  after  the  Treaty  of  Ryswick,  in  1697,  the  piratical  expeditions  were 
put  an  end  to. 

The  dancing  mania  is  a  form  of  epidemic  disorder  allied  to  hysteria, 
and  evidently  the  result  of  imitative  emotions,  acting  upon  susceptible 
subjects,  under  the  influence  of  a  craving  for  sympathy  or  notoriety. 
There  is  little  doubt  that  imposture  entered  to  a  considerable  extent  into 
all  the  epidemic  forms  of  the  dancing  mania,  which  indeed  were  usually 
attended  and  followed  by  consequences  that  showed  but  too  clearly  the 
presence  of  impure  motives;  but  there  is  also  evidence  that  in  many 
cases  the  convulsive  movements  were  really  beyond  the  control  of  the 
will,  whatever  may  have  been  the  original  character  of  the  motives  that 
prompted  them.  Epidemics  of  this  sort  were  common  in  Germany  dur- 
ing the  middle  ages. 

The  Magna  Charta  was  the  great  charter  or  document,  founded 
mainly  upon  earlier  Saxon  charters,  which  the  English  barons  compelled 
King  John  to  sign  at  Runnymede  ( June  15,  1215).  The  most  important 
provisions  are:  (1)  no  scutage  or  aid  shall  be  raised,  except  in  the  case 
of  the  king's  captivity,  the  knighting  of  his  eldest  son,  or  the  marriage 
of  his  eldest  daughter,  except  by  the  general  council  of  the  kingdom ; 
(2)  no  freeman  shall  be  imprisoned  or  disseised,  outlawed  or  proceeded 
against  other  than  by  the  legal  judgment  of  his  peers,  or  by  the  law  of 
the  land:  (3)  that  right  or  justice  shall  not  be  sold,  delayed  or  denied  to 
any;  (4)  that  the  civil  court  shall  be  stationary,  and  not  follow  the  king's 
person.  Other  provisions  were  directed  against  the  abuse  of  the  power 
of  the  king  as  lord  paramount,  the  tyrrany  of  the  forest  laws,  and  griev- 
ances connected  with  feudal  tenure.  The  Charter  of  Forests  was  granted 
at  the  same  time.  Both  documents  have  been  confirmed  by  Act  of  Par- 
liament thirty -two  times. 

We  give  the  name  of  autocracy  (Gr.,  "sole  mastery,"  "ruling  by  one's 
self")  to  that  form  of  government  in  which  the  sovereign  unites  in  him- 
self the  legislative  and  the  executive  powers  of  the  state,  and  thus  rules 
uncontrolled.  Such  a  sovereign  is  therefore  called  an  autocrat.  Nearly 
all  eastern  governments  are  of  this  form.  Among  European  rulers,  the 
emperor  of  Russia  alone  bears  the  title  of  Autocrat,  the  name  indicating 
his  freedom  from  constitutional  restraint  of  every  kind.  Such  is  the 
theory  or  principle  of  an  autocracy,  but  it  should  be  remembered  that 
even  the  most  rigorous  autocrat  must  in  practice  have  regard  to  the  feel- 
ings and  opinions  of  those  about  him.  There  are  real  though  not  formal 
checks.  In  autocratic  states,  palace  or  court  revolutions  are  not  infre- 
quent. This  has  been  a  marked  feature  of  Russian  history,  especially  in 
the  eighteenth  century.  These  revolutions  often  result  in  the  deposition 
and  assassination  of  the  sovereign.  In  point  of  fact,  the  peculiar  feature 
of  an  autocracy  is  the  absence  of  regular  and  constitutional  limits;  it  is  a 
strong  form  of  '  'personal  rule. ' ' 


SIDE-LIGHTS  ON  HISTORY.  307 

The  Girondins,  in  English  "The  Girondists,"  were  the  pure  republi- 
can party  in  the  National  Assembly  and  National  Convention  of  the  first 
French  Revolution.  So  called  because  it  consisted  mainly  of  the  depu- 
ties of  the  Gironde.  This  party  was  distinguished  for  its  oratory,  and 
for  a  time  dominated  the  assembly;  but,  horrified  at  the  September 
massacres,  they  condemned  the  Reign  of  Terror,  and  tried  to  bring  in 
more  moderate  measures.  This  drew  upon  them  the  hatred  of  the  dema- 
gogues, and  on  May  31,  1793,  some  twenty-nine  of  the  Girondists  were 
arrested  at  the  instigation  of  Robespierre,  and  on  October  31  twenty  of 
them  were  guillotined,  amongst  whom  were  Brissot,  Gensonne,  Vergniaud, 
Ducos  and  Sillery.  Valaz£  stabbed  himself  while  he  stood  in  the  dock. 

The  Diamond  Necklace  was  presented  through  Madame  de  Lamotte 
by  Cardinal  de  la  Rohan,  as  he  supposed,  to  Marie  Antoinette.  It  was  a 
swindling  transaction  of  the  Countess  de  Lamotte.  The  Cardinal  de 
Rohan,  a  profligate  churchman,  entertained  a  love  passion  for  the  queen, 
and  the  Countess  de  Lamotte  induced  him  to  purchase  for  $425,000,  a  dia- 
mond necklace,  made  for  Madame  Dubarry,  and  present  it  to  the  queen. 
The  cardinal  handed  the  necklace  to  the  countess,  and  when  the  time  of 
payment  arrived  Boehmer,  the  jeweler,  sent  his  bill  into  the  queen, 
Marie  Antoinette  denied  all  knowledge  of  the  matter,  and  in  the  trial 
which  ensued  it  was  proved  that  the  countess  had  sold  the  necklace  to  an 
English  jeweler  and  kept  the  money.  The  trial  lasted  nine  months,  and 
created  immense  scandal. 

The  Falk  I/aws,  1873,  were  so  called  from  Dr.  Falk,  who  insisted  on 
the  compulsory  education  of  the  clergy  of  Prussia.  The  laws  are  four  in 
number:  (1)  The  first  was  directed  against  the  abuse  of  ecclesiastical  dis- 
cipline for  political  purposes,  such  as  "boycotting,"  excommunication, 
and  anathemas;  (2)  the  next  regulated  the  effect  of  secession  from  the 
Church  on  the  obligation  to  meet  certain  taxes;  (3)  the  third  law  was 
directed  at  the  evasions  by  Roman  Catholics  of  state  education  incum- 
bent on  all  Germans;  and  (4)  abolished  the  legality  of  papal  tribunals, 
recognizing  the  judgments  of  the  German  ecclesiastical  courts  as  the  only 
authority  on  Church  matters.  In  1874  these  four  laws  were  supplemented 
by  others  to  ensure  more  perfect  obedience.  Dr.  Adalbert  Falk  was  ap- 
pointed by  Prince  Bismarck  "Minister  of  Public  Worship,"  22  January, 
1872.  In  1872  Prince  Bismarck  carried  through  the  Prussian  Houses  a  bill 
to  transfer  the  control  of  primary  education  from  the  Church  to  the  State 
authorities. 

Peine  Forte  et  Dure,  the  "strong  and  sore  torture, "  is  a  species  of  tor- 
ture formerly  applied  by  the  law  of  England  to  those  who,  on  being 
arraigned  for  felony,  refused  to  plead,  and  stood  mute,  or  who  were  guilty 
of  equivalent  contumacy.  In  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.  it  had  become  the 
practice  to  load  the  offender  with  iron  weights, and  thus  press  him  to  death; 
and  till  nearly  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  pressing  to  death 
in  this  horrible  manner  was  the  regular  and  lawful  mode  of  punishing 
persons  who  stood  mute  on  their  arraignment  for  felony.  As  late  as  1741 
a  person  is  said  to  have  been  pressed  to  death  at  the  Cambridge  assizes, 
the  tying  of  his  thumbs  having  been  first  tried  without  effect.  A  statute 
of  1772  virtually  abolished  the  peine  forte  et  dure,  by  enacting  that  any 
person  who  shall  stand  mute  when  arraigned  for  felony  or  piracy  shall  be 
convicted,  and  have  the  same  judgment  and  execution  awarded  against 
him  as  if  he  had  been  convicted  by  verdict  or  confession.  A  later  statute 
( 1828 )  made  standing  mute  equal  to  a  plea  of  "not  guilty." 


308  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

The  phrase  "freedom  of  the  city"  is  thus  explained.  In  olden 
times  each  trade  in  a  European  city  formed  a  close  corporation,  and  no 
person  could  carry  on  business  without  belonging  to  the  particular  guild 
or  association  of  those  in  the  same  trade.  As  a  rule,  a  man,  to  become  a 
member  of  a  guild,  had  to  serve  seven  years  as  an  apprentice,  several 
years  as  a  journeyman  and  finally  he  was  admitted  to  the  craft,  became  a 
master  and  gained  the  freedom  of  his  trade.  As  a  special  honor,  the 
mayor  of  the  town,  with  the  heads  of  the  guild,  would  confer  the  freedom 
of  the  city  upon  a  distinguished  guest.  It  was  purely  an  honor.  The 
guild  system  never  was  established  here  as  abroad  ;  but  as  the  conferring 
of  the  freedom  of  the  city  was  the  highest  honor  which  a  city,  as  a  city, 
could  bestow,  we  have  retained  the  custom  of  giving  that  freedom  from 
time  to  time. 

The  great  result  of  the  Berlin  Congress  was  the  Treaty  of  Berlin 
(signed  July  12,  ratified  August  3,  1878).  Its  principal  articles  consti- 
tituted  the  autonomous  principality  of  Bulgaria  and  the  new  province  of 
Eastern  Roumelia;  ceded  certain  parts  of  Armenia  to  Persia  and  Russia; 
secured  the  independence  of  Servia,  Roumania  and  Montenegro;  trans- 
ferred Herzegovina  and  Bosnia  to  Austrian  administration  and  occupa- 
tion; retrocession  to  Russia  of  Bessarabia,  Batoum  (made  a  free  port), 
Kars  and  Ardahan;  Alasgird  and  Bayazid  restored  to  Turkey,  which 
undertook  certain  legal  and  religious  reforms  in  Crete  and  its  other  de- 
pendencies. Greece  also  obtained  an  accesson  of  territory.  The  treaties 
of  London  and  of  Paris,  when  not  modified  by  this  treaty,  to  be  main- 
tained. England,  by  a  separate  agreement  previously  made  with  Turkey, 
obtained  the  administration  of  Cyprus. 

The  Star-chamber,  a  tribunal  which  met  in  the  old  council  chamber 
of  the  palace  of  Westminster,  and  is  said  to  have  got  its  name  from  the 
roof  of  that  apartment  being  decorated  with  gilt  stars,  or  because  in  it 
"starres"  or  Jewish  bonds  had  been  kept.  It  is  supposed  to  have  origin- 
ated in  early  times  out  of  the  exercise  of  jurisdiction  by  the  king's  coun- 
cil, whose  powers  in  this  respect  had  greatly  declined  when  in  1487 
Henry  VII.,  anxious  to  repress  the  indolence  and  illegal  exertions  of 
powerful  landowners,  revived  and  remodelled  them,  or,  according  to 
some  investigators,  instituted  what  was  practically  an  entirely  new  tri- 
bunal. The  statute  conferred  on  the  Chancellor,  the  Treasurer  and  the 
Keeper  of  the  Privy  Seal,  with  the  assistance  of  a  bishop  and  a  temporal 
Lord  of  the  Council,  Chief  justices,  or  two  other  justices  in  their  absence, 
a  jurisdiction  to  punish,  without  a  jury,  the  misdemeanors  of  sheriffs 
and  juries,  as  well  as  riots  and  unlawful  assemblies.  Henry  VIII.  added 
to  the  other  members  of  the  court  the  President  of  the  Council,  and  ulti- 
mately all  the  privy-councillors. 

The  rack,  an  instrument  of  torture,  used  for  extracting  confessions 
from  actual  or  suspected  criminals,  consisted  of  an  oblong  frame  of  wood, 
with  a  windlass  arrangement  at  each  end,  to  which  the  sufferer  was 
bound  by  cords  attached  to  his  arms  and  legs.  The  unfortunate  being  was 
then  stretched  or  pulled  till  he  made  confession,  or  till  his  limbs  were 
dislocated.  The  rack  was  known  to  the  Romans  in  Cicero's  time, and  in  the 
first  and  second  centuries  A.D.  was  applied  to  the  early  Christians.  Accord- 
ing to  Coke,  it  was  introduced  into  England  by  the  Duke  of  Exeter, 
Constable  of  the  Tower  in  1447,  whence  it  came  to  be  called  the  ' '  Duke 
of  Exeter's  daughter."  Its  use  first  became  common  in  the  time  of  Henry 
VIII.,  but  could  only  take  place  by  warrant  of  council,  or  under  the  sign- 


SIDE-LIGHTS  ON  HISTORY.  309 

manual.  Under  Elizabeth  it  was  in  almost  constant  use.  In  1628,  on  the 
murder  by  Felton  of  the  Duke  of  Buckingham,  it  being  proposed  by 
Charles  I.  to  put  the  assassin  to  the  rack,  in  order  that  he  might  discover 
his  accomplices,  the  judges  resisted  the  proceedings  as  contrary  to  the 
law  of  England.  In  various  countries  of  Europe  the  rack  has  been  much 
used  both  by  the  civil  authorities  in  cases  of  traitors  and  conspirators, 
and  by  the  Inquisition  to  extort  a  recantation  of  heresy.  It  is  no  longer 
in  use  in  any  part  of  the  civilized  world. 

The  commune  is  the  unit  or  lowest  division  in  the  administration  of 
France,  corresponding  in  the  rural  districts  to  our  township,  and  in  towns 
to  a  municipality.  The  rising  of  the  Commune  at  Paris  in  1871,  and 
which  should  not  be  confounded  with  communism,  was  a  revolutionary 
assertion  of  the  autonomy  of  Paris,  that  is,  of  the  right  of  self-govern- 
ment through  its  commune  or  municipality.  The  theory  of  the  rising 
was  that  every  commune  should  have  a  real  autonomy,  the  central  govern- 
ment being  merely  a  federation  of  communes.  The  movement  was  based 
on  discontent  at  Paris,  where  the  people  found  themselves  in  possession 
of  arms  after  the  siege  by  the  Germans.  The  rising  began  on  the  18th 
March,  1871,  and  was  only  suppressed  ten  weeks  later  after  long,  bloody 
fighting  between  the  forces  of  the  Commune  and  a  large  army  of  the  cen- 
tral government;  6,500  Communists  having  fallen  during  20-30th  May, 
and  38,578  been  taking  prisoners. 

Wat  Tyler's  insurrection  occurred  November  5,  1380.  A  peasant's 
revolt,  immediately  due  to  the  imposition  of  a  poll-tax  on  all  persons 
above  fifteen.  Almost  the  whole  of  the  peasantry  of  the  southern  and 
eastern  counties  of  England  rose  in  arms,  murdering  and  plundering, 
under  the  leadership  of  Wat  Tyler,  said  to  have  been  a  soldier  in  the 
French  wars.  On  June  12,  1381,  they  gathered  on  Blackheath.  On  June 
14,  Richard  II.,  then  a  lad  of  fifteen,  met  the  Essex  contingent  at  Mile 
End,  and,  promising  the  abolition  of  villenage,  induced  them  to  return 
home.  On  June  15,  he  met  the  Kentish  men  at  Smithfield,  and  in  the 
parley  Wat  Tyler  was  killed  by  William  Walworth,  mayor  of  London, 
and  others.  The  peasants  were  about  to  avenge  his  death,  when  Rich- 
ard, with  great  presence  of  mind,  rode  forward  alone,  and  induced  them 
to  follow  him  to  Islington,  when,  a  body  of  troops  coming  to  the  king's 
aid,  and  Richard  being  profuse  of  promises,  they  dispersed. 

THE  FIRST  FRENCH  REVOLUTION. 

ITS  CHIEF  LEADER?: 
Comte  de  Mirabeau,  1789-1791. 
Daiiton,  from  the  death  of  Mirabeau  to  1793. 
Robespierre,  from  June,  1793,  to  July  27,  1794. 

Next  to  these  three  were  St.  Just,  Couthon,  Marat,  Carrier,  Hebert,  Santerre,  Ca- 
mille  Desmoulins,  Roland  and  his  wife,  Brissot,  Barnave,  Seyes,  Barras,  Tallien,  etc. 

ITS  GREAT  DAYS: 

1789.  June  17.  The  Tiers  Etat  constituted  itself  into  the -'National  Assembly";  June 
20,  the  day  of  ih&Jeu  de  Paume,  when  the  Assembly  took  an  oath  not  to  separate 
till  it  had  given  France  a  constitution  ;  July  14,  Storming  of  the  Bastille :  October 
5,  6,  the  King  and  National  Assembly  transferred  from  Versailles  to  Paris.  This 
closed  the  ancient  regime  of  the  court. 

1791.  June  20,  21.     Flight  and  capture  of  the  king,  queen,  and  royal  family. 

1792.  June  20,  attack  on  the  Tuileries  by  Santerre;  August  10,  attack  on  the  Tuileries 
and  downfall  of  the  monarchy;  September  2,  3, 4,  massacre  of  the  state  prisoners. 

1793.  January  21,  Louis  XVI  guillotined:    May  31,  commencement  of  the  Reign  of 
Terror ;  June  2,  the  Girondists  proscribed;  October  16,  Marie  Antoinette  guillo- 
tined; October  31,  the  Girondists  guillotined. 

1794.  April  5,  downfall  of  Danton;  July  27,  downfall  of  Robespierre. 


310  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION 

MODES  OF  EXECUTING  CRIMINALS. 

COUNTRY.  MODE.  PUBLICITY. 

Austria ,  Gallosvs  Public. 

Bavaria Guillotine Private. 

Belgium . .. Guillotine Public. 

Brunswick Ax Private. 

China * Sword  or  cord Public. 

Denmark Guillotine Public. 

Ecuador Musket Public. 

France Guillotine Public. 

Great  Britain Gallows  Private. 

Hanover Guillotine Private. 

Netherlands Gallows Public. 

Oldenberg Musket Public. 

Portugal Gallows Public. 

Prussia . Sword  Private. 

Russia Musket,  gallows,  or  sword Public. 

Saxony Guillotine Private. 

Spain Garrote Public. 

Switzerland — 

Fifteen  cantons Sword Public. 

Two  cantons Guillotine Public. 

Two  cantons Guillotine Private. 

United  States  (other  than  New  j  Mostly 

York) Gallows |  Private. 

New  York Electricity Private. 

MONARCHS  WHO  RETIRED  FROM  BUSINESS. 
The  following  are  the  names  of   European  monarchs  who  have 
abdicated : 

Amadeus  I.  (duke  of  Aosta)  Spain 1873 

Charles  IV.  of  Spain  (forced) 1808 

Charles  V.  of  Spain  and  Germany 1556 

Charles  X.  of  France  (forced) 1830 

Charles  Albert  of  Sardinia  (forced) 1849 

Charles  Emmanuel  of  Sardinia 1802 

Christina  of  Sweden 1654 

Diocletian  and  Maximian 305,  308 

Felipe  V.  of  Spain 1724 

Francis  II.  of  the  Two  Sicilies  (forced) 1860 

James  II.  of  England  (forced) 1689 

L,ouis  Bonaparte  of  Holland 1810 

lyouis  Philippe  of  France  (forced) 1848 

Ludwig  of  Bavaria  (forced) 1848 

Matilda  (Lady  of  England) 1154 

Milan  of  Servia 1889 

Napoleon  I.  of  France  (forced) 1814 

Napoleon  III.  of  France  (forced) 1870 

Otho  of  Greece  (forced) 1863 

Pedro  II.  of  Brazil  (forced) 1889 

Poniatowski  of  Poland  (forced) , 1795 

Richard  II.  of  England  (forced) 1399 

Stanislaus  I,eszczinski  (forced) 1735 

Victor  Amadeus  of  Sardinia 1730 

Victor  Emmanuel 1819 

Several  were  dethroned  without  even  the  mocking  show  of  abdication,  like  Edward 
II.  of  England  (1327);  Henry  VI.  of  England  (1471);  etc. 

FATHERS  OF  THEIR  COUNTRY. 

Cicero  was  called  Father  of  his  Country  by  the  Roman  senate  (B.C. 
106-43).  Julius  Caesar  was  so  called  after  quelling  the  insurrection  in 
Spain  (B.C.  100-43).  Augustus  Caesar  was  called  Pater  atque  Princeps 
(B.C.  63,  31-14).  Cosmo  de  Medici  (1389-1464).  George  Washington, 
defender  and  paternal  counsellor  of  the  American  States  (1732-1799). 
Andrea  Dorea  is  so  called  on  the  base  of  his  statue  in  Genoa  (1468-1560X 
Andronicus  Palaeologus  II.  assumed  the  title  (1260-1332).  See  also 
Chron.  iv.  14. 


SIDE-LIGHTS  ON  HISTOR  K  311 

HISTORY  IN  RHYME. 
£he  following  are  given  as  helpful  mnemonic  verses: 

PRESIDENTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

First  stands  the  lofty  Washington, 

That  noble,  great  immortal  one. 

The  elder  Adams  next  we  see, 

And  Jefferson  comes  number  three. 

The  Fourth  is  Madison,  you  know, 

The  fifth  one  on  the  list,  Monroe. 

The  sixth  an  Adams  comes  again, 

And  Jackson  seventh  in  the  train, 

Van  Buren  eighth  upon  the  line, 

And  Harrison  counts  number  nine. 

The  tenth  is  Tyler,  in  his  turn, 

And  Polk  the  eleventh  as  we  learn. 

The  twelfth  is  Taylor  that  appears, 

The  thirteenth  Fillmore  fills  his  years. 

Then  Pierce  comes  fourteenth  into  view, 

Buchanan  is  the  fifteenth  due. 

Now  Lincoln  comes  two  terms  to  fill, 

But  God  o'errules  the  people's  will, 

And  Johnson  fills  the  appointed  time, 

Cut  short  by  an  assassin's  crime. 

Next  Grant  assumes  the  lofty  seat, 

The  man  who  never  knew  defeat. 

Two  terms  to  him;  then  Hayes  succeeds, 

And  quietly  the  nation  leads. 

Garfield  comes  next,  the  people's  choice; 

But  soon  ascends  a  mourning  voice 

From  every  hamlet  in  the  land. 

A  brutal  wretch  with  murderous  hand 

Strikes  low  the  country's  chosen  chief, 

And  anxious  millions,  plunged  in  grief, 

Implore  in  vain  Almighty  aid, 

That  death's  rude  hand  might  yet  be  stayed. 

Kind  Arthur's  term  was  then  begun, 

Which  made  the  number  twenty-one. 

Stout  Cleveland  next  the  honors  won 

And  then  the  second  Harrison, 

Until  the  nation's  voice  again 

Called  Cleveland  as  its  man  of  men; 

The  twenty-fourth  in  order  he — 

All  champions  brave  of  Liberty. 

Sovereigns  of  England  since  the  Norman  conquest: 
Two  Williams,  Henry,  Stephen,  Henry,  Dick, 
John,  Hal,  three  Neds,  Richard  and  three  Hals  quick, 
Two  Edwards,  Richard,  two  Harrys  and  a  Ned, 
Mary,  Bess,  James  and  Charles  who  lost  his  head, 
Charles,  James,  Will,  Ann,  four  Georges  and  a  Bill, 
And  Queen  Victoria  who  is  reigning  still. 

THE  CHAMP  DE  MARS. 

The  Champ  de  Mars,  or  "Field  of  March,"  was  a  grand  general  as- 
sembly of  Frank  warriors,  held  from  time  to  time  in  Gaul  from  the  fifth 
century  till  the  time  of  Charles  le  Chauve  (877),  when  all  trace  of  them 
disappears.  The  objects  of  these  conventions  were  twofold:  (1)  that  of 
military  reviews,  in  which  the  freemen  came  to  pay  homage  to  their 
chief  and  bring  their  annual  gifts;  and  (2)  consultative  deliberations  upon 
what  expeditions  should  be  made,  what  should  be  done  for  the  defence 
of  the  nation  and  what  laws  should  be  passed  for  the  better  government 
of  the  state.  From  755  these  assemblies  were  held  in  May.  Napoleon  I. 
announced  a  gathering  to  be  held  in  the  great  plain,  called  the  Champ  de 
Mars  of  Paris,  on  May  26;  but  it  was  not  held  till  June  1,  1815.  The 
object  was  to  proclaim  L1 Acte  additionel  aux  constitutions  de  V Empire. 


312  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

ORIGIN   OF  SOME   'ISMS. 

SOCIALISM  was  primarily  a  system  for  the  regulation  of  labor  by 
co-operation  without  competition.  Louis  Blanc  was  the  father  of  the 
system,  and  his  "Organisation  du  Travail"  was  published  in  1840.  In 
this  book  he  denounces  the  plan  of  "individualism,"  and  advocates 
"solidarity,"  in  which  each  workman  is  to  be  paid  according  to  his 
need — a  bachelor  two  francs  a  day,  a  married  man  two  and  one-half  and 
a  man  with  a  family  three  francs.  In  1848  national  workshops  were 
tried  in  Paris  on  the  Louis  Blanc  principle.  Government  was  the  em- 
ployer of  labor,  and  private  enterprise  was  abolished  as  far  as  possible. 
It  was  soon  found  that  the  national  workshops  were  overcrowded,  work 
was  ill-done,  idle  hands  multiplied,  and  profitless  work  had  to  be 
invented  to  keep  the  men  out  of  mischief.  Some  1,500  tailors  were  set 
to  work  in  the  Hotel  Clichy  at  two  francs  a  day,  but  the  scheme  was  a 
total  failure. 

Plato's  "Republic"  is  an  ideal  communism.  Minos  and  Lycurgus 
were  communists.  The  early  Christians  had  "all  things  in  common," 
but  the  notion  of  government  being  the  sole  employer  of  labor,  and 
paying  each,  not  according  to  the  work  done,  but  according  to  indi- 
vidual necessity,  was  left  to  the  device  of  Louis  Blanc. 

Bellamy's  novel  entitled  "Looking  Backward"  is  based  somewhat 
on  the  same  idea. 

COMMUNISM  is  a  scheme  for  associating  men  and  women  together 
without  recourse  to  the  laws  of  social  and  political  economy  usually 
resorted  to.  The  representatives  of  communism  are  Robert  Owen,  St. 
Simon,  Fourier,  Proudhon  and  Enfantin. 

(1)  Owen  published  his  scheme  in   1813,  and  tried  it  in  1825  at 
Orbiston,  in  Lanarkshire.     This  scheme  failed,  and  in  1843  he  opened 
his  "Harmony  Hall"  in  Hampshire,  but  this  also  was  a  failure. 

(2)  St.  Simon  established  a  corporate  society  at  Menilmontant,  but 
Louis  Philippe  charged  it  with  immorality  and  irreligion.     The  leaders 
were  imprisoned  and  the  commune  dissolved. 

(3)  Fourier  established  his  "phalanstery"   at  Rambouillet,    but  it 
proved  a  total  failure. 

(4)  Proudhon  is  noted  for  his  axiom,  "La  proprie'te,  c'est  le  vol," 
1848,  and  for  his  Banque  du  Peuple,  1849,  which  had  for  its  object  the 
suppression  of  capital.     It  was  closed  by  authority,  and  Proudhon  fled 
to  Geneva. 

(5)  Enfantin,  a  partisan  of  St.   Simon,  advocated  the  abolition  of 
marriage  ties,  and  was  prosecuted  on  the  grounds  of  public  decency. 

FOURIERISM  was  the  social  system  devised  by  Charles  Fourier.  He 
would  divide  men  into  groups  of  400  families,  and  these  groups  into 
series,  and  these  series  into  phalanxes.  A  single  group  he  would  place 
under  one  immense  roof,  and  there  should  be  supplied  every  appliance 
of  industry  and  art.  No  army  would  be  required,  no  wars  could  ever 
break  out,  as  all  the  world  would  be  one  great  family. 

SIMONIANISM  was  the  school  of  the  Industrialists,  founded  in  1825 
by  St.  Simon  for  the  amelioration  of  the  working  classes,  perverted  after 
his  death  into  a  communistic  society,  advocating  the  aristocracy  of  toil, 
the  perfect  equality  of  man,  community  of  property  and  the  abolition  of 
inheritance  and  marriage.  Abolished  by  law  in  1833. 


MYSTIC  LETTERS  AND  NUMBERS. 


Figures  mystical  and  awful    .    .    . 
Songs  of  war  and  songs  of  hunting, 
Songs  of  medicine  and  of  magic, 
All  were  written  in  these  figures, 
For  each  figure  had  its  meaning, 
Each  its  separate  song  recorded. 

—LONGFELLOW. 

SUNDRY  ODD   PICKINGS. 

Noah  had  three  sons. 

Job  had  three  friends. 

lightning  is  three-forked. 

The  "  Glorious  Fourth  "  means  July  4,  1776. 

Hesiod  said  the  half  is  more  than  the  whole. 

Jonah  remained  for  three  days  in  the  whale's  belly. 

The  Prince  of  Wales'  crest  consists  of  three  feathers. 

There  were  three  patriarchs,  Abraham,  Isaac  and  Jacob. 

Barbarossa  changes  position  in  his  sleep  every  seven  years. 

Charlemagne  starts  in  his  chair  from  sleep  every  seven  years. 

Olaf  Redbeard,  of  Sweden,  uncloses  his  eyes  every  seven  years. 

Three  companions  of  Daniel  were  thrown  into  the  fiery  furnace. 

Five  is  conspicuous  in  man — five  fingers,  five  senses,  five  members. 

Ogier  the  Dane  stamps  his  iron  mace  on  the  floor  every  seven  years. 

The  Five  Kings  of  France  was  a  term  applied  to  the  Directorate, 
1795. 

The  "  City  of  Forty  Times  Forty  Churches  "  is  a  name  bestowed  on 
Moscow. 

Seven  becomes  sacred  as  it  is  composed  of  two  good  numbers,  three 
and  four. 

In  France,  Belgium,  Holland  and  Italy  the  national  standards  have 
three  colors. 

The  melancholy  Jacques'  disquisition  on  "  the  seven  ages  of  man  " 
is  well  known. 

The  twenty -first  verse  of  the  seventh  chapter  of  Ezra  contains  all  the 
letters  of  the  alphabet  except  "j,"  which  originally  was  the  consonantal 
form  of  "i." 

313 


314  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

"Barry  Cornwall,  Poet,"  is  an  anagrammatic  pseudonym  for  Bryan 
Waller  Proctor. 

For  three  days  Daniel  remained  in  the  lions'  den  because  he  prayed 
three  times  a  day. 

Some  scientists  assert  that  there  is  a  complete  change  in  the  human 
body  every  seven  years. 

The  saying  "  six  thrice  or  three  dice,"  sprang  from  the  fact  that  aces 
were  called  dice,  and  didn't  count. 

There  were  seven  great  wonders  of  the  world  in  classic  times.  They 
are  described  elsewhere  in  this  volume. 

Six  has  for  its  symbol  two  equilateral  triangles  placed  base  to  base, 
representative  of  equilibrium  and  peace. 

Placentius,  a  sixteenth  century  Dominican,  wrote  a  Latin  poem  of 
253  stanzas,  every  word  of  which  begins  with  P. 

"Get  nymph;  quiz  sad  brows;  fix  luck,"  containing  all  the  letters 
of  the  alphabet,  is  capital  advice  to  a  young  man. 

The  alphabet  is  inexhaustible  in  its  possibilities.  Some  one  calcu- 
lates 620,448,401,733,239,439,369,000  transpositions. 

In  Alchemy  the  Sun  is  gold,  the  Moon  silver,  Mars  iron,  Mercury 
quicksilver,  Saturn  lead,  Jupiter  tin  and  Venus  copper. 

An  Englishman,  wishing  to  revile  America,  has  been  noted  as  speak- 
ing, "The 'ideous  Hamerican  'abit  of  habusing  haitch." 

"The  'orn  of  the  'unter  is  'card  on  the  'ill  "  is  a  cockney  version  of 
the  line  from  Mrs.  Crawford's  "  Kathleen  Mavourneen." 

Seven  sciences  composed  the  Trivium  and  Quadrivium,  viz.,  gram- 
mar, rhetoric,  arid  logic,  music,  arithmetic,  geometry  and  astronomy: 

Note  the  three  in  "fish,  flesh  and  fowl;"  "morning,  noon  and 
night;"  "water,  snow  and  ice;"  "heaven,  earth  and  hell;"  "red, 
white  and  blue." 

Among  the  Chinese,  heaven  is  odd,  earth  is  even;  heaven  is  round, 
earth  is  square.  The  numbers  1,  3,  5,  7,  9,  belong  to  yang  ("  heaven  "); 
but  2,  4,  6,  8,  10,  belong  toytn  ("earth  "). 

The  Nine  Worthy  Women  were:  (1)  Minerva,  (2)  Semiramis,  (3) 
Tomyris,  (4)  Jael,  (5)  Deborah,  (6)  Judith,  (7)  Britomart,  (8)  Elizabeth  or 
Isabella  of  Aragon,  (9)  Johanna  of  Naples. 

Jericho  fell  on  the  seventh  day.  To  accomplish  this  seven  priests 
with  seven  trumpets  march  around  the  city  once  a  day,  and  on  the 
seventh  day  seven  times— and  the  walls  fell. 

"  Ha  helephant  heasily  heats  hat  'is  hease 
Hunder  humbrageous  humbrella  trees." 
—MOORE. 

The  seventy  years'  captivity  of  the  Jews  in  Babylon,  which  lasted 
seventy  years,  began  B.C.  584  and  ended  B.C.  515.  They  were  carried 
into  captivity  by  Nebuchadnezzar  and  released  by  Cyrus.  This  is  also 
called  "The  Babylonish  Captivity." 

Ancient  Rome,  built  on  seven  hills,  surrounded  by  Servius  Tullius 
with  a  line  of  fortifications,  was  called  the  seven-hilled  city.  The  seven 
hills  are  the  Pallatmus,  the  Capitolinus,  the  Quirinalis,  the  Cselius,  the 
A^entmus,  the  Viminalis,  and  Esquilmus. 


MYSTIC  LETTERS  AND  NUMBERS.  315 

Seven  times  Christ  spoke  on  the  Cross:  (1)  "Father,  forgive  them, 
for  they  know  not  what  they  do;"  (2)  "To-day  shalt  thou  be  with  Me  in 
paradise;"  (3)  "Woman,  behold  thy  son!"  (4)  "My  God,  My  God,  why 
hast  Thou  forsaken  Me?"  (5)  "I  thirst ;"  (6)  "It  is  finished!"  (7) 
"  Father,  into  Thy  hands  I  commend  My  spirit." 

The  ten  numerations  are  cabalistic  doctrine.  Three  are  called  the 
superior,  and  seven  the  inferior  numerations.  The  three  superior  are 
the  supreme  diadem,  wisdom  and  understanding.  These  existed  from 
all  eternity.  The  seven  inferior  numerations  are  mercy,  severity  or 
might,  beauty,  victory,  glory,  stability  and  sovereignty. 

4  'TheThree  R's— reading,  'riting  and  'rithmetic'  '—is  the  title  of  a  toast 
given  at  a  dinner  in  honor  of  the  Board  of  Education  by  Sir  Wm.  Curtis, 
Bart.,  Ivord  Mayor  of  London,  in  1795.  In  consequence  of  this  toast  the 
Lord  Mayor  has  been  handed  down  to  posterity  as  an  ignoramus,  though 
those  present  recognized  the  jest  clothed  in  the  elisions. 

One  solution  of  Daniel's  seventy  weeks  is  to  suppose  it  to  begin  with 
the  decree  of  Darius  given  to  Ezra  B.C.  491,  and  the  seventy  weeks  to  mean 
seventy  times  seven  years  (i.e.  four  hundred  and  ninety),  which  would 
bring  us  to  the  birth  of  Christ,  "when  a  finish  was  made  to  transgres- 
sion, and  an  end  put  to  sins  by  the  reconciliation  of  the  Messiah,  the 
prince." 

Our  word  alphabet  is  composed  of  the  first  two  letters  of  the  Greek 
alphabet,  Alpha  and  'Beta.  These  were  adopted  from  the  Phoenician 
Aleph  and  Beth,  which  mean  respectively  "ox"  and  "house"— referring 
no  doubt  to  the  shape  of  the  letters — which  show  us  the  connection 
between  the  alphabet  as  we  know  it  and  the  ancient  cuneiform  and 
hieroglyphic  writing  of  Babylonia  and  Egypt. 

Card-players  who  are  continually  bewailing  their  ill-luck  of  always 
receiving  the  same  poor  cards,  will,  perhaps,  be  reassured  by  knowing 
that  the  fifty-two  cards,  with  thirteen  to  each  of  the  four  players,  can  be 
distributed  in  53,644,737,756,488,792,839,237,440,000  different  ways,  so 
that  there  would  still  be  a  good  stock  of  combinations  to  draw  from, 
even  if  a  man  from  Adam's  time  had  devoted  himself  to  no  other  occu- 
pation than  that  of  playing  at  cards. 

One  gallon  of  water  weighs  ten  pounds,  so  the  number  of  gallons  in 
the  Pacific  is  over  200,000,000,000,000,  an  amount  which  would  take  more 
than  1,000,000  years  to  pass  over  the  falls  of  Niagara.  Yet,  put  into  a 
sphere,  the  whole  of  the  Pacific  would  only  measure  726  miles  across. 
The  Atlantic  could  be  contained  bodily  in  the  Pacific  nearly  three  times. 
The  number  of  cubic  feet  is  11,700,000,000,000,000,000,  a  number  that 
would  be  ticked  off  by  1,000, 000  clocks  in  370, 000  years. 

Abracadabra  is  a  magical  word  or  formula   ABRACADABRA 
constructed  out  of  the  letters  of  the  alphabet,      ABRACADABR 
and  supposed  to  be  highly  efficacious  for  the  cure       ABRACADAB 
of  agues  and  fevers.     The  letters  were  written  so         ABRACADA 
as  to  form  a  triangle,  capable  of  being  read  many  A  B  R  A  c  A  D 

ways  on  a  square  piece  of  paper,  which  was  folded  A  B  R  A  c  A 

or  stitched  into  the  form  of  a  cross;  worn  as  an  A  B  R  A  c 

amulet  in  the  bosom  for  nine  days,  and  ultimately  A  B  R  A 

thrown  backward  before  sunrise  into  a  stream  A  B  R 

running  eastward.     The  adjoining  is  one  way  of  A  B 

arranging  this  mystic  word.  A 


316  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

Writing  is  of  two  kinds  —  ideographic,  in  which  signs  represent 
ideas;  and  phonetic,  in  which  signs  represent  sounds.  Ideographic 
writing,  which  preceded  phonetic  writing,  is  illustrated  by  the  picture- 
writing  of  the  ancient  Mexicans,  and  by  the  Chinese  system  of  writing, 
which  is  strictly  ideographic.  The  Phoenician  and  other  Semitic  nations 
derived  their  knowledge  of  writing  from  the  Egyptians.  The  art  was 
introduced  from  Phoenicia  into  Greece,  and  from  Greece  into  Italy, 
whence  it  spread  with  the  spread  of  Christianity. 

The  Jewish  Sanhedrim,  or  national  council,  was  constituted  of  a 
president  called  Nasi,  a  deputy,  sub-deputy  and  seventy  ordinary  mem- 
bers. Their  place  of  meeting  was  called  The  Pavement.  The  seventy 
sat  in  the  form  of  a  crescent,  thirty-five  on  each  side  of  the  throne.  In 
A.D.  32  the  seventy  were  sent  forth  by  Jesus  to  spread  His  mission.  They 
were  to  go  two  by  two,  without  purse,  scrip  or  change  of  shoes,  but  were 
endowed  with  the  power  of  working  miracles.  Seventy  elders  were 
appointed  to  assist  Moses  in  the  wilderness  (Num.  xi.  16,  17). 

Seven  Wise  Men  is  the  collective  designation  of  a  number  of  Greek 
sages,  whose  moral  and  social  experience,  according  to  the  ancients,  was 
embodied  in  certain  brief  aphorisms.  Their  names,  as  usually  given, 
and  their  characteristic  aphorisms  are  as  follows :  Solon  of  Athens — 
"  Nothing  in  excess  ;  "  Thales  of  Miletus —  "Suretyship  brings  ruin  ;  " 
Pittacusof  Mitylene — "Know  thine  opportunity;"  Bias  of  Priene,  in  Caria 
— "Too  many  workers  spoil  the  work."  Chilon  of  Sparta — "Know  thy- 
self ;  "  Cleobulus,  tyrant  of  Lindus,  in  Rhodes — "Moderation  is  the  chief 
good  ;  "  and  Periander,  tyrant  of  Corinth — "Forethought  in  all  things." 

Here  is  another  of  the  curious  ones  :  Multiply  a  number  composed 
of  the  nine  digits,  123,456,789,  by  45,  and  the  product  is  5,555,555,505. 
Reverse  the  figures  in  the  multiplier  54,  and  the  product  is  6,666,666,606. 
Reverse  the  multiplicand  to  987,654,321),  and  multiply  by  45,  and  the 
product  is  44,444,444,445.  Reverse  the  multiplier  to  54,  and  the  pro- 
duct is  53,333,333,334.  The  first  and  last  figures  are  the  multiplier. 
Use  half  the  multiplier  or  27,  and  the  product  is  26,666,666,667.  The 
first  and  last  figures  are  the  multiplier.  Reverse  the  figures  of  the  mul- 
tiplier to  72,  and  the  product  is  71,111,111,112,  the  first  and  last  being  the 
multiplier. 

FRANCE'S  FATAL  THREE. 

The  fatal  number  to  Rome  has  been  six;  and  three  has  proved  sin- 
gularly fatal  to  France. 

I.  Take  the  kings.  The  third  of  any  name  has  been  uniformly  either 
worthless  or  unlucky:  Childebert  III.,  Clotaire  III.,  Clovis  III.,  Pago- 
bert  III.,  and  Thierry  III.,  were  rois  faineants. 

Childeric  III ,  the  last  king  of  France  of  the  first  race,  was  confined 
in  a  cloister  that  Pepin  le  Bref  might  reign  in  his  stead. 

Pepin  le  Bref  was  the  third  Pepin:  (1)  Pepin  de  Landen;  (2)  Pepin 
d'Heristal,  his  grandson,  and  (3)  Pepin  le  Bref,  grandson  of  Pepin  d'He- 
ristal,  who  was  succeeded  by  the  Carlovignian  dynasty. 

Charles  III. ,  le  Simple,  was  wholly  under  the  thumb  of  favorites,  and 
after  a  most  inglorious  reign  was  poisoned  by  the  Comte  de  Vermandois. 

Henri  III.,  le  Mignon,  '  'weaker  than  woman  and  worse  than  harlot' ' 
was  assassinated  by  Jacques  Cle'ment. 

Louis  III.,  joint  king  with  Carloman,  reigned  about  a  year  and  was 
killed  by  an  accident  at  the  age  of  twenty  -two. 


MYSTIC  LETTERS  AND  NUMBERS.  317 

Philippe  III.,  le  Hardi,  was  singularly  unfortunate,  and  singularly 
misnamed  "The  Bold."  This  tool  of  Labrosse  went  on  a  crusade,  and 
brought  home  the  dead  bodies  of  five  near  relatives:  his  father,  his  wife, 
his  son,  his  brother,  and  his  brother-in-law.  The  "Sicilian  Vespers" 
occurred  in  his  reign.  He  died  of  an  epidemic  at  Perpignan. 

Napoleon  III.  lost  his  imperial  crown  at  Sedan,  and  died  in  exile  at 
Chiselhurst,  in  Kent. 

II.  The  succession  of  three  brothers  has  always  proved  fatal. 

The  Capetian  dynasty  terminated  with  the  succession  of  three 
brothers:  Louis  X.,  Philippe  V.,  and  Charles  IV.  (sons  of  Philippe  le  Bel). 

The  Valois  line  came  to  an  end  by  the  succession  of  three  brothers: 
Francois  II.,  Charles  IX.,  and  Henri  III.  (sons  of  Henri  II.). 

The  Bourbon  dynasty  terminated  with  the  succession  of  three 
brothers:  Louis  XVI.,  Louis  XVIII.,  and  Charles  X.  (sons  of  Louis  the 
Dauphin). 

III.  The  monarchy  of  France  was  brought  to  an  end  by  the  third  of 
these  triplets. 

The  empire  of  France  consisted  of  Napoleon  I. ,  Napoleon  II. ,  and 
Napoleon  III. 

DATES  OF  THE  SECOND  EMPIRE. 

1.  1869,  the  last  year  of  Napoleon's  glory;  the  next  year  was  that  o* 
his  downfall.     As  a  matter  of  curiosity,  it  may  be  observed  that  if  the 
day  of  his  birth,  or  the  day  of  the  empress'  birth,  or  the  date  of  the  capit- 
ulation of  Paris  be  added  to  that  of  the  coronation  of  Napoleon  III. ,  the 
result  always  points  to  1869.     Thus  he  was  crowned  in  1852;  he  was  born 
in  1808;  the  empress  Eugenie  was  born  1826;  the  capitulation  of  Paris  was 
1871.     Whence: 

1852  1852  1852  coronation. 

M  1  )  1  ) 

Q      I  Q      I 

birth  of  Napoleon.    «  >       birth  of  Bugenie.      2v   capitulation  of  Paris. 
6)  1  ) 

1869  1869  1869 

2.  1870,  the  year  of  his  downfall.  By  adding  the  numerical  values  of 
the  birthdate  either  of  Napoleon  or  Eugenie  to  the  date  of  the  marriage, 
we  get  their  fatal  year  of  1870.  Thus,  Napoleon  was  born  1808;  Eugenie, 
1826;  married,  1853. 

1853  1853  year  of  marriage. 

1  )  1  ) 

birth  of  Napoleon.  birth  of  EugSnie. 

__8)  _6) 

1870  1870 

3.  Empereur.  The  votes  for  the  president  to  the  emperor  were  7,119,- 
791;  those  against  him  were  1,119,000.  If,  now,  the  numbers  711979r/l  I 19 
be  written  on  a  piece  of  paper,  and  held  up  to  the  light,  the  reverse  side 
will  show  the  word  empereur.  (The  dash  is  the  dividing  mark,  and 
forms  the  long  stroke  of  the  "p.") 

THE  APOCALYPTIC  NUMBER. 

The  mystical  number  666,  spoken  of  in  the  Book  of  Revelation  (xiii. 
18)  is  called  the  apocalyptic  number.  Among  the  Greeks  and  Hebrews 
the  letters  of  the  alphabet  were  used  to  denote  numbers.  Hence  such 


318  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

letters  must  be  taken  as  will,  when  used  as  numbers,  make  up  666  (either 
in  the  Greek  or  Hebrew  alphabet)  as  the  letters  of  the  name  in  question. 
The  best  solution  of  the  riddle  is  "Neron  Kesar,"  the  Hebrew  form  of  the 
Latin  "Nero  Caesar. "  The  vowels  e  and  a  are  not  expressed  in  the  ancient 
Hebrew  writing.  The  number  represented  by  NeRON  KeSaR  would  be 
666,  thus: 

N        R        O      N         K        S        R 
50  -|_  200  +  6  +  50  -f  100  +  60  -f-  200  =  666. 

Other  interpretations  were  adopted  in  early  times,  as  Antichrist  and 
Lateinos,  the  latter  being  supposed  to  refer  to  the  Roman  empire,  and 
even  in  more  recent  times  being  explained  by  Protestant  controversialists 
of  greater  zeal  than  discretion,  as  a  prophetic  allusion  to  papal  Rome. 

THE  FIVE  WITS. 

An  old  and  curious  standard  of  mentality  is  that  which  credits  man- 
kind with  having  "five  wits:"  common  wit,  imagination,  fantasy,  estima- 
tion, and  memory. 

1.  Common  wit  is  that  inward  sense  which  judges  what  the  five 
senses  simply  discern  :     thus  the  eye  sees,  the  nose  smells,  the  ear  hears, 
and  so  on,  but  it  is  "common  wit"  that  informs  the  brain  and  passes 
judgment  on  the  goodness  or  badness  of  these  external  matters. 

2.  Imagination  works  on  the  mind,  causing  it  to  realize  what  has 
been  presented  to  it. 

3.  Fantasy  energizes  the  mind  to  act  in  accordance  with  the  judg- 
ment thus  pronounced. 

4.  Estimation   decides  on  all  matters  pertaining  to  time,   space, 
locality,  relation,  and  so  on. 

5.  Memory  enables  the  mind  to  retain  the  recollection  of  what  has 
been  imparted. 

THE   SACRED  NUMBER. 

Seven  was  frequently  used  as  a  mystical  and  symbolical  number  in 
the  Bible,  asgwell  as  among  the  principal  nations  of  antiquity,  the  Per- 
sians, Indian's,  Egyptians,  Greeks  and  Romans.  The  origin  is  doubtless 
astronomical,  or  rather  astrological — viz.  the  observation  of  the  seven 
planets  and  the  phases  of  the  moon,  changing  every  seventh  day.  As 
instances  of  this  number  in  the  Old  Testament,  we  find  the  Creation 
completed  within  seven  days,  whereof  the  seventh  was  a  day  of  rest  kept 
sacred.  Every  seventh  year  was  sabbatical,  and  the  seven  times  seventh 
year  ushered  in  the  jubilee  year.  The  three  Regalim,  or  Pilgrim  fes- 
tivals (Passover,  Festival  of  Weeks,  and  Tabernacles),  lasted  seven  days; 
and  between  the  first  and  second  of  these  feasts  were  counted  seven 
weeks.  The  first  day  of  the  seventh  month  was  a  "  Holy  Convocation." 
The  L/evitical  purifications  lasted  seven  days,  and  the  same  space  of  time 
was  allotted  to  the  celebration  of  weddings  and  the  mourning  for  the  dead. 
In  innumerable  instances  in  the  Old  Testament  and  later  Jewish  writings 
the  number  is  used  as  a  kind  of  round  number.  In  the  Apocalypse  we 
have  the  churches,  candlesticks,  seals,  stars,  trumpets,  spirits,  all  to  the 
number  of  seven,  and  the  seven  horns  and  seven  eyes  of  the  Lamb.  The 
same  number  appears  again  either  divided  into  half  (3)4  years,  Rev.  xiii. 
5;  xi.  3,  xii.  6,  etc.),  or  multiplied  .by  ten — seventy  Israelites  go  to 
Egypt,  the  exile  lasts  seventy  years,  there  are  seventy  elders,  and  at  a 
later  period  there  are  supposed  to  be  seventy  languages  and  seventy 


MYSTIC  LETTERS  AND  NUMBERS.  319 

nations  upon  earth.  To  go.  back  to  the  earlier  documents,  we  find  in  a 
similar  way  the  dove  sent  out  the  second  time  seven  days  after  her  first 
mission,  Pharaoh's  dream  shows  him  twice  seven  kine,  twice  seven  ears 
of  corn,  etc. 

The  Seven  Churches  of  Rev.  i.-iii.  are  Ephesus,  Smyrna,  Pergamos, 
Thyatira,  Sardis,  Philadelphia  and  Laodicea.— The  Seven  Deadly  Sins 
are  pride,  covetousness,  lust,  anger,  gluttony,  envy  and  sloth. — The 
Seven  Principal  virtues  are  faith,  hope,  charity,  prudence,  temperance, 
chastity  and  fortitude. — The  Seven  Gifts  of  the  Holy  Ghost  are  wisdom, 
understanding,  counsel,  ghostly  strength  or  fortitude,  knowledge,  godli. 
ness  and  the  fear  of  the  Lord. 

Among  the  Greeks  the  seven  was  sacred  to  Apollo  and  to  Dionysus, 
who,  according  to  Orphic  legends,  was  torn  into  seven  pieces;  and  it 
was  particularly  sacred  in  Eubcea,  where  the  number  was  found  to  per- 
vade, as  it  were,  almost  every  sacred,  private  or  domestic  relation.  On 
the  many  ancient  speculations  which  connected  the  number  seven  with 
the  human  body  and  the  phases  of  its  gradual  development  and  forma- 
tion, its  critical  periods  of  sicknesses— partly  still  extant  as  supersti- 
tious notions — we  cannot  here  dwell.  The  Pythagoreans  made  much 
of  this  number,  giving  it  the  name  of  Athene,  Hermes,  Hephais- 
tos,  Heracles,  the  Virgin  unbegotten  and  unbegetting  (i.e.  not  to  be 
obtained  by  multiplication),  Dionysus,  Rex,  etc.  Many  usages  show 
the  importance  attached  to  this  number  in  the  eyes  not  only  of  ancient 
but  even  of  our  own  times,  and  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  add  that  the  same 
recurrence  is  found  in  the  folklore  of  every  race. 

Hippocrates  (B.C.  460-357)  divided  the  life  of  man  into  seven  ages,  a 
division  adopted  by  Shakspeare. 

The  Egyptian  rjriests  enjoined  rest  on  the  seventh  day,  because  it 
was  held  to  be  a  dies  infaustus.  In  Egyptian  astronomy  there  were 
seven  planets,  and  hence  seven  days  in  the  week,  each  day  ruled  by  its 
own  special  planet.  The  people  of 'Peru  had  also  a  seven-day  week. 

The  Persians  and  Mexicans  have  a  tradition  of  a  flood  from  which 
seven  persons  saved  themselves  in  a  cave,  and  by  whom  the  world  was 
subsequently  repeopled. 

The  Seven  Champions  of  Christendom  are  St.  George  for  England, 
St.  Andrew  for  Scotland,  St.  Patrick  for  Ireland,  St.  David  for  Wales, 
St.  Denis  for  France,  St.  James  for  Spain,  St.  Anthony  for  Italy. 


LESSONS  OF  THE  LETTERS. 

A  popular  magazine  writer  professes  to  have  discovered  that  our 
lives  would  surely  be  happy,  as  well  as  useful  and  meritorious,  if  we 
were  always  careful  to  avoid: 

The  incessant  round  of  idle  pleasures,  which  make  life  so— M.  T. 

That  undisciplined  spirit,  which  carries  everything  to — X.  S. 

Fixing  our  hearts  upon  aught  that  can  know — D.  K. 

Looking  upon  the  possessions  of  others  with — N.  V. 

Exulting  over  a  fallen — N.  M.  E. 

Shirking  all  the  difficult  duties  of  our  state,  and  fulfilling  only  those 
that  are— E.  Z. 

A  haughty,  repellant  manner,  which  may  be  alphabetically  de- 
scribed as — I.  C. 

Encumbering  our  souls  with  faults  which  we  shall,  either  here  or 
hereafter,  be  required  to— X.  P.  VIII. 


320  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

That  pride  which  leads  us  to  refuse  a  w.ork  in  which  we  are  not  sure 
we  shall— X.  L. 

That  porcupine  susceptibility  which  is  irritated  at — O. 

Discussing  topics  that  cause  the  strings  of  social  life  to — G.  R. 

Thinking  that  acquaintances  have  no  good  qualities,  because  at 
first  sight  we  don't— C.  N.  E. 

Being  gloomy  sometimes  as  though  life  were  an— L.  B.  G. 

If  our  readers  cannot  make  out  all  these  maxims  we  confess  we  can- 
not—C.  Y.  

A  FEW  CURIOUS  ANAGRAMS. 

The  anagram  is  a  word  or  words  formed  by  the  transposition  of  the 
letters  of  a  sentence  or  word:  e.g.,  live  becomes  the  Anagram  evil. 
Anagrams  were  in  use  among  the  ancient  Greeks,  Romans,  etc. ,  and 
many  that  have  been  recorded  are  curiously  suggestive.  Following  are 
a  few  of  the  historic  anagrams: 

CHARLES  JAMES  STUART,  (James  I.)  Claims  Arthur' s  Seat. 

DAME  ELEANOR  DAVIES  (prophetess  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.)  Never  so  mad  a 
la  die. 

HORATIO  NELSON.    Honor  est  a  Nilo. 

MARIE  TOUCHET  (mistress  of  Charles  IX  ).    Je  charme  tout  (made  by  Henri  IV.) 

Pilate's  question,  QUID  EST  VERITAS?  Est  vir  qui  adest. 

SIR  ROGER  CHARLES  DOUGHTY  TICHBORNE,  BARONET.  You  horrid  butcher, 
Orion  biggest  rascal  here. 

DOUGLAS  JERROLD:  Sure,  a  droll  dog. 

THOMAS  MOORE:  Homo  amor  est. 

EDGAR  ALLAN  POE:  A  long  peal,  read. 

JOHN  RUSKIN:  No  ink  rush. 

UNITED  STATES:  In  te  Deus  stat. 

JAMES  WATT:  Wait,  steam. 

WILLIAM  EWART  GLADSTONE:  A  man  to  wield  great  wills. 

WILLIAM  SHAKESPEARE:  /  ask  me  has  Will  a  peer. 


THREE  FOR  A   FINISH. 

The  line  of  kings  in  England  never  exceeds  three  reigns  without  in- 
terruption or  catastrophe. 

WILLIAM  L,  II.,  HENRY  I.  -A  usurper,  Stephen. 

HENRY  II.,  RICHARD  I. — A  usurper,  John. 

HENRY  III.,  EDWARD  I. — Edward  II.  murdered. 

EDWARD  III. — Richard  II.  deposed. 

HENRY  IV.,  V.,  VI. — Line  of  Lancaster  changed. 

EDWARD  IV.,  V.,  RICHARD  III. — Dynasty  changed. 

HENRY  VII.,  VIII.,  EDWARD  VI.— Lady  Jane  Grey. 

MARY,  ELIZABETH. — Dynasty  changed. 

JAMES  I.— Charles  I.  beheaded. 

CHARLES  II.— James  II.  dethroned. 

WILLIAM  III.,  ANNE.  — Dynasty  changed.  . 

GEORGE  L,  II.,  III.— Regency. 

GEORGE  IV.,  WILLIAM  IV.,  VICTORIA. — Indirect  successions. 

Except  in  one  case,  that  of  John,  England  has  never  had  a  great- 
grandchild as  sovereign  in  direct  descent. 


SEVEN  SLEEPERS. 

The  Seven  Sleepers  were  the  heroes  of  a  celebrated  legend,  which  is 
first  related  in  the  West  by  Gregory  of  Tours  in  the  close  of  the  sixth 
century,  but  the  date  of  which  is  assigned  to  the  third  century,  and  at 


MYSTIC  LETTERS  AND  NUMBERS.  321 

the  persecution  of  the  Christians  under  Decius.  According  to  the  story, 
during  the  flight  of  the  Christians  from  the  persecution,  seven  Christians 
of  Ephesus  took  refuge  in  a  cave  near  the  city,  where  they  were  discov- 
ered by  their  pursuers,  who  walled  up  the  entrance  in  order  to  starve 
them  to  death.  They  fell  instead  into  a  preternatural  sleep,  in  which 
they  lay  for  nearly  two  hundred  years.  This  is  supposed  to  have  taken 
place  in  250  or  251;  and  it  was  not  till  the  reign  of  Theodosius  II.  (447) 
that  they  awoke.  They  imagined  that  their  sleep  had  been  but  of  a 
single  night;  and  one  of  the  seven  went  secretly  into  the  city  to  purchase 
provisions,  and  he  was  amazed  to  see  the  cross  erected  on  the  churches 
and  other  buildings.  Offering  a  coin  of  Decius  in  a  baker's  shop  he  was 
arrested,  his  startling  story  not  being  believed  until  he  guided  the  citi- 
zens to  the  cavern  where  he  had  left  his  comrades.  The  emperor  heard 
from  their  lips  enough  to  convince  him  of  the  life  beyond  the  grave  of 
the  dead,  whereupon  they  sank  again  to  sleep  till  the  resurrection.  Greg- 
ory explains  that  his  story  is  of  Syrian  origin — it  is  widely  current  in 
the  East,  and  was  adopted  by  Mahommed,  who  even  admits  their  dog 
Kitmer  also  into  Paradise.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church  holds  their  fest- 
ival on  June  27. 

"I." 

I  am  not  in  youth,  nor  in  manhood  or  age, 

But  in  infancy  ever  am  known, 
I'm  a  stranger  alike  to  the  fool  and  the  sage, 
And  though  I'm  distinguished  on  history's  page, 

I  always  am  greatest  alone. 

I'm  not  in  the  earth,  nor  the  sun,  nor  the  moon; 

You  may  search  all  the  sky,  I'm  not  there: 
In  the  morning  and  evening,  though  not  in  the  noon, 
You  may  plainly  perceive  me,  for,  like  a  balloon, 

I  am  always  suspended  in  air. 

Though  disease  may  possess  me,  and  sickness,  and  pain, 

I  am  never  in  norrow  or  gloom, 
Though  in  wit  and  in  wisdom  I  equally  reign, 
I  am  the  heart  of  all  sin,  and  have  long  lived  in  vain, 

Yet  I  ne'er  shall  be  found  in  the  tomb. 


SOME    "LUCKY"    AND    "UNLUCKY"    NUMBERS. 

Harold's  day  was  October  14.  It  was  his  birthday,  and  also  the  day 
of  his  death.  William  the  Conqueror  was  born  on  the  same  day,  and, 
on  October  14,  1066,  won  England  by  conquest. 

October  7,  Rienzi's  foes  yielded  to  his  power. 

7  months  Rienzi  reigned  as  tribune. 

7  years  he  was  absent  in  exile. 

7  weeks  of  return  saw  him  without  an  enemy  (October  7). 

7  was  the  number  of  the  crowns  the  Roman  convents  and  Roman 
council  awarded  him. 

It  is  said  that  it  is  unlucky  for  thirteen  persons  to  sit  down  to  din- 
ner at  the  same  table,  because  one  of  the  number  will  die  before  the 
year  is  out.  This  silly  superstition  is  based  on  the  "Last  Supper,"  when 
Christ  and  His  twelve  disciples  sat  at  meat  together.  Jesus,  of  course, 
was  crucified,  and  Judas  Iscariot  hanged  himself. 

The  3rd  September  was  considered  by  Oliver  Cromwell  to  be  his  red- 
letter  day.  On  3rd  September,  1650,  he  won  the  battle  of  Dunbar;  on 
U.  I. -21 


322  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

3rd  September,  1651,  he  won  the  battle  of  Worcester;  and  on  3rd 
tember,  1658,  he  died.     It  is  not,  however,  true  that  he  was  born  on  3rd 
September,  as  many  affirm,  for  his  birthday  was  25th  April,  1599. 

In  British  dynasties  two  has  been  an  unlucky  number;  thus:  Eth- 
elred  II.  was  forced  to  abdicate;  Harold  II.  was  slain  at  Hastings;  Will- 
iam II.  was  shot  in  the  New  Forest;  Henry  II.  had  to  fight  for  his 
crown,  which  was  usurped  by  Stephen;  Edward  II.  was  murdered  at 
Berkeley  Castle;  Richard  II.  was  deposed;  Charles  II.  was  driven  into 
exile;  James  II.  was  obliged  to  abdicate;  George  II.  was  worsted  at 
Fontenoy  and  Lawfeld,  was  disgraced  by  General  Braddock  and  Admiral 
Byng,  and  was  troubled  by  Charles  Edward,  the  Young  Pretender. 

'  'Five, ' '  says  Pythagoras, '  'has  peculiar  force  in  expiations.  It  is  every- 
thing. It'stops  the  power  of  poisons,  and  is  redoubted  by  evil  spirits. 
Unity,  or  the  monad,  is  Deity,  or  the  first  cause  of  all  things— the  good 
principle.  Two,  or  the  dyad,  is  the  symbol  of  diversity— the  evil  prin- 
ciple. Three,  or  the  triad,  contains  the  mystery  of  mysteries,  for  every- 
thing is  composed  of  three  substances.  It  represents  God,  the  soul  of 
the  world,  and  the  spirit  of  man.  Five  is  2  -{-  3,  or  the  combination  of 
the  first  of  the  equals  and  the  first  of  the  unequals;  hence  also  the  com- 
bination of  the  good  and  evil  powers  of  nature." 

The  number  fourteen  plays  a  very  conspicuous  part  in  French  his- 
tory, especially  in  the  reigns  of  Henry  IV.  and  Louis  XIV.  For  ex- 
ample: 

14th  May,  1029,  the  first  Henri  was  consecrated,  and  14th  May,  1610,  the  last  Henri 
was  assassinated. 

14  letters  compose  the  name  of  Henri  di  Bourbon,  the  14th  king  of  France  and 

14th  December,  1553  (14  centuries,  14  decades  and  14  years  from  the  birth  of  Christ), 
Henri  IV.  was  born,  and  1553  added  together  =  14. 

14th  May,  1554,  Henri  II.  ordered  the  enlargement  of  the  Rue  de  la  Ferronnerie. 
This  order  was  carried  out,  and  4  times  14  years  later  Henri  IV.  was  assassinated  there. 

14th  May,  1552,  was  the  birth  of  Margaret  de  Valois,  first  wife  of  Henri  IV. 

14th  May,  1588,  the  Parisians  revolted  against  Henri  III.,  under  the  leadership  of 
Henri  de  Guise. 

14th  March,  1590,  Henri  IV.  gained  the  battle  of  Ivry. 

14th  May,  1590,  Henri  IV.  was  repulsed  from  the  faubourgs  of  Paris. 

14th  November,  1590,  "The  Sixteen"  took  oath  to  die  rather  than  serve  the  Huguenot 
king,  Henri  IV. 

14th  November,  1592,  the  Paris  parlement  registered  the  papal  bull  which  excluded 
Henri  IV.  from  reigning. 

14th  December,  1599,  the  duke  of  Savoy  was  reconciled  to  Henri  IV. 

14th  September,  1606,  the  dauphin  (Louis  XIII.),  son  of  Henri  IV.,  was  baptized. 

The  second  of  the  month  was  Louis  Napoleon's  day.  It  was  also 
one  of  the  days  of  his  uncle,  the  other  being  the  fifteenth. 

The  coup  d'ttat  was  December  2;  he  was  made  emperor  December  2, 
1852;  the  Franco-Prussian  war  opened  at  Saarbriick,  August  2,  1870;  he 
surrendered  his  sword  to  William  of  Prussia  September  2,  1870. 

Napoleon  I.  was  crowned  December  2,  1804;  and  the  victory  of  Aus- 
terlitz  was  December  2,  1805. 

THE  VOWELS. 

We  are  little  airy  creatures, 
All  of  different  voice  and  features; 
One  of  us  in  glass  is  set, 
One  of  us  you'll  find  in  jet, 
T'other  you  may  see  in  tin, 
And  the  fourth  a  box  within, 
If  the  fifth  you  should  pursue, 
It  can  never  fly  from  you. 


MYSTIC  LETTERS  AND  NUMBERS.  323 

MASTERPIECES  OF  ALLITERATION. 

The  frequent  recurrence  of  words  beginning  with  the  same  letters  is 
called  alliteration.  A  good  example  of  its  use  is  to  be  found  in  that 
famous  couplet  of  Churchill's: 

Who  often,  but  without  success,  had  prayed 
For  apt  alliteration's  artful  aid. 

The  Siege  of  Belgrade,  claimed  for  Alaric  A.  Watts,  is  probably  the 
best-known  alliterative  poem  in  the  English  language: 

An  Austrian  army,  awfully  arrayed, 

Boldly  by  battery,  besieged  Belgrade. 

Cossack  commanders,  cannonading  come, 

Dealing  destruction's  devastating  doom; 

Every  endeavor,  engineers  essay 

For  fame,  for  fortune,  forming  furious  fray. 

Gaunt  gunners  grapple,  giving  gashes  good 

Heaves  high  his  head  heroic  hardihood. 

Ibraham,  Islam,  Ismael,  imps  in  ill, 

Jostle  John  Jarovlitz,  Jem,  Joe,  Jack,  Jill: 

Kick  kindling  Kutusoff,  king's  kinsman  kill; 

lyabor  low  levels  loftiest  longest  lines; 

Men  march  'mid  moles,  'mid  mounds,  'mid  murderous  mines. 

Now  nightfall's  nigh,  now  needful  nature  nods. 

Opposed,  opposing,  overcoming  odds. 

Poor  peasants,  partly  purchased,  partly  pressed, 

Quite  quaking,  "Quarter!  Quarter!  "  quickly  quest. 

Reason  returns,  recalls  redundant  rage, 

Saves  sinking  soldiers,  softens  signiors  sage. 

Truce,  Turkey,  truce!  truce,  treacherous  Tartar  train! 

Unwise,  unjust,  unmerciful  Ukraine! 

Vanish,  vile  vengeance!  vanish,  victory  vain! 

Wisdom  wails  war— wails  warring  words.    What  were 

Xerxes,  Xantipp£,  Ximen£s,  Xavier? 

Yet  yassy's  youth,  ye  yield  your  youthful  yest. 

Zealously,  zanies,  zealously  zeal's  zest. 

Tusser  has  a  poem  on  "  Thriftiness, "  twelve  lines  in  length,  and  in 
rhyme,  every  word  of  which  begins  with  t  (died  1580).    Leon  Placentius, 
a  dominican,  wrote  a  poem  in  Latin  hexameters,  called  Pugna  Porcorum, 
253  stanzas  long,  every  word  of  which  begins  with  p  (died  1548). 
Here's  another  antique  specimen  : 

The  thrifty  that  teacheth  the  thriving  to  thrive, 

Teach  timely  to  traverse,  the  thing  that  thou  "trive, 

Transferring  thy  toiling,  to  timeliness  taught, 

This  teacheth  thee  temp' ranee,  to  temper  thy  thought. 

Take  Trusty  (to  trust  to)  that  thinkest  to  thee. 

That  trustily  thriftiness,  trowleth  to  thee. 

Then  temper  thy  travell,  to  tarry  the  tide; 

This  teacheth  thee  thriftiness,  twenty  times  tryed. 

Take  thankful  thy  talent,  thank  thankfully  those 

That  thriftily  teacheth  [?  teach  thee]  thy  time  to  transpose. 

Troth  twice  to  be  teached,  teach  twenty  times  ten, 

This  trade  that  thou  takest,  take  thrift  to  thee  then. 


EASY  SUMS  IN  ARITHMETIC. 

Take  15.  Multiply  that  by  itself,  then  multiply  the  product  by  it- 
self and  proceed  until  you  have  thus  multiplied  15  products  in  turn. — It 
has  been  said  that  it  will  take  twenty-five  years  to  solve  this  problem. 

"If  a  goose  weighs  ten  pounds  and  half  its  own  weight,  what  is  the 
weight  of  the  goose  ?' ' 

"A  snail  climbing  up  a  post  twenty  feet  high  ascends  five  feet  every 
day  and  slips  down  four  feet  every  night;  how  long  will  the  snail  take 
to  reach  the  top  of  the  post?' ' 


324  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

'A  wise  man  having  a  window  one  yard  high  and  one  yard  wide, 
requiring  more  light,  enlarged  his  window  to  twice  its  former  size;  yet 
the  window  was  still  only  one  yard  high  and  one  yard  wide.  How  was 
this  done?" 

All  the  products  of  nine  in  the  multiplication  come  to  nine.     Try  it. 

"Take  any  row  of  figures,  and  reversing  their  order,  make  a  sub- 
traction" of  the  latter  from  the  former,  "add  up  the  digits  of  the  re- 
mainder and  the  result  will  be  nine." 


HONORS  TO   FORTY. 

The  number  forty  is  very  prominent  in  Bible  and  Church  history: 

1.  It  rained  forty  days  and  forty  nights  in  the  Flood. — Gen.  vii.  12. 

2.  Moses  twice  fasted  for  forty  days  and  forty  nights. — Exod.  xxiv.  18,  etc. 

3.  The  spies  sent  to  Canaan  were  forty  days  in  searching  the  land.— Num.  xiii.  35. 

4.  The  Israelites  wandered  forty  years  in  the  wilderness. — Ps.  xcv.  10. 

5.  Goliath  defied  the  armies  of  Saul  for  forty  days.— 1  Sam.  xvii.  16. 

6.  Elijah  fasted  forty  days.— 1  Kings  xix.  8. 

7.  Ezekiel  bore  the  iniquities  of  the  house  of  Jacob  forty  days,  a  day  for  a  year. 

8.  Jonah  cried  to  the  Ninevites,"Yet  forty  days,  and  Nineveh  shall  be  overthrown." 
—Jonah  iii.  4. 

9.  Jesus  fasted  and  was  tempted  forty  days  in  the  wilderness.— Matt.  iv.  2. 

10.  Jesus  tarried  on  earth  forty  days  after  his  resurrection. — Acts  i.  3. 

11.  Jerusalem  was  destroyed  by  Titus  forty  years  after  the  Ascension. 

12.  According  to  Church  tradition,  Jesus  was  forty  hours  in  the  tomb. 

13.  The  I^enten  Fast  continues  for  forty  days,  from  Ash  Wednesday  to  Easter 
Sunday 

And  there  are  others. 

"H." 

'Twas  whispered  in  heaven,  'twas  muttered  in  hell, 

And  echo  caught  faintly  the  sound  as  it  fell ; 

Ou  the  confines  of  earth  'twas  permitted  to  rest, 

And  the  depths  of  the  ocean  its  presence  confessed; 

'Twill  be  found  in  the  sphere  when  'tis  riven  asunder, 

Be  seen  in  the  lightning,  and  heard  in  the  thunder. 

'Twas  allotted  to  man  with  his  earliest  breath, 

It  assists  at  his  birth  and  attends  him  in  death, 

Presides  o'er  his  happiness,  honor,  and  health, 

Is  the  prop  of  his  house  and  the  end  of  his  wealth, 

In  the  heaps  of  the  miser  'tis  hoarded  with  care, 

But  is  sure  to  be  lost  in  his  prodigal  heir. 

It  begins  every  hope,  every  wish  it  must  bound, 

It  prays  with  the  hermit,  with  monarchs  is  crowned; 

Without  it  the  soldier,  the  sailor,  may  roam, 

But  woe  to  the  wretch  who  expels  it  from  home. 

In  the  whisper  of  conscience  'tis  pure  to  be  found, 

Nor  e'en  in  the  whirlwind  of  passion  is  drowned; 

'Twill  soften  the  heart,  but,  though  deaf  to  the  ear, 

It  will  make  it  acutely  and  instantly  hear; 

But'in  short,  let  it  rest  like  a  delicate  flower. 

Oh,  breathe  on  it  softly,  it  dies  in  an  hour. 


CURIOUS  MISNOMERS. 

Arabic  figures  were  not  invented  by  the  Arabs,  but  by  the  early  schol- 
ars of  India. 

Cleopatra's  needles  were  not  erected  by  that  Queen,  neither  do  they 
commemorate  any  event  in  her  history.  They  were  set  up  by  Rameses 
the  Great. 

The  Jerusalem  artichoke  has  no  connection  whatever  with  the  holy 
city  of  the  Jews.  It  is  a  species  of  sunflower,  and  gets  its  name  from 
girasole,  one  of  the  scientific  names  of  that  genus  of  plants. 


MYSTIC  LETTERS  AND  NUMBERS.  325 

The  word  ' '  pen  ' '  means  a  feather  and  is  from  the  L,atin  penna,  a 
wing.  Surely  the  expression  "a  steel  pen"  could  be  improved  upon. 

Galvanized  iron  is  not  galvanized  at  all,  but  is  coated  with  zinc  by 
being  plunged  into  a  bath  of  that  metal  and  muriatic  acid. 

Pompey's  pillar  at  Alexandria  was  neither  erected  by  Pompey  nor 
to  his  memory. 

Common  table  salt  is  not  a  salt  and  has  long  since  been  excluded 
from  the  class  of  bodies  denominated  '  'salts. ' ' 

Rice  paper  is  not  made  from  either  rice  or  straw,  but  from  a  pithy 
plant  called  tungtsua,  found  in  China,  Corea  and  Japan. 

Brazil  grass  neither  comes  from  nor  grows  in  Brazil.  It  is  strips 
from  a  species  of  Cuban  palm. 

DESTINY   OF  THE    STUARTS. 

James  III.  was  killed  in  flight  near  Bannockburn,  1488. 

Mary  Stuart  was  beheaded  1588  (New  Style). 

James  II.  of  England  was  dethroned  1688. 

Charles  Edward  died  1788. 

*#*  James  Stuart,  the  "Old  Pretender,"  was  born  1688,  the  very 
year  that  his  father  abdicated. 

James  Stuart,  the  famous  architect,  died  1788. 

(Some  affirm  that  Robert  II.,  the  first  Stuart  king,  died  1388,  the 
year  of  the  great  battle  of  Otterburn;  but  the  death  of  this  king  is  more 
usually  fixed  in  the  spring  of  1390.) 

THE  LETTER   M. 

M  is  said  to  represent  the  human  face  without  the  two  eyes.  By 
adding  these,  we  get  O  m  p,  the  Latin  homo,  "  man."  Dante,  speaking 
effaces  gaunt  with  starvation,  says: 

Who  reads  the  name 
For  man  upon  his  forehead,  there  the  M 
Had  traced  most  plainly. 

This  letter  has  been  very  curiously  coupled  with  Napoleon  I.,  and  it 
is  interesting  to  note  its  relation  to  Napoleon  III. : 

MACMAHON,  duke  of  Magenta,  his  most  distinguished  marshal,  and,  after  a  few 
months,  succeeded  him  as  ruler  of  France  (1873-1879). 

MALAKOFF  (Duke  oj),  next  to  MacMahon  his  most  distinguished  marshal. 

MARIA  of  Portugal  was  the  lady  his  friends  wanted  him  to  marry,  but  he  refused  to 
do  so. 

MAXIMILIAN  and  Mexico,  his  evil  stars  (1864-1867). 

MENSCHIKOFF  was  the  Russian  general  defeated  at  the  battle  of  the  Alma  (Septem- 
ber 20,  1854). 

MICHAUD,  MTGNET,  MICHELET  and  MERIMEE  were  distinguished  historians  in  the 
reign  of  Napoleon  III. 

MOI.TKE  was  his  destiny. 

MONTHOLON  was  one  of  his  companions  in  the  escapade  at  Boulogne,  and  was  con- 
demned to  imprisonment  for  twenty  years. 

MONTIJO  (Countess  of),  his  wife.  Her  name  is  Marie  Eugenie,  and  his  son  was  born 
in  March;  so  was  the  son  of  Napoleon  I. 

MORNY,  his  greatest  friend. 

MAGENTA,  a  victory  won  by  him  (June  4,  1859). 

MALAKOFF.  Taking  the  Malakoff  tower  and  the  Mamelon-vert  were  the  great  ex- 
ploits of  the  Crimean  war  (September  8,  1855). 

MAMELON-VERT.     (See  above.) 

MANTUA.    He  turned  back  before  the  walls  of  Mantua  after  the  battle  of  the  Mincio. 

MARENGO.  Here  he  planned  his  first  battle  of  the  Italian  campaign,  but  it  was  not 
fought  till  after  those  of  Montebello  and  Magenta 

MAKIGNANO.     He  drove  the  Austrians  out  of  this  place. 

METZ.  the  "  maiden  fortress,"  was  one  of  the  most  important  sieges  and  losses  to  him 
in  the  Franco-Prussian  war. 


326  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

MILAN.    He  made  his  entrance  into  Milan,  and  drove  the  Austrians  out  of  Marignano. 
MINCIO  (The  battle  of  the),  called  also  Solferino,  a  great  victory.    Having  won  this,  he 

turned  back  at  the  walls  of  Mantua  (June  24,  1859). 
MONTEBELLO,  a  victory  won  by  him  (June,  1859). 

***  The  Mitrailleuse  was  to  win  him  Prussia,  but  it  lost  him  France. 
MARCH.    In  this  month  his  son  was  born;  he  was  deposed  by  the  National  Assembly, 

and  was  set  at  liberty  by  the  Prussians.    The  treaty  of  Paris  was  March  30,  1856. 

Savoy  and  Nice  were  annexed  in  March,  1860. 
MAY.    In  this  month  he  made  his  escape  from  Ham.    The  great  French  Exhibition 

was  opened  in  May,  1855. 

By  far  his  best  publication  is  his  "  Manual  of  Artillery." 


TRY  IT  AND  THEN  EXPLAIN. 

Take  any  printed  book  and  open  its  pages  at  random,  and  select  a 
word  within  the  first  ten  lines,  and  within  the  tenth  word  from  the  end 
of  the  line.  Mark  the  word.  Now  double  the  number  of  the  page,  and 
multiply  the  sum  by  5. 

Then  add  20. 

Then  add  the  number  of  the  line  you  have  selected. 

Then  add  5. 

Multiply  the  sum  by  10. 

Add  the  number  of  the  word  in  the  line.  From  this  sum  subtract 
250,  and  the  remainder  will  indicate  in  the  unit  column  the  number  of 
the  word  ;  in  the  ten  column  the  number  of  the  line,  and  the  remaining 
figures  the  number  of  the  page. 

THREE  TIMES  THREE. 

A  wonder  is  said  to  last  three  times  three  days.  The  scourge  used 
for  criminals  is  a  "cat  o'  nine  tails."  Possession  is  nine  points  of  the 
law,  being  equal  to  (1)  money  to  make  good  a  claim,  (2)  patience  to  carry 
a  suit  through,  (3)  a  good  cause,  (4)  a  good  lawyer,  (5)  a  good  'counsel, 
(6)  good  witnesses,  (7)  a  good  jury,  (8)  a  good  judge,  (9)  good  luck. 
Leases  used  to  be  granted  for  999  years.  Ordeals  by  fire  consisted  of 
three  times  three  red-hot  ploughshares. 

There  are  three  times  three  crowns  recognized  in  heraldry,  and  three 
times  three  marks  of  cadency. 

We  show  honor  by  a  three  times  three  in  drinking  a  health. 

The  worthies  are  three  Jews,  three  pagans  and  three  Christians: 
viz.:  Joshua,  David  and  Judas  Maccabaeus;  Hector,  Alexander,  and 
Julius  Caesar;  Arthur,  Charlemagne,  and  Godfrey  of  Bouillon. 

It  is  by  nines  that  Eastern  presents  are  given,  when  the  Orientals 
would  extend  their  magnificence  to  the  highest  degree. 

The  Etruscans  of  old  believed  in  the  omnipotence  of  nine  gods,  viz. : 
Juno,  Minerva  and  Tinia  (the  three  chief).  The  other  six  were  Vulcan, 
Mars,  Saturn,  Hercules,  Summanus  and  Vedius.  Thus: 

I^ars  Porsena  of  Clusium, 

By  the  nine  gods  he  swore 
That  the  great  house  of  Tarquin 

Should  suffer  wrong  no  more. 
By  the  nine  gods  he  swore  it, 

And  named  a  trysting  day.  .  .  . 

To  summon  his  array. 

— MACAULAY,  Lays  of  Ancient  Ronte. 


FAMOUS  PERSONS  AND  PLACES. 


Why  then  doth  flesh,  a  bubble-glass  of  breath, 
Hunt  after  honor  and  advancement  vain, 

And  rear  a  trophy  for  devouring  death, 

With  so  great  labor  and  long-lasting  pain- 
As  if  life's  days  forever  should  remain? 

—SPENSER. 

NAMES  THAT  ARE  NOTED. 

Cathay  was  the  ancient  name  for  China. 

Twickenham  is  famous  as  the  home  of  Pope. 

The  Sistine  Chapel  in  the  Vatican  was  built  in  1473. 

Andrew  Jackson  rode  to  his  inauguration  on  horseback. 

London  wall  defines  the  old  boundary  of  Roman  London. 

The  tide  in  the  Bay  of  Fundy  often  rises  as  high  as  seventy  feet. 

The  largest  cavern  in  the  world  is  the  Mammoth  Cave,  Kentucky. 

Oliver  Wendell  Holmes,  alone,  is  left  of  the  great  American  poets. 

Leland  Stanford  will  be  famous  for  the  noble  university  he  founded. 

J.  C.  Flood,  the  California  millionaire,  kept  a  saloon  in  San  Fran- 
cisco. 

P.  T.  Barnum  earned  a  salary  as  bartender  in  Niblo's  Theatre,  New 
York. 

Miller  (Hugh)  taught  himself  geology  while  working  as  a  mason 
(1802-1856). 

The  most  extensive  park  is  Deer  Park  in  Denmark.  It  contains 
4,200  acres. 

Jay  Gould  canvassed  Delaware  County,  New  York,  selling  maps  at 
$1.50  apiece. 

Chicago  is  little  more  than  fifty  years  old,  and  is  the  eighteenth  city 
of  the  world. 

Fleet  Street,  London,  was  once  a  swift-flowing  stream — now  converted 
into  a  sewer. 

The  deepest  rock  salt  bore  in  the  world  is  near  Berlin,  Prussia  ;  it  is 
4, 185  feet  deep. 

The  Italian  for  "beautiful  view,"  is  belvedere,  and  is  applied  to  a 
part  of  the  Vatican  in  Rome,  which  gives  its  name  to  the  famous  statue 
of  Apollo. 

327 


328  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION 

Bunyan  wrote  his  "  Pilgrim's  Progress"  while  confined  in  Bedford 
jail  (1628-1688). 

Cobbett  learned  grammar  in  the  waste  time  of  his  service  as  a  common 
soldier  (1762-1835). 

Alfred  the  Great  founded  Oxford  University  and  Charlemagne  the 
University  of  Paris. 

Bloomfield  composed  "The  Farmer's  Boy"  in  the  intervals  of  shoe- 
making  (1766-1823). 

Whitelaw  Reid  did  work  as  correspondent  of  a  Cincinnati  newspaper 
for  five  dollars  a  week. 

George  W.  Childs,  of  Philadelphia,  was  an  errand  boy  for  a  book- 
seller at  six  dollars  a  month. 

The  largest  park  in  the  United  States  is  Fairmount,  at  Philadelphia, 
and  contains  2,740  acres. 

Adam  Forepaugh  was  a  butcher  in  Philadelphia  when  he  decided  to 
go  into  the  show  business. 

It  was  in  Kiev  that  Christianity  was  first  planted  in  Russia.  Here 
is  the  cathedral  of  St.  Sophia. 

The  original  inhabitants  of  Wales  were  the  Cymri,  from  whom  the 
country  was  named  Cambria. 

With  different  environment  the  same  spirit  governed  those  typical 
Americans,  Curtis  and  Whittier. 

The  deepest  coal  mine  in  the  world  is  near  Tournai,  Belgium  ;  it  is 
3,542  feet  in  perpendicular  depth. 

The  deepest  hole  ever  bored  into  the  earth  is  the  artesian  well  at 
Potsdam,  which  is  5,500  feet  deep. 

Ferguson  taught  himself  astronomy  while  tending  sheep  in  the  serv- 
ice of  a  Scotch  farmer  (1710-1776). 

Btty  utilized  indefatigably  every  spare  moment  he  could  pick  up 
when  a  journeyman  printer  (1787-1849). 

Andrew  Carnegie,  the  iron  master,  did  his  first  work  in  a  Pittsburg 
telegraph  office  at  three  dollars  a  week. 

The  deepest  coal  mines  in  England  are  the  Dunkirk  collieries  of 
Lancashire,  which  are  2,824  feet  in  depth. 

The  "Man  With  the  Iron  Mask"  did  not  wear  a  mask  of  iron.  It 
was  of  black  velvet,  secured  by  steel  springs. 

The  highest  inhabited  place  in  the  world  is  the  custom-house  of 
Ancomarca  in  Peru,  16,000  feet  above  the  sea. 

The  foremost  American  critic  of  today— Edmund  Clarence  Stedman 
— is  a  banker,  who  makes  literary  work  his  pastime. 

The  highest  natural  bridge  in  the  world  is  at  Rockbridge,  Virginia, 
being  two  hundred  feet  high  to  the  bottom  of  the  arch. 

The  largest  empire  in  the  world  is  that  of  Great  Britain,  being  8, 557,- 
658  square  miles,  and  more  than  a  sixth  part  of  the  globe. 

Golden  Lane,  St.  Luke's,  London,  received  its  name  from  the  large 
number  of  goldsmiths  who  at  one  time  lived  in  that  vicinity. 

Baumann's  cavern  in  the  Harz  Mountains  consists  of  six  principal 
and  many  smaller  compartments  full  of  beautiful  stalactites. 


FAMOUS  PERSONS  AND  PLACES.  329 

The  "Weeping  Philosopher"  was  Heraclitus  of  Ephesus;  while 
Democritus  of  Abdera  was  called  the  "Laughing  Philosopher." 

The  longest  tunnel  in  the  world  is  St.  Gothard,  on  the  line  of  the 
railroad  between  Lucerne  and  Milan,  being  9j^  miles  in  length. 

The  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Kent  and  wife  of  the  Black  Prince — on 
account  of  her  great  beauty  was  called  "The  Fair  Maid  of  Kent." 

The  most  remarkable  echo  known  is  that  in  the  castle  of  Simonetta, 
two  miles  from  Milan.  It  repeats  the  echo  of  a  pistol  sixty  times. 

Franklin,  while  working  as  a  journeyman  printer,  produced  his 
' 'Dissertation  on  Liberty  and  Necessity,  Pleasure  and  Pain"  (1706-1790). 

The  loftiest  active  volcano  is  Popocatapetl.  It  is  17,784  feet  high, 
and  has  a  crater  three  miles  in  circumference  and  one  thousand  feet  deep. 

Carey,  the  missionary  and  Oriental  translator,  learned  the  rudiments 
of  Eastern  languages  while  employed  in  making  and  mending  shoes 
(1761-1834). 

The  Bridge  of  Sighs  at  Venice  has  no  romance  worthy  the  name. 
Most  of  the  unfortunates  who  cross  it  are  petty  thieves  who  are  sent  to 
the  workhouse. 

Thunderstorms  are  more  frequent  in  Java  than  in  any  other  part  of 
the  world,  there  being  an  average  of  ninety-seven  days  in  each  year  upon 
which  they  occur. 

Chiswick  is  the  home  of  William  Morris,  poet  and  aesthete,  and  is 
famous  for  its  market-gardens  and  as  the  seat  of  the  gardens  of  the  Hor- 
ticultural Society. 

The  electric  railway  has  penetrated  even  the  fastnesses  of  the  Tyro- 
lese  mountains,  a  road  twenty -seven  miles  long  being  projected  between 
Riva  and  Pinzolo. 

In  Bengal,  India,  there  are  three  harvests  reaped  every  year,  peas 
and  oil  seeds  in  April,  the  early  rice  crop  in  September  and  the  great  rice 
crop  in  December. 

The  maelstrom  is  not  a  whirlpool  which  sucks  ships  down  into  the 
depths  of  the  ocean.  It  is  an  eddy  which  in  fair  weather  can  be  crossed 
in  safety  by  any  vessel. 

The  city  of  Amsterdam,  Holland,  is  built  upon  piles  driven  into 
the  ground.  It  is  intersected  by  numerous  canals,  crossed  by  nearly 
three  hundred  bridges. 

The  deepest  perpendicular  mining  shaft  in  the  world  is  located  at 
Prizilram,  Bohemia.  It  is  a  lead  mine  ;  it  was  begun  in  1832.  In  Jan- 
uary, 1880,  it  was  3,280  feet  deep. 

Isabella  of  France,  wife  of  Edward  II.  of  England,  murdered  her 
husband  by  thrusting  a  red  hot  iron  into  his  bowels,  and  so  earned  the 
title,  "The  She- Wolf  of  France. " 

Donnybrook,  a  former  village  and  parish,  now  mostly  embraced  in 
the  borough  of  Dublin,  was  at  one  time  celebrated  for  a  fair  notorious 
for  fighting,  which  was  abolished  in  1855. 

The  first  circumnavigator  was  Magellan,  a  Portuguese,  who  sailed 
round  the  world  in  three  years  and  twenty-nine  days,  starting  in  1519. 
Amongst  others  were  Sir  Francis  Drake  (1577),  Cook  (1708),  Carteret 
(1766,)  and  Belcher  (1836). 


330  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

The  deepest  silver  mine  in  the  United  States  is  the  Yellow  Jacket, 
one  of  the  great  Comstock  system  at  Virginia  City,  Nev.  The  lower 
levels  are  2,700  feet  below  the  hoisting  works. 

John  Adams  was  eight  years  older  than  Jefferson.  Jefferson  was 
eight  years  older  than  Madison.  Madison  was  eight  years  older  than 
Monroe.  Monroe  was  eight  years  older  than  J.  Q.  Adams. 

Hong  Kong,  formerly  a  little  barren  island  at  the  mouth  of  the  Can- 
ton river,  in  China,  was  given  to  the  English  and  is  now  covered  with 
the  warehouses,  gardens  and  residences  of  wealthy  merchants. 

The  deepest  coal  shaft  in  the  United  States  is  located  at  Pottsville, 
Pa.  In  1890  it  had  reached  a  depth  of  1,576  feet.  From  this  great 
depth  four  hundred  cars,  holding  four  tons  each,  are  hoisted  daily. 

There  is  an  unknown  quantity  of  silver  in  the  bay  of  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
Brazil;  a  silver  mine,  in  fact,  of  comparatively  speaking  unlimited  dimen- 
sions, and  every  ship  that  drops  anchor  there  cuts  into  the  bed  of  ore. 

Gretna  Green  is  a  village  in  Dumfriesshire,  Scotland,  and  the  place 
where,  for  nearly  a  century,  runaway  couples  were  made  man  and  wife. 
These  irregular  marriages  were  discountenanced  by  law  in  the  year  1856. 

Charing  Cross  was  originally  a  London  suburb,  where  was  erected 
the  last  of  the  crosses  in  memory  of  Eleanor,  Queen  of  Edward  I.  The 
cross  was  destroyed  in  1647  but  a  new  one  was  placed  on  the  spot  in  1865. 

The  Bridge  of  Sighs  is  the  Bridge  in  Venice  which  connects  the  pal- 
ace of  the  doge  with  the  State  prison,  and  was  so  called  because  over  it 
prisoners  were  conveyed  from  the  judgment  hall  to  the  place  of  execu- 
tion. 

The  Maelstrom  is  a  whirlpool,  or  more  correctly  current,  between  the 
islands  of  Mosken  and  Moskenas,  two  of  the  Lofoden  Isles,  which  is  dan- 
gerous when  wind  and  tide  are  contrary.  Its  sound  is  heard  for  several 
miles. 

A  remarkable  rock  formation  is  located  on  a  high  peak  of  mountain 
about  five  miles  from  Agua  Caliente,  in  Arizona.  The  rock,  which 
measures  300  feet  high,  is  shaped  like  a  barrel  and  can  be  seen  for  miles 
distant. 

The  famous  chief  Black  Hawk,  of  the  Sac  and  Fox  Indians,  was 
born  in  1767.  He  joined  the  British  in  1812,  and  opposing  the  removal 
west  of  his  tribe,  fought  against  the  United  States  in  1831-32.  He  died 
in  1838. 

Clement  (Joseph)  son  of  a  poor  weaver,  was  brought  up  as  a  thatcher, 
but,  by  utilizing  his  waste  moments  in  self-education  and  work  of  skill, 
raised  himself  to  a  position  of  great  note,  giving  employment  to  thirty 
workmen  (1779-1844). 

The  Champ  de  Mars  is  an  open  space  in  Paris,  surrounded  by  arti- 
ficial embankments.  The  Franks  held  their  annual  assemblies  here  in 
the  month  of  March,  Mars.  Here  a  constitution  was  sworn  to  before 
Napoleon  I.,  May  1,  1805,  and  other  noted  gatherings  were  held  on  the 
spot. 

The  cinque  ports  were  the  five  great  English  ports  on  the  coast  of 
Kent  and  Sussex  lying  opposite  to  France — Sandwich,  Dover,  Hythe, 
Romney  and  Hastings.  They  were  of  high  importance  in  Anglo-Saxon 
times  and  were  made  a  separate  jurisdiction,  for  insular  defence,  by 
William  I. 


FAMOUS  PERSONS  AND  PLACES.  331 

The  city  of  Ghent,  Belgium,  stands  on  26  islands,  connected  with 
each  other  by  80  bridges.  The  city  of  Venice  is  built  on  80  islands,  con- 
nected by  nearly  400  bridges.  In  Venice  canals  serve  for  streets  and 
gondolas  for  carriages. 

"Vaticanus  Mons"  is  a  hill  at  Rome,  chiefly  noted  for  its  magnifi- 
cent palace  of  the  popes,  the  Vatican,  with  its  superb  gardens,  its  mu- 
seums, celebrated  library,  and  basilica  of  St.  Peter.  The  palace  was 
constructed  in  498,  but  has  been  often  enlarged. 

How  Anglesey  obtained  its  name  is  quaintly  told  by  the  "chronicler" : 
Edwin  King  of  Northumberland,  "warred  with  them  that  dwelt  in  the 
Isle  of  Mona,  and  they  became  his  servants,  and  the  island  was  no  longer 
called  Mona,  but  Anglesey,  the  isle  of  the  English." 

Thomas  Chatterton,  "the  marvelous  boy,"  was  a  literary  impostor. 
He  began  in  1768  to  produce  poems  which  he  pretended  to  be  from  the 
pen  of  Thomas  Rowley,  a  monk  of  the  fifteenth  century.  Chatterton 
was  born  at  Bristol,  and  committed  suicide  (1752-1771). 

Chillon  is  a  celebrated  castle  of  Switzerland,  at  the  eastern  end  of 
the  Lake  of  Geneva.  It  stands  on  an  isolated  rock,  and  long  served  as  a 
state  prison.  Here  for  six  years  (1530-36)  Bonnivard  endured  the  captiv- 
ity immortalized  by  Byron's  "Prisoner  of  Chillon"  (1821). 

Calaveras  Grove  in  California  is  noted  for  its  immense  trees.  Of 
92  redwood  trees  there  are  10  over  30  feet  in  diameter,  and  82  have  a 
diameter  of  from  15  to  30  feet.  Their  ages  are  estimated  at  from  1000 
to  3500  years.  Their  height  ranges  from  150  to  237  feet. 

A  famous  old  ruin  is  Blarney  Castle,  near  Cork,  Ireland,  in  the  wall  of 
which  is  a  stone,  difficult  of  access,  that  is  said  to  endow  the  one  kissing 
it  with  the  power  of  cajolery.  In  general  Blarney  is  a  colloquial  term 
applied  to  any  smooth  and  excessively  complimentary  talk. 

Haroun-al-Raschid,  the  caliph  of  the  Abbasside  race,  was  contem- 
porary with  Charlemagne,  and,  like  him,  a  patron  of  literature  and  the 
arts.  The  court  of  this  caliph  was  most  splendid,  and  under  him  the 
caliphate  attained  its  greatest  degree  of  prosperity  (765-809). 

There  is  a  point  near  the  famous  Stony  cave,  in  the  Catskill  moun- 
tains, where  ice  may  be  found  on  any  day  in  the  year.  This  locality  is 
locally  known  as  the  Notch,  and  is  walled  in  on  all  sides  by  steep  moun- 
tains, some  of  which  are  more  than  three  thousand  feet  high. 

In  Hawaii,  one  of  the  Sandwich  islands,  there  is  a  spot  called  the 
Rock  of  Refuge.  If  a  criminal  reaches  this  rock  before  capture  he  is  safe 
so  long  as  he  remains  there.  Usually  his  family  supply  him  with  food 
until  he  is  able  to  make  his  escape,  but  he  is  never  allowed  to  return  to 
his  own  tribe. 

The  "Iron  Chancellor"  was  the  name  applied  to  Prince  Otto  von 
Bismarck,  of  Prussia  (1813),  Chancellor  of  the  North  German  Confedera- 
tion, July  14,  1867.  He  retired  from  public  life  in  1890.  He  was  also 
known  as  "The  Man  of  Blood  and  Iron,"  from  an  expression  in  one  of 
his  speeches. 

Mount  Vernon,  memorable  as  the  residence  and  the  burial-place 
of  George  Washington,  is  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Potomac,  in  Vir- 
ginia, fifteen  miles  below  Washington.  In  1856  the  mansion  and 
surrounding  property  were  saved  from  the  auctioneer's  hammer  and 
secured  as  a  national  possession. 


332  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

The  island  of  St.  Helena,  where  Napoleon  was  held  a  prisoner,  has 
an  area  of  forty-seven  square  miles.  Its  population  is  more  than  4,000, 
but  200  emigrants  leave  it  annually.  The  whale  fisheries  there  are  under 
American  management  and  amount  to  about  $90,000  a  year. 

The  Lunatic  oil  spring  of  Wheeler  Canyon,  Cal.,  at  the  time  of  a 
new  moon  begins  to  flow  oil.  When  the  moon  is  at  its  full  the  spring 
yields  three  barrels  of  oil  a  day.  The  quantity  decreases  with  the  waning 
of  the  moon,  and  ceases  when  the  moon's  last  quarter  is  past. 

Among  the  noted  pseudonyms  of  history  Cid  Campeador  is  the  name, 
or  rather  names,  by  which  the  most  renewed  Spanish  warrior  of  the 
eleventh  century  is  best  known.  He  was  a  Castilian  noble,  whose  real 
name  was  Rodrigo,  and  was  ancester  of  the  royal  house  of  Castile. 

Covent  Garden,  originally  the  garden  of  the  Abbot  of  Westminster, 
is  a  spacious  square  in  London,  celebrated  for  a  great  market  held  within 
it  of  fruit,  vegetables  and  flowers.  The  square  was  formed  about  1631 
and  is  famous  from  its  connection  with  the  modern  history  of  London. 

The  covered  passage-way  which  connects  the  palace  of  the  doge  in 
Venice  with  the  State  prisons  has  been  called  "the  Bridge  of  Sighs," 
because  the  condemned  passed  over  it  from  the  judgment  hall  to  the 
place  of  execution.  Hood  has  a  poem  called  "  The  Bridge  of  Sighs." 

Delft,  one  of  the  most  ancient  towns  of  South  Holland,  is  situated 
on  the  Schie,  eight  miles  NW.  of  Rotterdam  by  rail,  and  is  intersected  by 
numerous  canals.  Delft  was  noted  from  the  sixteenth  to  the  eighteenth 
century  for  its  delft-ware,  but  has  now  entirely  lost  its  high  reputation 
for  this  manufacture. 

Threadneedle  street,  in  the  city  of  London,  got  its  name  from  the 
Merchant  Tailors'  Company,  whose  present  hall  is  built  on  an  estate 
acquired  by  them  as  early  as  1331.  It  leads  from  Bishopsgate  street  to 
the  Bank  of  Kngland,  which  hence  is  often  called  the  "Old  Lady  in 
Threadneedle  Street." 

Abydos  is  a  town  of  Asia  Minor,  situated  on  the  Hellespont.  Tradi- 
tion places  here  the  story  of  Hero  and  Leander;  history  tells  that  this 
was  where  Xerxes  led  his  vast  army  over  the  Hellespont  on  a  bridge  of 
boats;  and  Byron  here  swam  the  Hellespont  and  rendered  it  ever  famous 
by  his  "Bride  of  Abydos." 

D'Aguesseau,  the  great  French  chancellor,  observing  that  Mme. 
D'Aguesseau  always  delayed  ten  or  twelve  minutes  before  she  came  down 
to  dinner,  began  and  completed  a  learned  book  of  three  volumes  (large 
quarto)  solely  during  these  "waste  minutes."  This  work  went  through 
several  editions  (1668-1751). 

The  Straits  of  Babelmandeb,  the  passage  from  the  Persian  Gulf  into 
the  Red  Sea,  are  called  the  Gate  of  Tears  by  the  Arabs.  The  channel  is 
only  about  twenty  miles  wide,  is  rocky  and  very  dangerous  for  passage 
in  rough  weather.  It  received  its  melancholy  name  from  the  number  of 
shipwrecks  that  occurred  there. 

Spanish  Main  (i.e.,  main-land),  a  name  given  to  the  north  coast  of 
South  America,  from  the  Orinoco  to  Darien,  and  to  the  shores  of  the 
former  Central  American  provinces  of  Spain  contiguous  to  the  Caribbean 
Sea.  The  name,  however,  is  often  popularly  applied  to  the  Caribbean 
Sea  itself,  and  in  this  sense  occurs  frequently  in  connection  with  the 
buccaneers, 


FAMOUS  PERSONS  AND  PLACES.  333 

The  convivial  Toby  Fillpot  was  a  thirsty  old  soul,  who  ' 'among  jolly 
topers  bore  off  the  bell."  It  chanced  as  in  dog-days  he  sat  boosing  in 
his  arbor,  that  he  died  "full  as  big  as  a  Dorchester  butt."  His  body 
turned  to  clay,  and  out  of  the  clay  a  brown  jug  was  made,  sacred  to 
friendship,  mirth,  and  mild  ale. 

Charles  XII.  of  Sweden  (1697-1710)  was  known  as  the  "brilliant 
madman."  He  compelled  the  Danes  to  make  peace,  dethroned  the 
king  of  Poland  and  waged  war  with  Russia  for  a  time  with  success;  but, 
being  defeated  by  Czar  Peter  the  Great  at  Pultowa,  Sweden  fell  from  her 
high  estate  as  a  first-class  power. 

The  Falls  of  Niagara  eat  back  the  cliff  at  the  rate  of  about  one  foot 
a  year.  In  this  way  a  deep  cleft  has  been  cut  right  back  from  Queens- 
town,  for  a  distance  of  seven  miles,  to  the  place  where  the  falls  now  are. 
At  this  rate  it  has  taken  more  than  thirty-five  thousand  years  for  that 
channel  of  seven  miles  to  be  made. 

The  most  extensive  mines  in  the  world  are  those  of  Freyburg, 
Saxony.  They  were  begun  in  the  twelfth  century,  and  in  1835  the  gall- 
eries, taken  collectively,  had  reached  the  unprecedented  length  of  123 
miles.  A  new  gallery,  begun  in  1838,  had  reached  a  length  of  eight 
miles  at  the  time  of  the  census  of  1878. 

The  Vendotne  Column  in  Paris  was  erected  by  Napoleon  I.  (1806), 
in  the  Place  Vendome,  to  commemorate  his  successful  campaign-  in 
Germany;  pulled  down  by  the  Communists  (1871),  but  restored  by  the 
National  Assembly  (1874).  It  is  one  hundred  and  thirty-two  feet  high, 
with  a  statue  of  Napoleon  I.  at  the  top. 

The  Alhambra  is  a  palace  and  fortress  of  the  Moors,  founded  about 
1253  by  Mohammed  I.  Celebrated  as  the  palace  of  the  kings  of  Granada, 
its  two  courts,  that  of  the  Myrtles  and  that  of  the  Lions,  are  beautiful 
examples  of  Arabian  art  in  Spain.  The  Alhambra  was  surrendered  to 
the  Christians  by  the  Moors  about  1491. 

In  1818,  Captain  John  Cleves  Symmes  propounded  the  theory  that 
the  earth  is  a  hollow  sphere,  habitable  within,  and  open  at  the  poles  for 
the  admission  of  light,  containing  within  six  or  seven  concentric  hollow 
spheres,  also  open  at  the  poles.  This  theory  in  ridicule  has  always  been 
spoken  of  as  Symmes'  or  Symmes' s  Hole. 

Burritt  (Elihu;  made  himself  acquainted  with  ten  languages  while 
plying  his  trade  as  a  village  blacksmith  (Hebrew,  Greek,  Syriac,  Spanish, 
Bohemian,  Polish,  Danish,  Persian,  Turkish  and  Ethiopic).  His  father 
was  a  village  cobbler,  and  Elihu  had  only  six  months'  education,  and 
that  at  the  school  of  his  brother  (1811-1879). 

The  Crystal  Palace  on  Sydenham  Hill,  London,  is  composed  of  the 
greater  part  of  the  buildings  used  for  the  Great  Exhibition  of  1851.  It 
was  opened  by  the  Queen,  June  10,  1854.  There  is  another  crystal 
palace  in  New  York  City  which  was  erected  on  Reservoir  Square,  July  14, 
1853,  as  a  universal  industrial  exhibition.  This  was  destroyed  by  fire 
October  5,  1858. 

The  famous  French  stronghold,  the  Bastille,  was  originally  built  by 
Charles  V.  as  a  chateau,  in  1369.  The  high  wall  around  it  was  subse- 
quently erected  by  Philippe-Auguste.  Louis  XI.  first  used  it  as  a  State 
prison,  and  it  was  eventually  demolished  by  the  people  during  the  Revo- 
lution, July  14,  1789.  The  "Man  in  the  Iron  Mask"  was  imprisoned 
there,  and  died  in  1703. 


334  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

The  Rubicon  is  a  river  of  Italy,  flowing  into  the  Adriatic,  which 
formed  the  boundary  between  Cisalpine  Gaul  and  Italy  proper.  The  pas- 
sage of  this  river  by  Julius  Caesar  was  necessarily  the  signal  for  civil  war, 
the  issue  of  which  could  not  be  foreseen,  as  Roman  generals  were  forbid- 
den to  cross  this  river  at  the  head  of  an  army. 

The  Smithsonian  Institution  is  the  name  of  a  celebrated  Institution  in 
Washington,  D.  C.,  founded  (1846)  for  the  encouragement  of  scientific 
research  and  the  diffusion  of  scientific  knowledge,  under  the  will  of 
James  Smithson  (natural  son  of  the  third  Duke  of  Northumberland), 
who  bequeathed  over  $500,000  for  this  purpose. 

The  highest  summit  of  the  Harz  mountains  in  Prussian  Saxony  is 
called  the  Brocken.  It  occupies  an  important  place  in  the  folklore  of 
North  Germany.  Here  annually  assemble  the  witches  on  Walpurgis 
night  to  hold  their  revels  on  its  summit.  It  is  also  interesting  for  the 
phenomenon  known  as  the  "Spectre  of  the  Brocken." 

Corso  is  an  Italian  word  used  to  express  not  only  the  racing  of  rider- 
less horses,  but  also  the  slow  driving  in  procession  of  handsome  equip- 
ages through  the  principal  streets  of  a  town,  such  as  almost  always  takes 
place  in  Italy  on  festivals.  Hence  the  name  has  been  applied  to  many 
such  Italian  thoroughfares,  notably  the  Corso  in  Rome. 

The  population  of  Chicago  in  1830,  was  70;  1840,  4,853;  1845,  12,088; 
1850,  29,963;  1855,  60,227;  1860,  112,172;  1865,  178,900;  1870,  298,977;  1872, 
364,377;  1880,503,185;  1884  (estimated),  675,000;  1885  (estimated),  727,- 
000;  1886  (estimated),  750,000;  1887  (estimated),  760,000;  1889  (estimated), 
1,000,000;  1890,  1,099,133;  1892  (school  census),  1,438,010. 

The  Ghetto  is  the  Jews'  quarter  in  Italian  cities,  to  which  they  used 
to  be  strictly  confined.  The  ghetto  of  Rome,  instituted  in  1556  by  Pope 
Paul  IV.,  was  removed  in  1885  and  following  years,  its  demolition  hav- 
ing been  rendered  necessary  by  the  new  Tiber  embankment.  The  term 
is  also  employed  to  indicate  the  Jews'  quarters  in  any  city. 

Croesus,  the  last  king  of  Lydia,  succeeded  his  father,  Alyattes,  in 
560  B.C.  He  made  the  Greeks  of  Asia  Minor  his  tributaries,  and  ex- 
tended his  kingdom  eastward  from  the  ^Egean  to  the  Halys.  From  his 
conquests,  his  mines  and  the  golden  sand  of  the  Pactolus  he  accumu- 
lated so  much  treasure  that  his  wealth  has  become  a  proverb. 

Temple  Bar  is  the  name  of  a  London  gateway  which  formerly  stood 
at  the  junction  of  Fleet  street  and  the  Strand.  It  was  rebuilt  by  Sir 
Christopher  Wren  in  1672-73;  was  removed,  having  become  an  obstruc- 
tion in  1878-79,  and  was  re-erected  at  Theobald's  Park,  near  Chestnut,  in 
1888.  The  memorial  which  marks  the  site  was  erected  in  1880. 

The  fair  of  Nijni-Novgorod  is  the  greatest  in  the  world,  the  value  of 

foods  sold  being  as  follows:      1841,  $35.000,000;  1857,  $60,000,000;  1876, 
140,000,000;  the  attendance  in  the  last  named  year  including  150,000 
merchants  from  all  parts  of  the  world.      In  that  of  Leipsic  the  annual 
average  of  sales  is  $20,000,000,  comprising  20,000  tons  of  merchandise,  of 
which  two-fifths  is  books. 

Kara  George  Petrovitsch,  known  as  Black  George,  of  Servia,  was  a 
Servian  peasant  who,  in  1804,  revolted  against  the  Porte.  Having  de- 
feated several  armies  sent  against  him,  in  1807  he  took  Belgrade,  and 
formed  a  military  government  in  Servia.  In  1811,  Turkey  acknowledged 
him  "  hospodar  of  Servia,"  but,  in  1814,  the  Turks  recovered  the  country, 
Black  George  fled  to  Austria,  was  imprisoned,  and  died. 


FAMOUS  PE&SONS  AND  PLACES.  335 

Caledonia  is  the  name  given  by  the  Romans  to  that  part  of  Scotland 
lying  between  the  Forth  and  the  Clyde;  so  called  from  the  tribe  of  Cale- 
donii.  The  name  disappears  in  the  fourth  century,  and  the  people  of 
Scotland  began  to  be  called  Picts  (to  the  east)  and  Scots  (to  the  west). 
In  more  modern  times  Caledonia  is  a  poetical  name  for  Scotland. 

Delphi  was  an  ancient  northern  Greek  town,  celebrated  for  the 
oracles  pronounced  by  the  Pythian  priestess  in  the  temple  of  Apollo. 
The  oracle  was  known  as  early  as  900  B.  c. ,  and  the  temple  became  the 
repository  of  immense  treasures.  It  was  plundered  by  the  Phocians  and 
Nero,  the  latter  taking  away  three  hundred  costly  statues  in  67  A.  D. 

Alsatia  is  a  cant  name  applied  to  the  precinct  of  Whitefriars,  which, 
until  1697,  enjoyed  the  privilege  of  a  debtors'  sanctuary,  and  hence  was 
crowded  with  swindlers  and  bullies.  The  name  is  first  met  with  in  1623, 
and  we  have  Shadwell's  comedy,  "The  Squire  of  Alsatia"  (1688),  Scott's 
authority  for  some  of  the  finest  scenes  in  the  "  Fortunes  of  Nigel." 

Jack  Cade  was  the  ringleader  of  the  insurrection  that  broke  out  in 
Kent,  1450.  He  was  an  Irishman,  and  called  himself  Mortimer,  claim- 
ing to  be  a  natural  son  of  the  Duke  of  York.  He  marched  to  London 
at  the  head  of  twenty  thousand  armed  men,  who  encamped  at  Black- 
heath,  June  1,  1450.  Being  slain  by  Alexander  Iden,  July  11,  his  head 
was  stuck  on  London  Bridge. 

The  name  "Ironsides,"  was  popularly  applied  to  the  regiment  of  a 
thousand  horse,  which  Cromwell  raised  mainly  in  the  eastern  counties 
for  service  against  King  Charles  I.  early  in  the  great  Civil  War.  The 
name,  already  given  for  his  bravery  to  an  English  king,  Edmund,  was 
first  attached  to  Cromwell  himself,  but  passed  easily  to  the  men  at  whose 
head  he  first  appeared  at  Edgehill. 

Karl  Friedrich  Hieronymus,  Baron  von  Miinchhausen,  was  a  mem- 
ber of  an  ancient,  noble  family  of  Hanover,  whose  name  has  become 
proverbial  as  the  narrator  of  false  and  ridiculously  exaggerated  exploits 
and  adventures.  He  was  born  May  11,  1720,  at  Bodenwerder,  in  Han- 
over, served  as  a  cavalry  officer  in  Russian  campaigns  against  the  Turks, 
and  died  at  his  birthplace,  February  22,  1797. 

Dismal  Swamp,  measuring  thirty  miles  from  north  to  south  by  ten 
in  breadth,  lies  chiefly  in  Virginia,  but  partly  in  North  Carolina.  In 
the  center  is  Lake  Drummond,  about  six  miles  broad;  elsewhere  its 
dense  growth  of  cypress  and  cedar  has  been  greatly  thinned,  and  part  of 
the  region  has  been  reclaimed.  The  tract  is  intersected  by  a  canal  con- 
necting Chesapeake  Bay  and  Albemarle  Sound. 

Alloway,  Burns'  birthplace,  and  the  scene  of  his  "Tarn  o'  Shanter," 
lies  on  the  right  bank  of  the  "  bonny  Doon,"  two  miles  south  of  the  town 
of  Ayr.  The  "auld  clay  biggin,"  in  which  the  poet  was  born  on  23d 
January,  1759,  was  in  1880  converted  into  a  Burns  Museum.  The 
"  haunted  kirk  "  still  stands,  a  roofless  ruin,  near  the  "Auld  Brig;  "  and 
hard  by  is  the  Burns  Monument  erected  in  1820. 

The  subject  of  the  famous  song  "Annie  Laurie"  was  the  eldest  of 
the  three  daughters  of  Sir  Robert  Laurie,  of  Maxwelton.  In  1709  she 
married  James  Fergusson,  of  Craigdarroch,  and  was  the  mother  of 
Alexander  Fergusson,  the  hero  of  Burn's  song,  "The  Whistle."  The 
song  of  "  Annie  Laurie  "  was  written  by  William  Douglas,  of  Finland, 
in  the  stewardry  of  Kirkcudbright,  hero  of  the  song  "Willie  was  a 
Wanton 


336  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

In  Java  the  "Valley  of  the  Upas  Tree"  is  sometimes  called  the 
" Valley  of  Death,"  and  its  deadly  influence  was  formerly  ascribed  to 
the  malignant  properties  of  a  peculiar  vegetable  production  of  the  island, 
called  the  "upas  tree,"  which  especially  flourishes  in  this  locality. 
Recent  travelers,  however,  declare  that  accounts  of  the  fatality  attending 
a  passage  of  this  famous  valley  have  been  greatly  exaggerated. 

Crispinos  and  Crispianus  were  two  brothers,  born  at  Rome,  from 
which  place  they  traveled  to  Soissons,  in  France  (about  A.D.  303),  to 
propagate  the  gospel,  and  worked  as  shoemakers,  that  they  might  not 
be  chargeable  to  any  one.  The  governor  of  the  town  ordered  them  to 
be  beheaded  the  very  year  of  their  arrival,  and  they  were  made  the  tute- 
lary saints  of  the  "gentle  craft."  St.  Crispin's  Day  is  October  25. 

The  nine  worthies  is  the  title  given  to  the  following  eminent  men: 
Jews:  Joshua  (1426  B.C.),  David  (1015  B.C.),  Judas  Maccabaeus  (161  B.C.); 
Heathens:  Hector  of  Troy  (1184  B.C.),  Alexander  the  Great  (323  B.C.), 
Julius  Caesar  (44  B.C.);  Christians:  King  Arthur  of  Britain  (542  A.D.), 
Charlemagne  of  France  (814  A.D.),. Godfrey  of  Bouillon  (1100  A.D.).  In 
some  lists  Gideon  and  Samson  are  introduced,  and  in  others  Hercules 
and  Pompey. 

San  Marino,  in  Italy,  on  the  coast  of  the  Adriatic  Sea,  is  the  oldest 
Republic  in  the  world.  It  is,  next  to  Monaco,  the  smallest  State  in 
Europe.  The  exact  date  of  the  establishment  of  this  Republic  is  not 
known,  but  according  to  tradition  it  was  in  the  fourth  century,  by 
Marinus,  a  Dalmatian  hermit,  and  has  ever  since  remained  independent. 
It  is  mountainous  and  contains  four  or  five  villages.  The  word  "liberty" 
is  inscribed  on  its  capitol. 

The  Tuileries  is  the  name  of  a  garden  and  palace  in  Paris,  built  on 
the  site  of  an  ancient  fabrique  de  tuiles.  It  was  composed  of  three  great 
pavilions,  called  Le  pavilion  de  Marsan  (north),  the  pavilion  de  Fldre 
(south),  and  the  pavilion  de  VHorloge  (center).  It  was  joined  to  the 
Louvre  by  Napoleon  III.  (1851-6).  The  land  was  bought  by  Francois  I. 
in  1564,  and  the  original  palace  was  made  for  Catherine  de  Medicis  after 
the  design  of  Philibert  Delorme. 

Since  1811  Ajaccio  has  been  the  capital  of  Corsica.  It  has  a  fine  ca- 
thedral, completed  in  1585,  and  a  spacious  harbor,  protected  by  a  citadel; 
but  its  special  interest  is  as  the  birthplace  of  Napoleon.  There  is  a  statue 
of  him  as  First  Consul  (1850),  and  a  monument  of  the  emperor  on  horse- 
back, surrounded  by  his  four  brothers  (1865).  The  house  of  the  Bona- 
partes,  the  "Casa  Bonaparte"  is  now  national  property.  The  chief  em- 
ployments are  the  anchovy  and  pearl  fisheries,  and  the  trade  in  wine  and 
olive-oil,  which  the  neighborhood  produces  in  abundance,  and  of  good 
quality.  Of  late  years  Ajaccio  has  become  a  winter  resort  for  consump- 
tive patients. 

The  familiar  name  Bedlam  is  a  corruption  of  Bethlehem,  formerly  a 
hospital  founded  by  Simon  Fitz-Mary  in  Bishopsgate  Street  Without,  Lon- 
don, in  1246,  as  "a  privy  of  canons,  with  brethren  and  sisters."  When 
the  religious  houses  were  suppressed  by  Henry  VIII.  the  corporation 
converted  it  into  a  lunatic  asylum  for  six  lunatics,  but  in  1641,  the  funds 
being  insufficient,  partly  convalescent  patients  were  turned  out  to  beg, 
and  wore  a  badge.  These  were  the  '•  Bedlam  Beggars,"  generally  called 
"Tom-o' -Bedlams."  In  1675  the  old  building  was  taken  down  and  a 
new  one  was  erected  in  Moorfields.  In  1814  this  building  was  also 
pulled  down,  and  a  new  hospital  built  in  St.  George's  Fields. 


FAMOUS  PERSONS  AND  PLACES,  337 

Bramah  ( Joseph),  a  peasant's  son,  occupied  his  spare  time  when  a 
mere  boy  in  making  musical  instruments,  aided  by  the  village  black- 
smith. At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  hurt  his  ankle  while  plowing,  and  em- 
ployed his  time  while  confined  to  the  house  in  carving  and  making  wood- 
wares.  In  another  forced  leisure  from  a  severe  fall  he  employed  his 
time  in  contriving  and  making  useful  inventions,  which  ultimately  led 
him  to  fame  and  fortune  (1749-1814). 

Among  the  noted  club-rooms  of  the  eighteenth  century  was  Almack's. 
It  was  a  suite  of  assembly  rooms,  built  in  1765  in  King  street,  St.  James', 
London,  by  a  tavern-keeper  named  M'Call,  who  inverted  the  two  sylla- 
bles of  his  name,  Mac-call,  into  Allmack,  or  Almack.  The  rooms 
became  famous  for  fashionable  balls  under  the  management  of  a  com- 
mitee  of  ladies  of  the  highest  rank.  The  rooms  are  now  called  Willis' 
Rooms  from  a  proprietor  named  Willis. 

Saint  Veronica  was,  according  to  the  legend,  one  of  the  women  who 
met  our  Lord  on  His  way  to  Calvary.  She  offered  Him  her  veil  to  wipe 
the  sweat  from  His  brow,  when,  wondrous  to  tell,  the  Divine  features 
were  miraculously  imprinted  upon  the  cloth  and  remained  as  a  perma- 
nent picture  of  the  face  of  our  Lord.  This  miraculous  picture  is  reported 
to  have  been  preserved  in  Rome  from  about  the  year  700,  and  was 
exhibited  in  St.  Peter's  on  December  8,  1854. 

Half  legendary,  half  historic  is  the  name  of  Vortigern,  the  British 
prince  who  is  reported  by  Bede,  Nennius,  and  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth  to 
have  invited  the  Saxons  into  Britain  to  help  him  against  the  Picts,  and 
to  have  married  Rowena,  daughter  of  Hengist.  His  allies  soon  became, 
according  to  the  legend,  enemies  even  more  dangerous  than  the  Picts, 
and  soon  destroyed  the  British  princes.  Samuel  Ireland  fathered  his 
historical  play  of  "  Vortigern  "  on  Shakspeare. 

Among  odd  titles  for  towns  is  that  of  Westward  Ho,  on  the  coast  of 
North  Devon,  2>£  miles  west  of  Biddeford,  which  owes  not  merely  its 
name  but  its  existence  to  Charles  Kingsley's  Elizabethan  romance  (1855), 
which  attracted  swarms  of  visitors  to  North  Devon.  For  their  accommo- 
dation this  pretty  cluster  of  villas  and  lodging  houses,  with  its  church, 
hotel,  club-house,  and  college,  has  sprung  up  since  1867.  The  bathing 
facilities  are  excellent,  and  it  is  a  great  resort  of  golfers. 

Prester  John  is  the  name  applied  by  mediaeval  credulity  for  two 
hundred  years  to  the  supposed  Christian  sovereign  of  a  vast  but  ill- 
defined  empire  in  central  Asia.  The  idea  of  a  powerful  Christian  poten- 
tate in  the  far  Bast,  at  once  priest  and  king,  was  universal  in  Europe 
from  about  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  to  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth 
century,  when  it  was  transferred  to  Ethiopia  and  finally  found  a  fancied 
historical  justification  in  identification  with  the  Christian  king  of 
Abyssinia. 

Windermere,  or  Winandermere,  the  largest  lake  in  England,  called 
from  its  beauty  "Queen  of  the  Lakes,"  is  partly  in  the  county  of  Lan- 
caster, and  partly  divides  that  county  from  Westmoreland.  It  is  nearly 
eleven  miles  long  and  about  one  mile  in  extreme  breadth.  About  a  mile 
from  Waterhead,  at  the  north  extremity  of  the  lake,  is  the  town  of  Am- 
bleside,  a  mile  and  a  half  north-west  of  which  is  Rydal,  the  residence  of 
the  poet  Wordsworth;  in  the  vicinity  of  Waterhead  is  Dove's  Nest,  the 
cottage  at  one  time  occupied  by  Mrs.  Hemans;  farther  down  the  East 
shore  is  Elleray,  famous  as  the  residence  of  "Christopher  North;"  and 
half-way  down  the  lake,  on  the  eastern  shore,  is  Bowness. 
-«  T Q? 


338  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

Before  the  Reformation  the  clergy  used  to  walk  in  procession  every 
year  on  Corpus  Christi  day  to  St.  Paul's  Cathedral.  They  mustered  at 
the  upper  end  of  Cheapside,  and  there  commenced  chanting  the  Pater- 
noster',  which  continued  through  "Pater-noster  Row";  at  the  end  of  the 
Row  they  said  Amen,  and  the  spot  was  called  "Amen  Corner."  They 
then  began  the  A ve  Maria,  turning  down  "Ave  Maria  Lane."  After 
crossing  Ludgate,  they  chanted  the  Credo  in  "Creed  Lane"  (which  no 
longer  exists). 

The  Tarpeian  rock  was  so  called  from  Tarpeia,  daughter  of  Spurius 
Tarpeius  governor  of  the  citadel  on  the  Saturnian  Hill  of  Rome.  The 
story  is  that  the  Sabines  bargained  with  the  Roman  maid  to  open  the 
gates  to  them,  for  the  '  'ornaments  on  their  arms. ' '  As  they  passed  through 
the  gates,  they  threw  on  her  their  shields,  saying,  "These  are  the  orna- 
ments we  bear  on  our  arms."  She  was  crushed  to  death,  and  buried  on 
the  Tarpeian  Hill.  Bver  after,  traitors  were  put  to  death  by  being  hurled 
headlong  from  the  hill-top. 

An  ancient  and  popular  English  gathering  was  the  Bartholomew 
fair  held  24  August  (old  style).  Henry  I.,  in  1133,  granted  the  charter  of 
this  fair  to  Rayer  or  Rahere,  a  monk.  Like  all  other  fairs,  it  was  con- 
nected with  the  church,  and  miracle  plays,  mysteries  and  moralities  were 
performed.  In  1445  four  persons  were  appointed  by  the  Court  of  Alder- 
men as  keepers  of  the  fair.  In  1661  the  fair  lasted  fourteen  days.  In 
1691  the  fair  was  limited  to  three  days.  In  1840  the  fair  was  removed  to 
Islington;  and  in  1855  it  was  discontinued. 

La  Belle  Alliance  is  the  name  of  a  farm  some  thirteen  miles  from 
Brussels;  ever  memorable  for  being  the  position  occupied  by  the  centre 
of  the  French  infantry  in  the  battle  of  Waterloo  (June  18,  1815).  Napo- 
leon himself  was  in  the  vicinity  of  this  farm,  but  Wellington  was  at 
Mont  St.  Jean,  two  miles  further  north.  Between  these  two  spots  was 
La  Haye  Sainte,  where  were  posted  the  French  tirailleurs.  The  Prussians 
call  the  battle  of  Waterloo  the  "Battle  of  la  Belle  Alliance"  and  the 
French  call  it  the  "Battle  of  Mont  Saint-Jean. 

Will's  Coffee  House  was  a  noted  resort  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II. 
near  Covent  Garden  at  the  western  corner  of  Bow  street.  It  was  the  great 
emporium  of  libels  and  scandals,  but  was  one  of  the  best  in  London,  and 
had  acquired  the  sobriquet  of  "the  Wit's  Coffee-house."  Here  the  fre- 
quenters heard  the  talk  of  the  town  about  the  poets,  authors,  and  other 
celebrities,  and  here  was  the  "Observator"  and  all  the  Tory  and  Whig 
journals  of  the  day;  and  here  would  be  found  Matthew  Prior,  John  Dry- 
den,  Betterton  the  tragedian  and  other  celebrities. 

Thirty  miles  from  the  City  of  Kumamoto,  Japan,  is  the  volcano  Aso 
San,  which  has  the  largest  crater  in  the  world.  It  is  more  than  thirty 
miles  in  circumference,  and  peopled  by  twenty  thousand  inhabitants. 
Think  of  walking  for  miles  among  fertile  farms  and  prosperous  villages, 
peering  into  schoolhouse  windows  and  sacred  shrines  well  within  the 
shell  of  an  old-time  crater,  whose  walls  rise  eight  hundred  feet  all  about 
you.  It  gives  one  a  queer  feeling.  Hot  springs  abound  everywhere.  In 
one  place  brick-red  hot  water  is  utilized  to  turn  a  rice  mill.  The  inner 
crater  is  nearly  half  a  mile  in  diameter,  and  a  steady  column  of  roaring 
steam  pours  out  of  it.  The  last  serious  eruption  was  in  1884,  when  immense 
quantities  of  black  ashes  and  dust  were  ejected  and  carried  by  the  wind 
as  far  as  Kumamoto,  where  for  three  days  it  was  so  dark  that  artificial 
light  had  to  be  used. 


FAMOUS  PERSONS  AND  PLACES.  339 

The  first  proposer  of  secession  in  the  United  States  Congress  was 
Josiah  Quincy,  of  Massachusetts,  in  1811,  who  said  that,  if  Louisiana 
were  admitted  into  the  Union,  ' '  it  will  be  the  right  of  all  and  the  duty 
of  some  [of  the  States]  definitely  to  prepare  for  a  separation — amicably 
if  they  can,  violently  if  they  must."  Mr.  Poindexter,  of  Mississippi, 
called  him  to  order,  as  did  the  Speaker  of  the  House;  but  on  appeal  the 
Speaker's  decision  was  reversed  and  Mr.  Quincy  sustained  by  a  vote  of 
fifty -three  ayes  to  fifty-six  noes  on  the  point  of  order. 

St.  James's  Palace  is  a  large,  inelegant  brick  structure,  fronting 
towards  Pall  Mall.  Originally  a  hospital  dedicated  to  St.  James,  it  was 
reconstructed  and  made  a  manor  by  Henry  VIII. ,  who  also  annexed  to 
it  a  park.  Here  Queen  Mary  died  (1558);  Charles  I.  slept  here  the  night 
before  his  execution ;  and  here  Charles  II. ,  the  Old  Pretender,  and  George 
IV.  were  born.  When  Whitehall  was  burned  in  1697,  St.  James  be- 
came the  regular  L/ondon  residence  of  the  British  sovereigns,  and  it  con- 
tinued to  be  so  till  Queen  Victoria's  time. — The  Court  of  St.  James  is 
a  frequent  designation  of  the  British  Court.— St.  James  Park  lies  south- 
ward from  the  Palace,  and  extends  over  fifty-eight  acres. 

Amerigo  Vespucci  was  a  naval  astronomer,  from  whom  America  ac- 
cidentally received  its  name.  He  was  born  at  Florence,  March  9,  1451, 
and  was  at  the  head  of  a  large  Florentine  firm  in  Seville  in  1496.  He 
fitted  out  Columbus'  third  fleet,  and  in  1499  himself  sailed  for  the  New 
World  with  Ojeda,  and  explored  the  coast  of  Venezuela.  The  accident 
which  fastened  his  name  on  two  continents  may  be  traced  to  an  inac- 
curate account  of  his  travels  published  at  St.  Die"  in  I/orraine  in  1507,  in 
which  he  is  represented  to  have  reached  the  mainland  in  1497 — which 
would  have  been  before  either  Cabot  or  Columbus — and  in  which  the 
suggestion  is  made  that  he  should  give  his  name  to  the  world  he  had 
discovered. 

The  first  historical  notices  of  Niagara  Falls  are  given  in  Lescarbot's 
record  of  the  second  voyage  of  Jacques  Cartier  in  the  year  1535.  On  the 
maps  published  to  illustrate  Champlain's  discoveries  (date  of  maps  either 
1613  or  1614)  the  falls  are  indicated  by  a  cross,  but  no  description  of 
the  wonderful  cataract  is  given,  and  the  best  geographical  authorities 
living  to-day  doubt  if  the  explorer  mentioned  ever  saw  the  falls,  Brinson's 
work  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding.  Father  Hennepin  is  believed  to 
have  written  the  first  description  of  the  falls  that  ever  was  penned  by  one 
who  had  personally  visited  the  spot.  The  editor  of  "Notes  for  the 
Curious,"  owns  a  map,  dated  1657,  which  does  not  figure  either  the  great 
lakes  or  the  falls. 

A  dungeon  or  dark  cell  in  a  prison  is  usually  called  the  ' '  black 
hole. ' '  The  name  is  associated  with  the  cruel  confinement  of  a  party  of 
English  in  the  military  prison  of  Fort  William,  since  called  the  "  Black 
Hole  of  Calcutta,"  on  the  night  of  the  19th  June,  1756.  The  garrison 
of  the  fort  connected  with  the  English  factory  at  Calcutta  having  been 
captured  by  Suraja  Dowlah  (Siraj-ud-Daula),  the  nawab  of  Bengal,  he 
caused  the  whole  of  the  prisoners  taken,  one  hundred  and  forty-six  in 
number,  to  be  confined  in  an  apartment  eighteen  feet  square.  This  cell 
had  only  two  small  windows,  and  these  were  obstructed  by  a  veranda. 
The  crush  of  the  unhappy  sufferers  was  dreadful;  and  after  a  night  of 
excruciating  agony  from  pressure,  heat,  thirst  and  want  of  air,  there 
were  in  the  morning  only  twenty-three  survivors,  the  ghastliest  forms 
ever  seen  on  earth. 


340  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

Samuel  William  Henry  Ireland  was  a  literary  impostor.  He  pub- 
lished in  folio,  1795,  "Miscellaneous  Papers  and  Instruments  under  the 
hand  and  seal  of  William  Shakspeare,  including  the  tragedy  of  '  King 
Lear,'  and  a  small  fragment  of  '  Hamlet,'  from  the  original,"  price  about 
$25.  On  April  2,  1796,  he  produced  the  play  of  "  Vortigern  and  Rowena" 
from  the  pen  of  Shakspeare.  It  was  actually  represented,  and  drew  a 
most  crowded  house.  Dr.  Parr,  Dr.  Valpy,  James  Boswell,  Herbert 
Croft,  and  Pye,  the  poet-laureate,  signed  a  document  certifying  their 
conviction  that  Ireland's  productions  were  genuine;  but  Malone  exposed 
the  imposition  of  the  tragedy,  and  Ireland  publicly  confessed  that  all  his 
publications,  from  beginning  to  end,  were  impositions. 

One  of  the  most  picturesque  and  remarkable  bodies  of  water  in  the 
world  is  Henry's  Lake,  in  Idaho.  It  is  situated  on  the  dome  of  the  con- 
tinent in  a  depression  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  called  Targee's  Pass.  It 
has  an  area  of  forty  square  miles,  and  all  around  it  rise  snow-capped 
peaks,  some  of  them  being  the  highest  of  the  continent's  backbone.  In 
the  lake  is  a  floating  island  about  300  feet  in  diameter.  It  has  for  its 
basis  a  mat  of  roots  so  dense  that  it  supports  large  trees  and  a  heavy 
growth  of  underbrush.  These  roots  are  covered  with  several  feet  of  rich 
soil.  The  surface  is  solid  enough  to  support  the  weight  of  a  horse  any- 
where, and  there  are  places  where  a  house  could  be  built.  The  wind 
blows  the  island  about  the  lake,  and  it  seldom  remains  twenty-four  hours 
in  the  same  place. 

Amadis  of  Gaul  was  the  love-child  of  King  Perion  and  the  Princess 
Blizena.  He  is  the  hero  of  a  famous  prose  romance  of  chivalry,  the  first 
four  books  of  which  are  attributed  to  Lobeira,  of  Portugal  (died  1403). 
These  books  were  translated  into  Spanish  in  1460  by  Montalvo,  who  added 
the  fifth  book.  The  five  were  rendered  into  French  by  Herberay,  who  in- 
creased the  series  to  twenty-four  books.  Lastly,  Gilbert  Saunier  added 
seven  more  volumes,  and  called  the  entire  series  Le  Roman  des  Romans. 
Whether  Amadis  was  French  or  British  is  disputed.  Some  maintain  that 
"  Gaul"  means  Wales,  not  France;  that  Elizena  was  Princess  of  Brittany 
(Bretagne),  and  that  Perion  was  king  of  Gaul  (  Wales],  not  Gaul  (France}. 
Amadis  de  Gaul  was  a  tall  man,  of  a  fair  complexion,  his  aspect  some- 
thing between  mild  and  austere,  and  had  a  handsome  black  beard.  He 
was  a  person  of  very  few  words,  was  not  easily  provoked,  and  was  soon 
appeased. 

The  famous  leaning  tower  of  Pisa  is  a  campanile,  or  bell  tower.  It 
was  begun  in  1174  by  the  two  famous  architects — Bonano  of  Pisa  and 
William  Innspruck.  The  tower,  which  is  cylindrical  in  form,  is  179  feet 
high  and  fifty  feet  in  diameter,  made  entirely  of  white  marble.  It  has 
eight  stories,  each  with  an  outside  gallery  projecting  several  feet  from  the 
building,  and  each  decorated  with  columns  and  arcades.  In  the  center 
of  the  tower  a  flight  of  320  steps  passes  up  to  the  summit.  It  is  called 
the  leaning  tower  from  the  fact  that  it  inclines  some  thirty  feet  from 
the  perpendicular,  and  it  is  not  generally  known  that  this  inclination, 
which  gives  the  tower  such  a  remarkable  appearance,  was  not  inten- 
tional. At  the  time  it  was  about  half  done  the  error  in  measurement 
was  perceived,  and  it  was  guarded  against  by  the  use  of  extra  braces  in 
the  further  construction  of  the  building  and  an  adaption  of  the  stone  in 
the  highest  portion.  There  are  seven  bells  on  the  top  of  the  tower,  the 
largest  of  which  weighs  twelve  thousand  pounds,  and  these  are  so  placed 
as  to  counteract,  as  far  as  possible,  the  leaning  of  the  tower  itself. 


FAMOUS  PERSONS  AND  PLACES.  341 

Timbuctoo  (native  Tumbutu,  Arab.  Tinbukhtu},  is  a  famous  city  of 
the  Soudan,  on  the  southern  edge  of  the  Sahara.  It  lies  about  eight 
miles  north  of  the  main  stream  of  the  Joliba  or  Upper  Niger.  It  stands 
only  a  few  feet  above  the  level  of  the  river,  is  about  three  miles  in  cir- 
cumference, and  at  present  without  walls,  though  in  former  times  it 
covered  a  much  greater  area,  and  was  defended  by  walls.  The  houses 
are  mainly  one-story  mud-hovels,  but  one  of  the  three  chief  mosques  is 
a  large  and  imposing  building,  dating  from  1325.  The  place  stands  on 
an  important  trade  route  between  the  interior  and  the  west  and  south; 
and  its  importance  has  increased  through  the  gradual  extension  of  French 
influence  hither.  It  was  the  theme  of  one  of  Tennyson's  early  poems. 

The  "Man  in  the  Iron  Mask"  is  the  title  given  to  a  state  prisoner 
who  went  by  the  name  of  L'Estang.  In  1662  he  was  confined  in  the 
Chateau  Pignerol.  In  1686  he  was  removed  to  the  He  Saint  Marguerite, 
and  in  1698  to  the  Bastille,  where  he  died  in  1703.  He  was  a  state  pris- 
oner above  40  years.  He  was  buried  under  the  name  of  Marchiali.  Vol- 
taire says  he  was  a  twin  brother  of  Louis  XIV. ;  some  think  he  was  the 
Comte  de  Vermandois,  a  natural  son  of  Louis  XIV.  and  Mdlle.  de  la  Val- 
liere,  who  was  thus  punished  for  boxing  the  ears  of  the  dauphin;  others 
think  he  was  the  Duke  of  Beaufort,  who  disappeared  in  1669  at  the  siege 
of  Candia;  or  the  Duke  of  Monmouth,  nephew  of  James  II. ;  or  the  Count 
Girolamo  Matthioli,  minister  of  the  Duke  of  Mantua,  who  overreached 
Louis  in  a  treaty  for  the  purchase  of  Casal;  or  John  of  Gonzaque,  Mat- 
thioli's  secretary;  or  an  adulterous  son  of  Anne  of  Austria  (the  king's 
mother)  either  by  the  Duke  of  Buckingham  or  the  Cardinal  Mazarin. 

THE  TRUTH  ABOUT  ASPASIA. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  women  of  antiquity,  Aspasia,  was  born  at 
Miletus.  The  circumstance  that  in  Athens  marriage  with  foreign  women 
was  illegal,  has  originated  the  erroneous  notion  that  Aspasia  was  a  court- 
esan. She  certainly  broke  the  restraint  which  confined  Athenian  matrons 
to  the  seclusion  of  their  own  homes,  for  after  her  union  with  Pericles, 
who  had  parted  from  his  first  wife  by  mutual  consent,  her  house  became 
the  rendezvous  of  all  the  learned  and  distinguished  people  in  Athens. 
Socrates  often  visited  her.  Her  beauty,  varied  accomplishments,  and 
political  insight  were  extraordinarily  great.  From  the  comic  writers  and 
others  she  received  much  injustice.  Hermippus,  the  comic  poet,  took 
advantage  of  the  temporary  irritation  of  the  Athenians  against  Pericles, 
to  accuse  Aspasia  of  impiety;  but  the  eloquence  of  the  great  statesman 
procured  her  acquittal.  Her  influence  over  Pericles  must  have  been 
singularly  great,  and  was  often  caricatured — Aristophanes  ascribing  to 
her  both  the  Samian  and  the  Peloponnesian  wars,  the  latter  on  account 
of  the  robbery  of  a  favorite  maid  of  hers.  Plutarch  vindicates  her  against 
such  accusations.  Her  son  by  Pericles  was  allowed  to  assume  his  father's 
name.  After  the  death  of  Pericles  (429  B.C.)  Aspasia  formed  a  union 
with  Lysicles,  a  wealthy  cattle-dealer,  who,  through  her  influence,  be- 
came an  eminent  man  in  Athens. 


THE  STORY  OF  ACADIE. 

Longfellow  in  his  "Evangeline"  has  immortalized  the  sufferings  of  the 
French  peasantry  of  Acadie  or  Acadia.  This  was  the  name  given  by  the 
French  settlers  to  Nova  Scotia  on  its  first  settlement  in  1604.  The  English 
claimed  the  colony  by  right  of  discovery— as  having  been  discovered  by 


342  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

the  Cabots;  the  exclusive  possession  of  the  fisheries  proved  a  further  bone 
of  contention.  In  1667  it  was  ceded  to  France,  but  the  English  colonists 
never  recognized  the  cession,  and  harassed  the  French  settlers.  In  1713 
France  gave  up  all  claim  to  the  colony:  the  Acadians  mostly  remained 
though  they  had  liberty  to  leave  within  two  years,  and  were  exempted 
from  bearing  arms  against  their  brethren.  A  French  settlement  was 
formed  on  Cape  Breton,  and  received  the  name  of  Louisbourg,  whilst  as 
a  result  of  French  intrigues  with  the  Indians,  the  latter  harassed  the  Eng- 
lish.  The  majority  of  the  Acadians  would  not  take  the  oath  of  allegiance 
nor  would  they  refrain  from  abetting  underhand  hostilities  against  the 
English.  "The  French  government"  says  Parkman,  "began  by  making 
the  Acadians  its  tools,  and  ended  by  making  them  its  victims."  Accord- 
ingly, in  1755  it  was  determined  at  a  consultation  of  the  governor  and  his 
council  to  remove  them;  and  to  the  number  of  about  18,000,  they  were 
dispossessed  of  their  property  and  dispersed  among  the  other  British  pro- 
vinces. This  wholesale  expatriation,  often  severely  condemned,  was  not 
resorted  to  until  every  milder  resource  had  been  tried.  A  simple,  yet  very 
ignorant  peasantry,  living  apart  from  the  rest  of  the  world,  they  were 
ruled  by  the  priest,  who  taught  them  to  stand  fast  for  the  church  and 
King  Louis,  and  to  resist  heresy  and  King  George. 


THE  ENGLISH  CLAIMANT. 

In  1867  an  Englishman  in  London  declared  he  was  Sir  Roger  Charles 
Tichborne,  and  claimed  the  estates  and  income  of  $120,000  a  year.  The 
Dowager  accepted  him,  but  his  claim  was  resisted  on  behalf  of  Sir  Henry 
Tichborne,  then  a  minor,  and  the  trial  of  the  claim  began  May  11,  1871, 
and  on  the  6th  March,  1872,  the  "claimant"  was  declared  non-suited. 
The  Attorney-General,  Sir  J.  D.  Coleridge,  who  spoke  twenty-six  days, 
appeared  for  the  defence,  and  Dr.  Kenealy  for  the  claimant.  The  claim- 
ant was  prosecuted  as  Thomas  Castro  alias  Arthur  Orton,  for  perjury, 
and  found  guilty  February  28,  1874,  and  sentenced  to  fourteen  years' 
penal  servitude.  The  judges  refused  a  new  trial,  and  the  House  of 
Lords  confirmed  the  sentence  on  appeal,  March  11,  1881.  This  was  the 
longest  trial  on  record  in  England. 


NOTES  ON  MAMMOTH  CAVE. 

The  Mammoth  Cave  is  in  Edmonson  County,  near  Green  River, 
about  seventy-five  miles  from  Louisville.  It  was  discovered  in  1809  by 
a  hunter  named  Hutchins,  while  in  pursuit  of  a  wounded  bear.  Its  en- 
trance is  reached  by  passing  down  a  wild,  rocky  ravine  through  a  dense 
forest.  The  cave  extends  some  nine  miles.  To  visit  the  portions  already 
traversed,  it  is  said,  requires  150  to  200  miles  of  travel.  The  cave  con- 
tains a  succession  of  wonderful  avenues,  chambers,  domes,  abysses,  grot- 
toes, lakes,  rivers,  cataracts,  and  other  marvels,  which  are  too  well 
known  to  need  more  than  a  reference.  One  chamber — the  Star — is 
about  500  feet  long,  70  feet  wide,  70  feet  high,  the  ceiling  of  which  is 
composed  of  black  gypsum,  and  is  studded  with  innumerable  white 
points,  that  by  a  dim  light  resemble  stars,  hence  the  name  of  the  cham- 
ber. There  are  avenues  one  and  a  half,  and  even  two  miles  in  length, 
some  of  which  are  incrusted  with  beautiful  formations,  and  present 
the  appearance  of  enchanted  palace  halls.  There  is  a  natural  tunnel 
about  three  quarters  of  a  mile  long,  100  feet  wide,  covered  with  a  ceil- 


FAMOUS  PERSONS  AND  PLACES. 


343 


ing  of  smooth  rock  45  feet  high.  There  is  a  chamber  having  an  area  of 
from  four  to  five  acres,  and  there  are  domes  200  and  300  feet  high.  Echo 
River  is  some  three-fourths  of  a  mile  in  length,  200  feet  in  width  at  some 
points,  and  from  10  to  30  in  depth,  and  runs  beneath  an  arched  ceiling 
of  smooth  rock  about  15  feet  high;  while  the  Styx,  another  river,  is  450 
feet  long,  from  15  to  40  feet  wide,  and  from  30  to  40  feet  deep,  and  is 
spanned  by  a  natural  bridge.  Lake  Lethe  has  about  the  sarne  length  and 
width  as  the  river  Styx,  varies  in  depth  from  3  to  40  feet,  lies  beneath 
a  ceiling  some  90  feet  above  its  surface,  and  sometimes  rises  to  a  height 
of  60  teet.  There  is  also  a  Dead  Sea,  quite  a  somber  body  of  water. 
There  are  several  interesting  caves  in  the  neighborhood,  one  three  miles 
long,  and  three  each  about  a  mile  in  length. 


CRADLES   AND   GRAVES. 


I. — Where  our  Presidents  were  born: 


Virginia,  5 — Washington,  Jefferson,  Madi- 
son, Monroe,  Tyler. 

Massachusetts,  2  —  John  Adams,  John 
Quincy  Adams. 

Tennessee,  3— Jackson,  Polk,  Johnson. 

Ohio,  3 — Harrison,  Hayes,  Garfield. 

II. — Where  they  were  interred: 

Washington,  at  Mt.  Vernon,  Va. 
John  Adams,  at  Quincy,  Mass. 
Jefferson,  at  Monticello,  Va. 
Madison,  at  Montpelier,  Va. 
Monroe,  at  Richmond,  Va. 
John  Quincy  Adams,  at  Quincy,  Mass. 
Jackson,  at  "  The  Hermitage,"  Ky. 
Van  Buren,  at  Kinderhook,  N.  Y. 
Harrison,  at  North  Bend,  O. 
Polk,  at  Nashville,  Tenn. 


New  York,  4 — Van  Buren,   Fillmore,  Ar- 
thur, Cleveland. 
Illinois,  2 — Lincoln,  Grant. 
Louisiana,  1— Taylor. 
New  Hampshire,  1— Pierce. 
Pennsylvania,  1 — Buchanan. 


Taylor,  at  Louisville,  Ky. 
Fillmore,  at  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 
Pierce,  at  Concord,  N.  H. 
Buchanan,  at  Lancaster,  Pa. 
Lincoln,  at  Springfield,  111. 

£3hnson,  at  Greenville,  Tenn. 
rant,  at  Riverside,  N.  Y. 
Hayes,  at  Fremont,  O. 
Garfield,  at  Cleveland,  O. 
Arthur,  at  Albany,  N.  Y. 


FAMOUS  ANCIENT  CITIES. 

Nineveh  was  15  miles  long,  8  wide  and  40  miles  round,  with  a  wall 
100  feet  high,  and  thick  enough  for  3  chariots  abreast.  Babylon  was  50 
miles  within  the  walls,  which  were  87  feet  thick  and  350  high,  with  100 
brazen  gates.  The  Temple  of  Diana,  at  Ephesus,  was  420  feet  to  the 
support  of  the  roof.  It  was  100  years  in  building.  The  largest  of  the 
pyramids  is  461  feet  high,  and  653  feet  on  the  sides;  its  base  covers  11 
acres.  The  stones  are  about  thirty  feet  in  length,  and  the  layers  are  380. 
It  employed  330,000  men  in  building.  The  labyrinth,  in  Egypt,  contains 
300  chambers  and  250  halls.  Thebes,  in  Egypt,  presents  ruins  27  miles 
round.  Athens  was  25  miles  round,  and  contained  350,000  citizens  and 
400,000  slaves.  The  Temple  of  Delphos  was  so  rich  in  donations  that  it 
was  plundered  of  $500,000,  and  Nero  carried  away  200  statues.  The 
walls  of  Rome  were  13  miles  round. 


THE  FATHER  OF  THE  CENOBITES. 

St.  Antony,  surnamed  the  Great,  or  Anthony  of  Thebes,  the  father 
pfmonachism,  was  born  about  the  year  251  A.D.,  atKoma,  near  Heraklea, 
in  Upper  Egypt.  His  parents  were  both  wealthy  and  pious,  and  be- 
stowed upon  him  a  religious  education.  Having  sold  his  possessions,  and 
distributed  the  proceeds  among  the  poor,  he  withdrew  into  the  wilder- 


344  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORM  A  TION. 

ness,  where  he  disciplined  himself  in  all  these  austerities  which  have 
hallowed  his  memory  in  the  Catholic  Church  and  made  him  the  model 
of  monastic  life.  When  thirty  years  of  age,  he  penetrated  farther  into  the 
desert,  and  took  up  his  abode  in  an  old  ruin  on  the  top  of  a  hill,  where 
he  spent  twenty  years  in  the  most  rigorous  seclusion;  but,  in  305  he  was 
persuaded  to  leave  his  retreat  by  the  prayers  of  numerous  anchorites,  who 
wished  to  live  under  his  direction.  He  now  founded  a  mastery,  at  first 
only  a  group  *of  separate  and  scattered  cells  near  Memphis  and  Arsinoe; 
but  which  nevertheless,  may  be  considered  the  origin  of  cenobite  life. 
After  a  visit  to  Alexandria  in  311,  he  returned  to  his  lonely  ruin.  In  355 
the  venerable  hermit,  then  over  a  hundred  years  old,  made  a  journey  to 
Alexandria  to  dispute  with  the  Arians;  but  feeling  his  end  approaching, 
he  retired  to  his  desert  home,  where  he  died,  356  A.  D.  Athanasius  wrote 
his  life.  

GIANTS  AND  DWARFS. 
The  most  noted  giants  of  ancient  and  modern  times  are  as  follows: 

NAME.  PLACE.  HEIGHT,    FEET.  PERIOD. 

Goliath Palestine 11.0  B.  C.  1063. 

Galbara Rome 9.9  Claudius  Caesar. 

John  Middleton England 9.3  A.  D.  1578. 

Frederick's  Swede  ..       Sweden 8.4  

Cujanus Finland 7.9  

Gilly Tyrol 8.1  

Patrick  Cotter Cork  8.7  1806. 

Chang  Gow Pekin 7.8  1880. 

Many  of  the  great  men  of  history  have  been  rather  small  in  stature. 
Napoleon  was  only  about  5  ft.  4  in.,  Wellington  was  5  ft.  7  in.  One  of 
the  greatest  of  Ameiican  statesmen,  Alexander  H.  Stephens,  never  ex- 
ceeded 115  pounds  in  weight,  and  in  his  old  age  his  weight  was  less  than 
100  pounds. 

The  more  notable  human  mites  are  named  below: 

NAME.  HEIGHT,  INCHZS.  DATE  OF  BIRTH.  PLACE  OF  BIRTH. 

Count  Borowlaski 39  1739  Warsaw. 

Tom  Thumb  (Chas.  S.  Stratton) ....  31  1837  New  York. 

Mrs  Tom  Thumb 32  1842  New  York. 

Che-Mah 25  1838  China. 

I^ucia  Zarate 20  1863  Mexico. 

General  Mite 21  1864  New  York. 


THE  COLOSSEUM. 

The  Flavian  amphitheater  at  Rome,  known  as  the  Colosseum  from 
its  colossal  size,  was  begun  by  Vespasian,  and  finished  by  Titus  80  A.D., 
ten  years  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem.  It  was  the  largest  struct- 
ure of  the  kind,  and  is  fortunately  also  the  best  preserved.  It  covers 
about  five  acres  of  ground,  and  was  capable  of  seating  over  eighty  thou- 
sand spectators.  Its  greatest  length  is  six  hundred  and  twelve  feet,  and 
its  greatest  breadth  five  hundred  and  fifteen,  the  corresponding  figures 
for  the  Albert  Hall  in  London  being  two  hundred  and  seventy  and  two 
hundred  and  forty.  On  the  occasion  of  its  dedication  by  Titus,  five 
thousand  wild  beasts  were  slain  in  the  arena,  the  games  lasting  nearly  a 
hundred  days.  The  exterior  is  about  one  hundred  and  sixty  feet  in 
height,  and  consists  of  three  rows  of  columns,  Doric,  Ionic,  and  Cor- 
inthian, and,  above  all,  a  row  of  Corinthian  pilasters.  Between  the 
columns  there  are  arches,  which  form  open  galleries  throughout  the 
whole  building;  and  between  each  alternate  pilasters  of  the  upper  tier 


FAMOUS  PERSONS  AND  PLACES.  345 

there  is  a  window.  Besides  the  podium,  there  were  three  tiers  or  stories 
of  seats,  corresponding  to  the  external  stories.  The  first  of  these  is  sup- 
posed to  have  contained  twenty -four  rows  of  seats;  and  the  second,  six- 
teen. These  were  separated  by  a  lofty  wall  from  the  third  story,  which 
contained  the  populace.  The  podium  was  a  gallery  surrounding  the 
arena,  in  which  the  emperor,  the  senators,  and  vestal  virgins  had  their 
seats.  The  building  was  covered  by  a  temporary  awning  or  wooden 
roof,  the  velarium.  The  open  space  in  the  center  of  the  amphitheater 
was  called  arena,  the  Latin  word  for  sand,  because  it  was  covered  with 
sand  or  sawdust  during  the  performances. 

EXHIBIT  OF  LOCAL  NAMES. 

There  are  more  than  twenty-seven  hundred  counties  in  the  United 
States.  Of  these,  ten  per  cent,  are  named  after  presidents,  and  thirty- 
five  per  cent,  after  Americans  who  have  not  been  presidents  (1890). 

1.  Counties,  etc.,  named  from  presidents: 

Twenty-seven  counties  named  Washington,  besides  cities  and  towns  innumer- 
able; 43  Jefferson;  21  Jackson;  17  Lincoln,  Madison,  and  Monroe;  12  Polk;  10  Grant;  9 
Adams  and  Harrison;  4  Garfield,  Pierce,  and  Van  Buren. 

2.  Counties,  etc. ,  named  from  Americans  who  have  not  been  presi- 
dents: 

Boone,  Calhoun,  Clay,  Hancock,  Putnam,  Randolph,  Scott,  Webster  and  many 
more. 

3.  The  following  names  are  extravagant  enough  to  hinder  any  place 
from  rising  into  a  bishopric.     Only  fancy  a  dignified  clergyman  signing 
himself  "Yours  faithfully,  John ,"  followed  by  one  of  the  follow- 
ing names: 

Alkaliburg,  Bleeder's  Gulch.  Bloody  Bend,  Boanerges  Ferry,  Breeches  Fork, 
Bludgeonsville,  Bugville,  Butter's  Sell,  Buried  Pipe,  Cairoville,  Clean  Deck,  Daughter's 
Loss,  Euchreville,  Eurekapolis,  Eurekaville  (!),  Fighting  Cocks,  Good  Thunder,  Hell 
and  Nails  Crossing,  Hezekiahville,  Hide  and  Seek,  Jack  Pot,  Joker,  Murderville,  Nettle 
Carrier,  Numaville,  Peddlecake,  Poker  Flat,  Pottawattomieville,  Plumpville,  Roaring 
Fox,  Sharper's  Creek,  Skeletonville  Agency,  Soaker's  Ranche,  Spottedville,  Starvation, 
Stuck-up-Canon,  Thief's  End,  Tombstone,  Ubet,  Villa  Realville,  Yellow  Medicine,  Yuba 
Dam.  etc. 

WASHINGTON  AND  EDUCATION. 

A  fact  long  lost  sight  of  is  that  George  Washington  himself,  the 
"Father  of  his  Country"  was  also  among  the  first  of  its  great  benefac- 
tors to  the  cause  of  higher  education.  Quite  recently  attention  has  been 
directed  to  the  following  clause  in  his  last  will  and  testament: 

"It  has  always  been  a  source  of  serious  regret  with  me  to  see  the 
youth  of  the  United  States  sent  to  foreign  countries  for  the  purpose  of 
education,  often  before  their  minds  were  formed,  or  they  had  imbibed 
any  adequate  ideas  of  the  happiness  of  their  own.  My  mind  has  not 
been  able  to  contemplate  any  plan  more  likely  to  affect  the  measure  than 
the  establishment  of  a  university  in  a  central  part  of  the  United  States, 
to  which  the  youths  of  fortune  and  talent  from  all  parts  thereof  may  be 
sent  for  the  completion  of  education,  and  where  they  may  be  enabled  to 
free  themselves  in  a  proper  degree  from  those  local  prejudices  and  habit- 
ual jealousies,  which,  when  carried  to  excess,  are  never-failing  sources 
of  disquietude  to  the  public  mind  and  pregnant  of  mischievous  conse- 
quences to  this  country.  Under  these  impressions: 

"Item — I  give  and  bequeath,  in  perpetuity,  the  fifty  shares  which  I 
hold  in  the  Potomac  Company,  toward  the  endowment  of  a  university; 


346  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

and,  until  such  seminary  is  established,  and  the  funds  arising  on  these 
shares  shall  be  required  for  its  support,  my  further  will  and  desire  is 
that  the  profit  accruing  therefrom  shall,  whenever  the  dividends  are 
made,  be  laid  out  in  purchasing  stock  in  the  Bank  of  Columbia,  or  some 
other  bank,  at  the  discretion  of  my  executors,  or  by  the  Treasurer  of 
the  United  States  for  the  time  being,  until  a  sum  adequate  to  the  ac- 
complishment of  the  object  is  obtained;  of  which  I  have  not  the  smallest 
doubt  before  many  years  pass  away,  even  if  no  aid  or  encouragement  is 
given  by  the  legislative  authority,  or  from  any  other  source. ' ' 

This  noble  bequest  has  been  absorbed,  it  appears,  into  Uncle  Sam's 
capacious  treasury,  and  at  five  per  cent  compound  interest  would  now 
amount  to  about  five  million  dollars.  It  is  therefore  entirely  fitting  that 
our  Senators  should  be  urging,  after  a  lapse  of  ninety-three  years,  its 
employment  in  pursuance  of  the  testator's  will  on  behalf  of  the  youth  of 
his  well-beloved  country.  

THE  WORLD'S  SEVEN  WONDERS. 

The  seven  wonders  of  the  world  are:  The  Pyramids,  the  Colossus  of 
Rhodes,  Diana's  Temple  at  Ephesus,  the  Pharos  of  Alexandria,  the 
Hanging  Gardens  at  Babylon,  the  Statue  of  the  Olympian  Jove,  and  the 
Mausoleum  by  Artemisia  at  Halicarnassus.  The  Pyramids  are  numer- 
ous, and  space  forbids  anything  like  even  a  list  of  them.  The  great  piles 
were  constructed  of  blocks  of  red  or  synetic  granite,  and  of  a  hard  calcareous 
stone.  These  blocks  were  of  extraordinary  dimensions,  and  their  trans- 
portation to  the  sites  of  the  pyramids  and  their  adjustment  in  their 
places,  indicate  a  surprising  degree  of  mechanical  skill.  The  Great 
Pyramid  covers  an  area  of  between  twelve  and  thirteen  acres.  The 
masonry  consisted  originally  of  89,028,000  cubic  feet,  and  still  amounts 
to  about  82,111,000  feet.  The  present  vertical  height  is  450  feet,  against 
479  feet  originally;  and  the  present  length  of  the  sides  is  746  feet,  against 
764  feet  originally.  The  total  weight  of  the  stone  is  estimated  at  6,316,- 
000,000  tons.  The  city  of  Rhodes  was  besieged  by  Demetrius  Poliorl 
cetest  King  of  Macedon,  but,  aided  by  Ptolemy  Soter,  King  of  Egypt, 
the  enemy  was  repulsed.  To  express  their  gratiude  to  their  allies  and  to 
their  tutelary  deity,  they  erected  a  brazen  statue  to  Apollo.  It  was  105 
feet  high,  and  hollow,  with  a  winding  staircase  that  ascended  to  the 
head.  After  standing  fifty -six  years,  it  was  overthrown  by  an  earthquake, 
224  years  before  Christ,  and  lay  nine  centuries  on  the  ground,  and  then 
was  sold  to  a  Jew  by  the  Saracens,  who  had  captured  Rhodes,  about  the 
middle  of  the  seventh  century.  It  is  said  to  have  required  nine  hundred 
camels  to  remove  the  metal,  and  from  this  statement  it  has  been  calcu- 
lated its  weight  was  720,000  pounds.  The  Temple  of  Diana,  at  Ephesus, 
was  built  at  the  common  charge  of  all  the  Asiatic  states.  The  chief 
architect  was  Chersiphon,  and  Pliny  says  that  220  years  were  employed 
in  completing  the  temple,  whose  riches  were  immense.  It  was  425  feet 
long,  225  feet  broadband  was  supported  by  125  columns  of  Parian  marble 
(sixty  feet  high,  each  weighing  150  tons),  furnished  by  as  many  kings. 
It  was  set  on  fire  on  the  night  of  Alexander's  birth  by  an  obscure  person 
named  Erostratus,  who  confessed  on  the  rack  that  the  sole  motive  which 
prompted  him  was  the  desire  to  transmit  his  name  to  future  ages.  The 
temple  was  again  built,  and  once  more  burned  by  the  Goths  in  their 
naval  invasion,  A.D.  256.  The  colossal  statue  of  Jupiter  in  the  temple  of 
Olympia,  at  EHs,  was  by  Phidias.  It  was  in  gold  and  ivory,  and  sat 
enthroned  in  the  temple  for  800  years,  and  was  finally  destroyed  by  fire 


FAMOUS  PERSONS  AND  PLACES.  347 

about  A.D.  475.  From  the  best  information,  it  is  believed  that  the  Mau- 
soleum at  Halicarnassus  was  a  rectangular  building  surrounded  by  an 
Ionic  portico  of  thirty-six  columns,  and  surmounted  by  a  pyramid,  rising 
in  twenty- four  steps,  upon  the  summit  of  which  was  a  colossal  marble 
quadriga  with  a  statue  of  Mausolus.  The  magnificent  structure  was 
erected  by  Artemisia,  who  was  the  sister,  wife,  and  successor  of  Mausolus. 


THE  WORLD'S  NOBLEST  PARK. 

The  Yellowstone  National  Park  extends  sixty-five  miles  north  and 
south  and  fifty-five  miles  east  and  west,  comprising  3,575  square  miles, and 
is  6,000  feet  or  more  above  sea  level.  Yellowstone  lake,  twenty  miles 
by  fifteen,  has  an  altitude  of  7,788  feet.  The  mountain  ranges  which 
hem  in  the  valleys  on  every  side  rise  to  the  height  of  10,000  to  12,000 
feet,  and  are  always  covered  with  snow.  This  great  park  contains  the 
most  strking  of  all  the  mountains,  gorges,  falls,  rivers,  and  lakes  in  the 
whole  Yellowstone  region.  The  springs  on  Gardiner's  River  cover  an 
area  of  about  one  square  mile,  and  three  or  four  square  miles  thereabout 
are  occupied  by  the  remains  of  springs  which  have  ceased  to  flow.  The 
natural  basins  into  which  these  springs  flow  are  from  four  to  six  feet  in 
diameter  and  from  one  to  four  feet  in  depth.  The  principal  ones  are 
located  upon  terraces  midway  up  the  sides  of  the  mountain.  The  banks 
of  the  Yellowstone  river  abound  with  ravines  and  canons,  which  are 
carved  out  of  the  heart  of  the  mountains  through  the  hardest  rocks.  The 
most  remarkable  of  these  is  the  canon  of  Tower  Creek  and  Column 
Mountain.  The  latter,  which  extends  along  the  eastern  bank  of  the  river 
for  upward  of  two  miles,  is  said  to  resemble  the  Giant's  Causeway.  The 
canon  of  Tower  Creek  is  about  ten  miles  in  length,  and  is  so  deep  and 
gloomy  that  it  is  called  "The  Devil's  Den."  Where  Tower  Creek  ends 
the  Grand  Canon  begins.  It  is  twenty  miles  in  length,  impassable 
throughout,  and  inaccessible  at  the  water's  edge,  except  at  a  few  points. 
Its  rugged  edges  are  from  200  to  500  yards  apart,  and  its  depth  is  so  pro- 
found that  no  sound  ever  reaches  the  ear  from  the  bottom.  The  Grand 
Canon  contains  a  great  multitude  of  hot  springs  of  sulphur,  sulphate  of 
copper,  alum,  etc.  In  the  number  and  magnitude  of  its  hot  springs  and 
geysers,  the  Yellowstone  Park  surpasses  all  the  rest  of  the  world.  There 
are  probably  fifty  geysers  that  throw  a  column  of  water  to  the  height  of 
from  50  to  200  feet,  and  it  is  stated  that  there  are  not  fewer  than  5,000 
springs;  there  are  two  kinds,  those  depositing  lime  and  those  depositing 
silica.  The  temperature  of  the  calcareous  springs  is  from  160  to  170 
degress,  while  that  of  the  others  rises  to  200  or  more.  The  principal  col- 
lections are  the  upper  and  lower  geyser  basins  of  the  Madison  river  and 
the  calcareous  springs  on  Gardiner's  River.  The  great  falls  are  marvels 
to  which  adventurous  travelers  have  gone  only  to  return  and  report  that 
they  are  parts  of  the  wonders  of  this  new  American  wonderland. 


MARVELS  OF  OLD  EGYPT. 

PYRAMIDS — The  great  pyramid  of  Gizeh  is  the  largest  structure 
of  any  kind  ever  erected  by  the  hand  of  man.  Its  original  dimen- 
sions at  the  base  were  764  feet  square,  and  its  perpendicular  height  in 
the  highest  point  is  488  feet;  it  covers  four  acres,  one  rood  and  twenty - 
two  perches  of  ground,  and  has  been  estimated  by  an  eminent  English 
architect  to  have  cost  not  less  than  ^"30,000,000,  which  in  United  States 
currency  would  be  about  $145,200,000.  Internal  evidences  prove  that 


348  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

the  great  pyramid  was  begun  about  the  year  2170  B.C.,  about  the  time  of 
the  birth  of  Abraham.  It  is  estimated  that  about  5,000,000  tons  of  hewn 
stones  were  used  in  its  construction. 

SPHINX. — The  word  sphinx  is  from  the  Greek  and  means  the  stran- 
gler,  and  was  applied  to  a  fabled  creature  of  the  Egyptians,  which  had 
the  body  of  a  lion,  the  head  of  a  man  or  an  animal,  and  two  wings  at- 
tached to  its  sides.  In  the  Egyptian  hieroglyphs  the  sphinx  symbol- 
ized wisdom  and  power  united.  It  has  been  supposed  that  the  fact 
that  the  overflow  of  the  Nile  occurred  when  the  sun  was  in  the  con- 
stellations Leo  and  Virgo  gave  the  idea  of  the  combinations  of  form  in 
the  sphinx,  but  this  idea  seems  quite  unfounded.  In  Egypt  the  reigning 
monarch  was  usually  represented  in  the  form  of  a  sphinx.  The  most  re- 
markable sphinx  is  that  near  the  pyramids  at  Gizeh.  It  is  sculptured 
from  the  rock,  masonry  having  been  added  in  several  places  to  complete 
the  form.  It  is  172^  feet  long  by  53  feet  high,  but  only  the  head  of  this 
remarkable  sculpture  can  now  be  seen,  the  rest  of  the  form  having  been 
concealed  by  the  heaped-up  sands  of  the  desert. 

OBELISKS. — The  oldest  of  all  the  obelisks  is  the  beautiful  one  of  rosy 
granite  which  stands  alone  among  the  green  fields  upon  the  banks  of 
the  Nile,  not  far  from  Cairo.  It  is  the  gravestone  of  a  great  ancient  city 
which  has  vanished  and  left  only  this  relic  behind.  The  city  was  the 
Bethshemesh  of  the  Scriptures,  the  famous  On,  which  is  memorable  to 
all  Bible  readers  as  the  residence  of  the  priest  of  Potipherah,  whose 
daughter,  Assenath,  Joseph  married.  The  Greeks  called  it  Heliopolis. 

CLEOPATRA'S  NEEDLE. — The  two  obelisks  known  as  Cleopatra's 
Needles  were  set  up  at  the  entrance  of  the  Temple  of  the  Sun,  in  Heliop- 
olis, Egypt;  by  Thothmes  III.,  about  1831  B.C.  We  have  no  means  of 
knowing  when  they  were  built,  or  by  whom,  except  from  the  inscrip- 
tions on  them,  which  indicate  the  above  time.  The  material  of  which 
they  were  cut  is  granite,  brought  from  Syene,  near  the  first  cataract  of 
the  Nile.  Two  centuries  after  their  erection  Rameses  II.  had  the  stones 
nearly  covered  with  carving  setting  out  of  his  own  greatness  and  achieve- 
ments. Twenty-three  years  before  Christ,  Augustus  Caesar  moved  the 
obelisks  from  Heliopolis  to  Alexandria  and  set  them  up  in  the  Caesarium, 
a  palace,  which  now  stands,  a  mere  mass  of  ruins,  near  the  station  of 
the  railroad  to  Cairo.  In  1819  one  of  these  obelisks  was  presented  by 
the  Egyptian  Government  to  England,  but  as  no  one  knew  how  to  move 
them,  it  was  not  taken  to  London  until  1878.  Subsequently  the  other 
obelisk  was  presented  to  the  United  States. 

The  work  of  moving  this  great  Egyptian  obelisk  from  Alexandria 
to  New  York  was  managed  by  Commander  H.  H.  Gorringe,  of  the 
United  States  Navy.  The  officer  reached  Alexandria  October  16,  1879, 
and  at  once  began  to  work  with  one  hundred  Arabs,  who  completed  the 
excavation  of  the  obelisk's  pedestal  by  removing  1,730  cubic  yards  of 
earth  in  about  twenty  days.  The  machinery  for  lowering  the  monolith 
was  then  attached,  and  the  block  was  laid  in  a  horizontal  position. 
Within  the  foundation  and  steps  of  the  pedestal  were  found  stones  and 
implements  engraved  with  emblematic  designs,  and  some  delay  was 
caused  in  order  that  these  might  be  taken  up  very  carefully  to  be  placed 
in  exactly  the  same  position  in  the  pedestal  when  re-erected  in  New 
York.  The  obelisk  was  removed  to  the  wharf  and  upon  the  steamer 
waiting  for  it,  by  means  of  cannon-balls  rolling  in  metal  grooves.  The 
shaft,  pedestal,  and  steps  of  the  obelisk  were  removed  separately,  the 
entire  mass  weighing  1,470  tons. 


THE  WORLD  AND  ITS  WAYS. 


'  Tis  pleasant,  through  the  loopholes  of  retreat, 
To  peep  at  such  a  world  ;  to  see  the  stir 
Of  the  great  Babel,  and  not  feel  the  crowd: 
To  hear  the  roar  she  sends  through  all  her  gates, 
At  a  safe  distance,  where  the  dying  sound 
Falls  a  soft  murmur  on  th'  uninjur'd  ear. 

— CoorER. 

A  MYRIAD  QUESTIONS  ANSWERED. 

Lincoln  was  assassinated  April  14,  1865. 

Rome  was  founded  by  Romulus,  752  B.C. 

Gold  was  discovered  in  California  in  1848. 

Chinese  history  begins  from  the  year  3000  B.C. 

Ignatius  Loyola  founded  the  order  of  Jesuits,  1541. 

First  authentic  use  of  organs,  755;  in  England,  951. 

The  German  Empire  was  reestablished  January  18,  1871. 

Egyptian  pottery  is  the  oldest  known;  dates  from  2,000  B.  c. 

First  photographs  produced  in  England,  1802;  perfected,  1841. 

First  life  insurance,  in  London,  1772;  in  America,  Philadelphia,  1812. 

Electric  light  was  invented  by  Lodyguin  and  Kossloff,  at  London, 
1874. 

War  was  declared  with  Great  Britain,  June  19, 1812;  peace,  February 
18,  1815. 

First  public  schools  in  America  were  established  in  the  New  England 
States  about  1642. 

Postage  stamps  first  came  into  use  in  England  in  the  year  1840;  in 
the  United  States,  in  1847. 

The  highest  range  of  mountains  is  the  Himalayas,  the  mean  eleva- 
tion being  from  16,000  to  18,000  feet. 

The  largest  inland  sea  is  the  Caspian,  between  Europe  and  Asia, 
being  700  miles  long  and  270  miles  wide. 

Alma  Mater  (bounteous  mother),  is  a  familiar  term  applied  by  univer- 
sity men  to  their  own  particular  university. 

The  Sombrero  (Spanish,  from  Sombra,  "shade"),  is  a  broad-brimmed 
felt  hat,  originally  Spanish,  but  common  throughout  North  and  South 
America. 

349 


350  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

An  oak  grows  2  ft.  10 >£  in.  in  3  years.  An  elm  in  3  years  grows  8  ft 
3  in. ;  a  beach,  1  ft.  8  in. ;  a  poplar,  6  ft. ;  a  willow,  9  ft.  3  in. 

The  largest  desert  is  Sahara,  in  Northern  Africa.  Its  length  is  3,000 
miles  and  breadth  900  miles;  having  an  area  of  2,000,000  square  miles. 

The  largest  suspension  bridge  is  the  Brooklyn.  The  length  of  the 
main  span  is  1,595  feet  6  inches.  The  entire  length  of  the  bridge  is 
5,989  feet. 

Bowstring,  the  string  of  a  bow,  is  a  name  specifically  used  for  an  old 
Turkish  mode  of  execution,  the  offender  being  strangled  by  means  of  a 
bowstring. 

The  sweetest  singer  is  the  nightingale;  then  come  the  linnet,  the 
lark,  sky-lark  and  wood-lark.  The  mocking  bird  has  the  greatest  powers 
of  imitation. 

Creches  are  nurseries  to  which  mothers  can  send  their  children 
whilst  they  go  to  work.  They  were  started  first  in  France,  1844,  and  in 
England,  1863. 

An  ornament  or  knot  of  ribbon  or  rosette  of  leather,  worn  either  as 
a  military  or  naval  decoration,  or  as  the  badge  of  a  political  party,  is 
called  a  Cockade. 

The  nine  great  public  schools  of  England  are  Eton,  Harrow,  Rugby, 
Winchester,  Westminster,  Shrewsbury,  Charterhouse,  St.  Paul's  and 
Merchant  Taylors'. 

Cross-buns  are  small  cakes  especially  prepared  for  Good  Friday,  and 
in  many  towns  of  England  cried  about  the  streets  on  the  morning  of 
that  day  as  "hot  cross-buns." 

Cricket  is  supposed  to  have  been  played  in  England  in  the  fourteenth 
century.  The  first  English  team  visited  Australia,  1861,  and  the  first 
Australian  team  visited  England,  1878. 

The  term  crofter  is  commonly  used  in  Scotland  to  designate  a  small 
tenant  of  land  who  derives  a  substantial  portion  of  his  livelihood  from 
cultivation  or  the  raising  of  live-stock. 

A  poison  used  by  some  of  the  South  American  Indians  for  putting 
on  the  points  of  their  arrows,  is  called  curari.  Animals  killed  with  it 
may  be  eaten,  however,  without  injury. 

Dead  reckoning  is  the  method  of  reckoning  a  ship's  position  by  cal- 
culating by  the  log  how  far  she  has  run,  making  allowance  for  drift, 
leeway,  etc.,  without  an  observation  of  the  stars. 

The  ancient  inhabitants  of  Jutland  were  called  Cimbri.  They  made 
serious  incursions  into  Italy,  but  were  utterly  routed  by  the  Romans,  101 
B.  c. ,  and  were  afterwards  merged  in  the  Saxons. 

A  canton  is  a  division  of  territory,  constituting  a  separate  govern- 
ment or  state,  as  in  Switzerland;  or,  as  in  France,  a  collection  of  com- 
munes, forming  a  subdivision  of  an  arrondissement. 

It  is  claimed  that  crows,  eagles,  ravens  and  swans  live  to  be  100 
years  old;  herons,  50;  parrots,  60;  pelicans  and  geese,  50;  skylarks,  30;. 
sparrow  hawks,  40;  peacocks,  canaries  and  cranes,  24. 

The  term  "  Cockney"  is  a  familiar  name  for  a  Londoner,  the  earlier 
meaning  of  which  was  a  foolish,  effeminate  person,  or  a  spoilt  child. 
The  original  meaning  is  very  obscure,  and  various  accounts  are  given  of 
its  origin. 


THE  WORLD  AND  ITS  WAYS.  351 

Cremation  is  a  term  signifying  the  reduction  of  the  dead  human 
body  to  ashes  by  fire,  which  was  a  very  early  and  widespread  usage  of 
antiquity.  There  are  nine  crematories  in  the  United  States. 

Almeh,  Alme,  or  Alniai  (Arabic  dlim,  "wise,"  "learned"),  a  class 
of  Egyptian  singing  girls  in  attendance  at  festivals,  entertainments,  or 
funerals.  The  Ghawazee,  or  dancing  girls,  are  of  a  lower  order. 

A  splendid  thing  of  fancy  or  hope,  but  wholly  without  any  real 
existence,  is  called  a  "castle  of  Spain."  So  Greek  Kalends  means 
"never,"  because  there  were  no  such  things  as  "  Greek  Kalends." 

The  camel  is  a  caisson-like  apparatus  for  rendering  a  vessel  navig- 
able in  shoal  water.  It  was  invented  by  the  Russian  engineer  De  Witte 
(1790-1854),  and  is  often  used  between  Kronstadt  and  St.  Petersburgh. 

Chalet  is  the  French-Swiss  name  for  the  wooden  hut  of  the  Swiss 
herdsmen  on  the  mountains;  but  is  also  extended  to  Swiss  dwelling- 
houses  generally,  and  to  picturesque  and  ornate  villas  built  in  imitation 
of  them. 

The  origin  of  the  game  of  billiards  is  uncertain.  Some  suppose  that 
it  was  invented  by  Henrique  Devigne  in  1571.  Slate  tables  were  intro- 
duced in  1827.  Shakspeare  makes  Cleopatra  invite  her  companion  to 
billiards. 

A  dais  is  the  raised  platform  at  the  upper  end  of  ancient  dining  halls, 
also  the  high  table  of  the  hall  itself.  The  name  is  also  applied  to  a  seat 
with  a  canopy  or  high  wainscot  back  for  the  occupants  sitting  at  the 
high  table. 

It  is  a  common  Asiatic  custom  for  the  bridegroom  to  give  chase  to 
the  bride,  either  on  foot,  horseback,  or  in  canoes.  If  the  bridegroom 
catches  the  fugitive,  he  claims  her  as  his  bride,  otherwise  the  match  is 
broken  off. 

Rows  of  arches  supported  by  columns,  either  having  an  open  space  of 
greater  or  less  width  behind  them,  or  in  contact  with  masonry,  are  called 
"Arcades."  The  arcade  in  Gothic  corresponds  to  the  colonnade  in  clas- 
sical architecture. 

Cuddy  is  a  name  first  applied  in  Bast  India  trading  ships  to  a  cabin 
under  the  poop,  where  the  men  messed  and  slept.  The  same  name  was 
afterwards  given  to  the  only  cabin  in  very  small  vessels,  and  sometimes 
to  the  cooking-room. 

The  bungalow  is  a  species  of  house  usually  occupied  by  Europeans 
in  the  interior  of  India,  and  commonly  provided  for  officers'  quarters  in 
cantonments.  Bungalows  are  properly  of  only  one  story,  with  a  veranda, 
and  a  pyramid  roof,  generally  of  thatch,  although  tiles  are  sometimes 
substituted. 

Cock-fighting  was  a  sport  common  among  both  the  Greeks  and  the 
Romans,  as  to-day  it  is  in  India,  the  Malay  countries,  and  Spanish 
America.  In  England  it  flourished  for  fully  six  centuries,  and,  though 
forbidden  by  law,  is  still  practiced  among  the  populace  of  British  and 
American  cities. 

Cribbage,  a  game  at  cards,  probably  of  English  origin,  is  played 
with  a  pack  of  fifty- two  cards;  the  scores  accrue  in  consequence  of  cer- 
tain combinations  in  play,  hand,  and  crib  (for  an  account  of  which  see 
any  treatise  on  the  game).  The  scores  are  marked  on  a  cribbage  board 
pierced  with  holes. 


352  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

The  word  canon  literally  means  a  "tube,"  a  "cannon,"  and  is  the 
name  given  in  western  North  America  to  a  deep  gorge  or  river  ravine, 
between  high  precipitous  cliffs.  One  of  the  best  examples  is  the  far- 
famed  Canon  of  the  Colorado. 

Round  Robin  is  the  designation  of  a  protest  in  writing,  having  the 
subscribers'  names  written  in  the  form  of  a  circle,  so  that  no  name  ap- 
pears first  on  the  list.  The  custom  is  said  to  have  originated  amongst 
the  officers  of  the  French  army. 

Black  and  white  beans  or  stones  were  used  in  very  ancient  times  by 
the  Greeks  and  Romans  for  voting  at  trials,  the  white  acquitting  and  the 
black  condemning.  From  this  arose  the  modern  custom  of  casting 
white  and  black  balls  at  club  and  other  elections. 

The  familiar  term  Blouse  is  the  French  name  for  a  loose,  sacklike 
over-garment  somewhat  answering  to  the  English  smock-frock.  France 
is  pre-eminently  the  country  of  blouses,  ordinarily  blue,  worn  not  only 
by  the  country -people,  but  by  workmen  in  towns. 

A  term  applied  to  an  intense  admiration  of  the  First  Napoleon  and 
his  regime  was  Chauvinism.  It  is  now  applied  to  the  political  party  in 
France  which  has  for  its  object  the  aggrandisement  of  the  Republic.  It 
may  be  called  an  equivalent  term  to  the  English  Jingoism. 

In  the  social  and  economic  sense  of  the  word,  co-operation  generally 
means  the  association  of  work-people  for  the  management  of  their  own 
industrial  interests,  in  store,  workshop,  or  other  undertaking,  and  the 
equitable  distribution  of  profits  among  those  who  earn  them. 

A  curious  punishment  in  vogue  amongst  the  Chinese,  Turks  and 
Persians,  is  that  called  the  "Bastinado."  The  offender  is  thrown  on  his 
face,  his  feet  fastened  to  a  long  stick,  by  which  they  are  held  with  the 
soles  upwards,  and  blows  are  then  made  on  the  soles  with  a  cane. 

Clubs  are  organizations  of  persons  of  similar  professions,  politics,  or 
tastes  for  the  promotion  of  some  object.  Many  clubs  have  played  an 
important  part  in  history  and  some  of  those  now  existing  in  the  great 
cities  have  a  well-defined  influence  on  manners,  politics,  and  progress. 

In  1877  the  newspaper  Nationals  of  Paris  had  ten  pigeons  which 
carried  dispatches  daily  between  Versailles  and  Paris  in  fifty  to  twenty 
minutes.  In  November,  1882,  some  pigeons,  in  face  of  a  strong  wind, 
made  the  distance  of  160  miles  from  Canton  Vaud  to  Paris  in  6^  hours, 
or  25  miles  per  hour. 

Derby  Day  is  the  day  on  which  the  racing  for  the  stakes  instituted 
by  Lord  Derby  in  1780  takes  place  on  Epsom  Downs,  England.  It  is 
a  great  holiday  for  Londoners,  and  all  classes  are  to  be  seen  jostling 
together.  The  procession  of  people  returning  in  the  evening  is  a  great 
sight,  but,  owing  to  the  greater  number  traveling  by  rail,  is  less  so  than 
formerly.  It  is  generelly  held  on  the  Wednesday  following  Trinity 
Sunday. 

The  total  number  of  newspapers  published  in  the  world  at  present  is 
estimated  at  about  40,000,  distributed  as  follows:  United  States,  15,000; 
Germany,  5,500;  Great  Britain,  5,000.  France,  4,092;  Japan,  2,000;  Italy, 
1,400;  Austria-Hungary,  1,200;  Asia,  exclusive  of  Japan,  1,000;  Spain, 
850;  Russia,  800;  Australia,  700;  Greece,  600;  Switzerland,  450;  Hol- 
land, 300;  Belgium,  300;  all  others,  1,000.  Of  these  about  half  are  printed 
in  the  English  language. 


THE  WORLD  AND  ITS  WA  YS.  353 

A  small  money-gift  to  persons  in  an  inferior  condition  on  the  day 
after  Chistmas,  is  termed  a  Christmas-Box,  which  is  hence  popularly 
called  Boxing-day.  The  term,  and  also  the  custom,  are  essentially 
English,  though  the  making  of  presents  at  this  season  and  at  the  New 
Year  is  of  great  antiquity. 

Silver  spoons  whose  handles  ended  in  figures  of  the  apostles,  a  common 
baptismal  present  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries,  were  called 
Apostle  Spoons.  The  fashion  has  been  revived  in  America  in  the  cus- 
tom of  presenting  "Souvenir"  spoons  on  returning  from  a  journey  to  a 
place  of  uncommon  interest. 

Following  are  the  society  titles  of  wedding  anniversaries:  First, 
cotton;  second,  paper;  third,  leather;  fifth,  wooden;  seventh,  woolen; 
tenth,  tin;  twelfth,  silk  and  fine  linen;  fifteenth,  crystal;  twentieth, 
china;  twenty-fifth,  silver;  thirtieth,  pearl;  fortieth,  ruby;  fiftieth, 
golden;  seventy-fifth,  diamond. 

Suttee  was  a  usage  long  prevalent  in  India,  in  accordance  with  which 
on  the  death  of  her  husband  the  faithful  widow  burned  herself  on  the 
funeral  pyre  along  with  her  husband's  body,  or,  if  he  died  at  a  distance, 
was  burned  on  a  pyre  of  her  own.  The  practice  was  in  use  in  India  as 
early  as  the  times  of  the  Macedonian  Greeks. 

Charivari  is  the  name  given  in  the  middle  ages  to  an  assemblage  of 
rag-a-muffins,  armed  with  tin  kettles,  pans  and  fire  shovels,  who  gathered, 
in  the  dark,  outside  the  house  of  an  obnoxious  person  to  torment  him  by 
their  hideous  noise.  The  practice  was  denounced  by  the  Council  of 
Trent  but  still  lingers  in  France  and  elsewhere. 

Hue  and  cry  is  a  phrase  derived  from  the  old  process  of  pursuit  with 
horn  and  voice,  used  in  old  English  law  to  describe  the  pursuit  of  felons. 
Whoever  arrested  the  person  pursued  wras  protected;  and  it  was  the  duty 
of  all  persons  to  join  in  a  hue  and  cry.  The  Hue  and  Cry,  a  police 
gazette  for  advertising  criminals,  was  established  in  1710. 

A  corsair  is  a  pirate  or  sea-robber,  and  especially  any  of  those  rovers 
who  in  former  times  cruised  from  the  Barbary  ports,  as  Algiers,  Tunis  or 
Tripoli,  and  became  the  terror  of  merchantmen  in  the  Mediterranean 
and  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  ravaging  the  coasts  and  seizing  shipping  as  far 
north  as  Cornwall,  Baltimore  in  Cork,  and  even  Iceland. 

In  Italy,  where  the  term  originated,  and  in  the  continental  watering 
places,  the  casino  is  a  place  where  musical  or  dancing  soirees  are  held, 
containing  a  conversation-room,  billiard-room,  and  rooms  for  other  kinds 
of  amusement,  as  well'  as  small  apartments  where  refreshments  may  be 
had.  In  England  a  dancing  saloon  is  sometimes  termed  a  casino. 

The  invention  of  chess  is  attributed  to  Palamedes,  about  680  B.C., 
though  also  attributed  to  the  Hindus.  It  is  a  game  of  skill  played 
with  figures  on  a  chequered  board.  It  continues  to  be  a  favorite  with 
all  civilized  nations  and  chess-clubs  have  long  been  established  in  the 
chief  cities.  An  international  chess  congress  was  held  at  London  in 
1851. 

Carol  was  originally  a  term  for  a  dance,  or  for  songs  intermingled  with 
dance,  came  afterwards  to  signify  festive  songs,  particularly  such  as  were 
sung  at  Christmas.  In  England  the  practice  of  singing  Christmas  carols 
was  widely  spread  as  early  as  the  fifteenth  century,  to  which  date  belong 
many  of  the  carols  printed  in  the  collections  of  Ritson,  Wright  and 
Sandys. 

U.  I.— 23 


354  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

Shillelagh  is  the  cudgel  carried  by  the  conventional  Irishman,  with 
which  he  is  supposed  to  delight  to  play  upon  the  heads  of  his  friends  on 
occasion.  The  name  is  borrowed  from  the  once  famous  oak-forest  of 
Shillelagh  in  the  southwest  corner  of  County  Wicklow,  which  in  Rufus' 
day  furnished  "  cobwebless  beams  "  for  the  roof  of  Westminster  Hall. 

The  bilge  is  that  part  of  the  bottom  of  a  ship  nearest  to  the  keel, 
and  always  more  nearly  horizontal  than  vertical.  A  ship  usually  rests 
on  the  keel  and  one  side  of  the  bilge  when  aground.  The  name  of  bilge- 
water  is  given  to  water  which  finds  its  way  into  the  bilge  or  lowest  part 
of  a  ship,  and  which,  when  not  drawn  off  by  the  pump,  becomes  dirty 
and  offensive. 

A  man  walks  3  miles  an  hour;  a  slow  river  flows  3  miles  an  hour; 
a  fast  river,  7  miles;  a  trotting  horse,  7  miles;  a  moderate  wind  blows  7 
miles;  sailing  vessels,  10  miles;  steamboats,  18  miles;  a  running  horse, 
20  miles;  a  storm,  36  miles;  a  hurricane,  80  miles;  sound,  743  miles; 
a  rifle  ball,  1,000  miles;  light,  192,000  miles  a  second:  electricity,  288,000 
miles  a  second. 

The  game  at  cards  called  Besique,  is  played  with  a  double  pack,  in 
which  the  objects  are  principally  to  promote  in  the  hand  certain  combina- 
tions which,  when  "declared,"  entitle  the  holder  to  score,  and  to  win  cer- 
tain cards  of  a  particular  value.  There  are  practically  no  restrictions  in  the 
game;  it  is  not  necessary  to  follow  suit;  and  two,  three,  or  four  players 
may  engage  in  it. 

Salmagundi  is  a  word  of  uncertain  origin,  unless  it  be  derived  from 
the  Countess  Salmagondi,  lady  of  honor  to  Marie  de'  Medici  and  the  in- 
ventor of  the  dish;  for  salmagundi  is  a  dish  of  minced  meat,  seasoned 
with  pickled  cabbage,  eggs,  anchovies,  olive-oil,  vinegar,  pepper,  and 
similar  ingredients.  In  an  applied  sense  the  words  means  a  pot-pourri, 
a  medley,  a  miscellany. 

The  proletariate  used  to  denote  the  lowest  and  poorest  classes  of  the 
community.  It  is  derived,  through  the  French,  from  the  Latin  prole- 
tarii,  the  name  given  in  the  census  of  Servius  Tullius  to  the  lowest  of 
the  centuries,  who  were  so  called  to  indicate  that  they  were  valuable  to 
the  state  only  as  rearers  of  offspring.  The  word  has  come  much  into  use 
in  the  literature  of  socialism. 

The  truck  system  is  the  system  of  paying  wages  in  goods  instead  of 
money.  Owing  to  the  numerous  abuses  arising  from  this  system  it  was 
abolished  in  Great  Britain  by  the  Act  of  1831,  which  provided  wages 
should  be  paid  in  money.  As  the  result  of  a  commission  which  sat  in 
1870,  the  previous  Act  was  amended  by  the  Act  of  1887.  The  same  sys- 
tem has  prevailed  to  a  large  extent  in  the  mining  districts  of  the  United 
States,  and  still  exists  in  a  few  places. 

Seraglio  is  an  Italian  word  meaning '  'enclosure' '  (from  sera,  '  'a  bolt' '), 
once  used  in  English  for  any  enclosure  such  as  the  Jews'  Ghetto  at  Rome, 
but  now  restricted  to  mean  a  harem  or  suite  of  women's  apartment,  ap- 
parently from  a  confusion  with  the  similar  but  totally  distinct  Persian 
(and  Turkish)  word  serai,  "a  king's  court,"  "palace,"  also  "a  caravan- 
serai. The  Seraglio  (eski  serai,  "old  palace"),  the  ancient  residence  of 
the  sultan  at  Constantinople,  stands  in  a  beautiful  situation,  where  Stam- 
boul  juts  farthest  into  the  Bosphorus,  and  encloses  within  its  walls  a  va- 
riety of  mosques,  gardens,  and  large  edifices,  the  chief  of  which  is  the 
Harem. 


THE  WORLD  AND  ITS  WAYS.  355 

A  popular  game  of  ball  much  played  in  Canada  and  recently  intro- 
duced into  this  country,  is  Lacrosse.  It  had  its  origin  in  a  game  of  the 
native  Indians.  Lacrosse  is  played  by  twenty-four  persons  equally 
divided  into  two  sides.  The  object  of  the  game  is  similar  to  that  of  foot- 
ball. The  implements  used  are  a  ball  and  a  curved  stick  (the  crosse]  with 
a  catgut  net  stretched  at  the  end. 

The  cornwallis  is  a  sort  of  mummers'  procession  once  held  in  the 
United  States  to  commemorate  the  struggle  for  independence,  typified 
by  the  surrender  at  York  Town  in  1781.  Prior  to  this  Cornwallis  made 
himself  formidable  to  the  Americans  in  the  battle  of  Brandywine,  by  the 
reduction  of  Charleston,  and  his  victories  at  Camden  and  Guilford.  The 
term  and  practice  are  alike  now  obsolete. 

The  term  claque  is  the  name  given  to  an  institution  for  securing  the 
success  of  a  play  or  performance,  by  bestowing  upon  it  preconcerted 
applause,  and  thus  giving  the  public,  who  are  not  in  the  secret,  a  false 
notion  of  the  impression  it  has  made  The  claque  is  of  great  antiquity, 
having  been  in  use  in  the  time  of  Nero,  but  now  prevails  chiefly  in  French 
theatres.  The  paid  applauders  are  called  ' '  claqueurs. ' ' 

The  frugal  Scottish  dish,  brose,  is  made  by  pouring  boiling  water, 
milk,  or  the  liquor  in  which  meat  has  been  boiled,  on  oatmeal,  and  mix- 
ing the  ingredients  by  immediate  stirring.  Butter  may  be  added,  and 
sweet  milk  when  the  brose  is  made  with  water.  It  is  kail-brose,  wat*r- 
brose  or  beef -brose,  according  to  the  liquid  used.  Athole-brose,  a  famous 
Highland  cordial,  is  a  compound  of  honey  and  whisky. 

The  charade  is  a  form  of  amusement  which  consists  in  dividing  a 
word  of  one  or  more  syllables  into  its  component  syllables,  or  into  its  com- 
ponent letters,  predicating  something  of  each;  and  then,  having  reunited 
the  whole,  and  predicated  something  of  that  also,  the  reader  or  listener 
is  asked  to  guess  the  word.  The  acted  charade  is  a  presentation  of  the 
parts  of  the  problem  in  dramatic  form,  usually  as  a  parlor  pastime. 

Curfew  was  a  bell  rung  in  early  days  in  England,  and  long  previously 
in  other  countries,  the  object  of  which  was  to  warn  the  people  to  cover 
up  their  fires  and  retire  to  rest.  The  time  for  ringing  these  bells  was 
sunset  in  summer,  and  about  eight  o'clock  in  winter;  and  certain 
penalties  were  imposed  upon  those  who  did  not  attend  to  the  signal. 
The  prevention  of  fires  was  the  original  purpose,  but  the  name  has  passed 
into  literature  as  a  synonym  for  nightfall. 

The  history  of  the  Great  Mogul  Diamond  runs  back  to  B.C.  56, 
but  little  is  known  of  it  till  the  fourteenth  century,  when  it 
was  held  by  the  rajah  of  Malwa.  Later  on  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
sultans  of  Delhi,  after  their  conquest  of  Malwa.  Tavernier  tells  us  he 
saw  it  among  the  jewels  of  Aurengzebe,  and  says  in  the  rough  state  it 
weighed  793^  carats.  The  Shah  Djihan  sent  it  to  Hortensio  Borgio,  a 
Venetian  lapidary,  to  be  cut,  when  it  was  reduced  to  186  carats. 

The  habit  of  eating  human  flesh  as  food,  known  as  Cannibalism,  or 
Anthropophagy,  is  widely  spread  at  the  present  moment  among  many 
of  the  lower  races,  but  has  also  not  infrequently  held  its  place  even 
among  peoples  at  a  comparatively  high  level  of  culture.  There  is  per- 
haps no  quarter  of  the  globe  which  has  been  free  from  what  appears  to 
our  eyes  a  practice  essentially  so  degrading  to  human  nature,  but  one 
hardly  so  repellent  to  minds  that  hold  no  very  exalted  notions  of  the 
inherent  superiority  of  the  human  animal. 


356  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

A  horse  will  travel  400  yards  in  4^  minutes  at  a  walk;  400  yards  in 
2  minutes  at  a  trot;  400  yards  in  1  minute  at  a  gallop.  He  can  carry  250 
pounds  25  miles  in  8  hours.  An  average  draught  horse  can  draw  1,600 
pounds  23  miles  on  a  level  road,  weight  of  carriage  included.  The  aver- 
age weight  of  a  horse  is  1,000  Ibs.,  and  his  strength  is  equal  to  5  men. 
A  horse  will  live  25  days  on  water  without  solid  food;  17  days  without 
eating  or  drinking;  but  only  5  days  on  solid  food  without  drinking. 

Australians  of  the  colony  of  Victoria  give  the  name  of ' '  Black  Thurs- 
day" to  Thursday,  February  6,  1851,  when  the  most  terrible  bush  fire 
known  in  the  annals  of  the  colony  occurred.  It  raged  over  an  immense 
area.  One  writer  in  the  newspapers  of  the  time  said  that  he  rode  at 
headlong  speed  for  fifty  miles,  with  fire  raging  on  each  side  of  his  route. 
The  heat  was  felt  far  out  at  sea,  and  many  birds  fell  dead  on  the  decks 
of  coasting  vessels.  The  destruction  of  animal  life  and  farming  stock  in 
this  conflagration  was  enormous. 

Jeunesse  Dore*e  ("gilded  youth"),  a  party  name  given  to  those 
young  men  of  Paris  who,  during  the  French  Revolution,  struggled  to 
bring  about  the  reaction  or  counter-revolution  after  Robespierre's  fall 
(27th  July,  1794).  Other  nicknames  bestowed  upon  the  same  party  were 
Muscadins  ("scented  darlings")  and  Petits-Maitres  ("elegants").  The 
term  jeunesse  doree  is  still  in  use  to  designate  young  men  about  town, 
who  always  go  elegantly  dressed,  have  the  air  of  spending  money,  and 
live  a  butterfly  life  of  enjoyment  and  pleasure. 

The  first  English  sparrow  was  brought  to  the  United  States  in  1850, 
but  it  was  not  until  1870  that  the  species  can  be  said  to  have  firmly  estab- 
lished itself.  Since  then  it  has  taken  possession  of  the  country.  Its  fecun- 
dity is  amazing.  In  the  latitude  of  New  York  and  southward  it  hatches, 
as  a  rule,  five  or  six  broods  in  a  season,  with  from  four  to  six  young  in  a 
brood.  Assuming  the  average  annual  product  of  a  pair  to  be  twenty-four 
young,  of  which  half  are  females  and  half  males,  and  assuming  further, 
for  the  sake  of  computation,  that  all  live,  together  with  their  offspring, 
it  will  be  seen  that  in  ten  years  the  progeny  of  a  single  pair  would  be  275,- 
716,983,698. 

The  socialistic  society  called  Brook  Farm,  had  its  locale  in  the  vi- 
cinity of  Boston.  Every  member  contributed  to  the  general  fund  or  paid 
his  quota  in  manual  or  other  work.  The  idea  was  suggested  by  Mar- 
garet Fuller,  but  the  society  was  organized  by  the  Rev.  W.  H.  Channing. 
The  members  boarded  in  common,  dressed  most  economically,  bought 
at  their  own  stores,  and  reduced  the  price  of  living  to  the  lowest  point. 
The  evening  were  spent  in  intellectual  amusements  or  social  gatherings. 
The  speculation  was  an  utter  failure,  and  after  six  years  the  "Farm"  was 
broken  up.  Emerson  often  visited  the  Farm,  and  Hawthorne  lived  there 
for  twelve  months. 

The  township,  or  vill,  the  oldest  proprietary  and  political  unit  of  the 
Germanic  races  was  an  organized  self-acting  group  of  families  exercising 
ownership  over  a  definite  area,  the  mark.  The  oldest  English  manors 
are  coterminous  with  townships;  the  parish,  a  later  division  than  the 
township,  and  originally  purely  ecclesiastical,  is  assumed  to  be  equiva- 
lent to  the  township  if  there  is  no  evidence  to  the  contrary.  In  the 
United  States  the  word  is  .variously  used  (1)  of  a  subdivision  of  a  county; 
(2)  the  corporation  composed  of  the  inhabitants  of  such  area;  or  some- 
times (3)  of  municipal  corporations  only  less  fully  organized  and  with 
fewer  powers  than  a  city. 


THE  WORLD  AND  ITS  WAYS.  357 

The  apartments  in  which  Indian  women  are  secluded,  correspond- 
ing to  the  harem  in  Arabic-speaking  Moslem  lands  is  called  the  zenana. 
In  India  the  Mahommedan  women  are  much  in  the  same  position  as  the 
women  in  the  other  less  bigoted  Mahommedan  countries.  Amongst 
those  of  the  Hindu  faith  the  women  of  all  castes  are  more  or  less  secluded, 
especially  among  the  well-to-do.  Till  about  1860,  when  zenana  missions 
were  organized  in  Bengal  by  Mr.  Fordyce,  Christian  women  were  not 
allowed  to  enter  a  Hindu  zenana.  Now  thousands  of  Hindu  ladies  are 
taught  by  British,  American  and  native  Christian  women,  some  of  whom 
are  completely  trained  medical  missionaries. 

Punishment  by  death  was  originally  the  form  of  punishment  for  all 
felonies;  it  is  now  restricted  to  cases  of  murder.  Several  attempts  have 
been  made  in  England  to  abolish  it.  Capital  punishment  has  been  abol- 
ished in  the  following  European  countries:  Belgium  (1863),  Switzerland 
(1874),  Roumania  (1864),  Holland  (1879).  In  Sweden,  Denmark,  North 
Germany,  Austria,  France,  and  Bavaria  there  exists  unwillingness  to 
enforce  capital  punishment.  In  several  States  in  the  United  States—  e  g. , 
Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Rhode  Island,  and  Maine — imprisonment  for  life 
has  been  substituted  for  capital  punishment.  In  New  York  electrocu- 
tion has  been  adopted  as  a  mode  of  punishment. 

A  favorite  amusement  of  the  ' '  good  old  times ' '  with  a  certain  regi- 
ment quartered  at  Kilkenny,  was  to  tie  two  cats  together  by  the  tails, 
swing  them  over  a  line,  and  watch  their  ferocious  attacks  upon  each 
other  in  their  struggles  to  get  free.  It  was  determined  to  put  down  this 
cruel  "sport"  ;  and  one  day,  just  as  two  unfortunate  cats  were  swung, 
the  alarm  was  given  that  the  colonel  was  riding  up  post  haste.  An  officer 
present  cut  through  their  tails  with  his  sword  and  liberated  the  cats, 
which  scampered  off  before  the  colonel  arrived.  Another  story  is  that 
two  cats  fought  in  a  saw-pit  so  ferociously  that  each  swallowed  the  other, 
leaving  only  the  tails  behind  to  tell  of  the  wonderful  encounter. 

In  the  early  ages  of  society,  almost  everywhere,  it  was  looked  upon 
as  the  duty  of  the  next  of  kin  as  the  avenger  of  blood  to  avenge  the  death 
of  a  murdered  relative;  but  among  some  primitive  peoples,  as  the  mod- 
ern Bedouins,  as  among  the  ancient  Anglo-Saxons,  the  right  is  annulled 
by  compensation.  The  Mosaic  law  did  not  set  aside  this  universal  in- 
stitution of  primitive  society,  but  placed  it  under  regulations,  prohibit- 
ing the  commutation  of  the  penalty  of  death  for  money,  and  appointing 
cities  of  refuge  for  the  involuntary  manslayer.  The  wilful  murderer  was, 
in  all  cases  whatever,  to  be  put  to  death  without  permission  of  compen- 
sation. The  nearest  relative,  whose  duty  it  was  to  hunt  down  the 
murderer,  was  called  Gael,  the  "redeemer"  or  "avenger." 

Many  scholars  contend  that  a  great  part  of  Europe  must  have  been 
brought  into  cultivation  by  means  of  village  communities.  A  clan  of 
settlers  took  a  tract  of  land,  built  their  huts  thereon,  and  laid  out  com- 
mon fields,  which  they  cultivated  in  common  as  one  family.  The  land 
was  divided  out  every  few  years  into  family  lots,  but  the  whole  continued 
to  be  cultivated  by  the  community  subject  to  the  established  customs  as 
interpreted  in  the  village  council  by  the  sense  of  the  village  elders.  This 
may  yet  be  seen  in  the  villages  of  Russia,  and  even  in  some  parts  of  Eng- 
land may  still  be  traced  the  ancient  boundaries  of  the  great  common 
field,  divided  lengthwise  into  three  strips  (one  fallow,  the  two  others  in 
different  kinds  of  crop),  and  again  crosswise  into  lots  held  by  the 
villagers. 


358  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

Ghee  (Ghi)  is  a  kind  of  clarified  butter  used  in  many  parts  of  India, 
and  generally  prepared  from  the  milk  of  buffaloes.  The  fresh  milk  is 
boiled  for  an  hour  or  more;  it  is  then  allowed  to  cool,  and  a  little  cur<- 
died  milk,  called  dhye,  is  added  to  promote  coagulation.  The  curdled 
mass  is  churned  for  half  an  hour;  some  hot  water  is  then  added,  and  the 
churning  continued  for  another  half  hour,  when  the  butter  forms.  When 
the  butter  begins  to  become  rancid,  which  is  usually  the  case  after  a 
few  days,  it  is  boiled  till  all  the  water  contained  in  it  is  expelled,  and  a 
little  dhye  and  salt,  or  betel-leaf,  is  added;  after  which  it  is  put  into 
closed  pots  to  be  kept  for  use.  It  is  used  to  an  enormous  extent  by  the 
natives  of  many  parts  of  India,  but  is  seldom  relished  by  Europeans. 

The  vigilance  societies  include  not  only  regulators  and  other  extreme 
exponents  of  lynch  law,  but  also  the  illegal  associations  which  spring  up 
from  time  to  time  in  all  parts  of  the  country  for  the  compulsory  im- 
provement of  local  morals,  and  the  punishment  of  those  who  either  re- 
fuse or  fail  sufficiently  to  reform  their  lives.  Such  organizations  as  the 
White  Caps,  at  home  in  the  eastern  and  central  states,  have  for  their  pro- 
fessed objects  the  suppression  of  vice  and  idleness;  they  send  formal 
warnings  to  those  citizens  whom  they  consider  to  be  neglectful  of  their 
homes,  too  partial  to  card  playing,  drinking,  etc. ;  and  if  this  warning  be 
disregarded,  inflict  such  punishment  as  whipping,  destruction  of  prop- 
erty, etc.  The  methods  of  the  modern  White  Caps  are  the  same  as  those 
of  the  Ku-Klux  Klan. 

University  extension  has  for  its  object  the  provision  of  "the  means  of 
higher  education  for  persons  of  all  classes,  and  of  both  sexes  engaged  in 
the  regular  occupations  of  life."  This  movement  commenced  with  the 
University  of  Cambridge  in  1872,  and  was  subsequently  taken  up  by  Ox- 
ford University,  the  London  Society  for  the  extension  of  University 
Teaching,  Dublin  University,  Owens  College,  Manchester,  the  Scottish 
Universities,  the  University  of  Sydney,  New  South  Wales,  and  the  Chau- 
tauqua  Home  Reading  Club  in  the  United  States.  In  1890  Cambridge, 
Oxford,  and  the  London  Society  had  two  hundred  and  twenty-seven 
centers,  seventy-nine  lectures,  and  40,336  students  attending  lectures. 
The  lecture-study  system  was  organized  in  the  United  States  at  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania.  Other  institutions,  notably  the  University 
of  Chicago  and  the  University  of  Wisconsin  have  engaged  in  the  work, 
and  many  centers  for  lectures  and  study  in  history,  science,  art,  and 
literature  have  been  formed. 

The  Koh-i-noor,  i.e.,  "Mountain  of  Light,"  one  of  the  largest  dia- 
monds in  the  world,  came  into  the  possession  of  Ala-u-din  soon  after 
1300.  It  fell  to  Baber  in  1526,  and  subsequently  to  Mahommed  Shah, 
great-grandson  of  Aurengzebe,  who  kept  it  hidden  in  his  turban;  but 
when  Nadir  Shah  took  possession  of  Delhi,  Mahommed  had  to  give  the 
diamond  to  the  conqueror.  It  passed  in  succession  to  Shah  Shuja,  and 
when  driven  from  Cabul  he  carried  it  to  Lahore,  when  Runjeet  Sing  got 
possession  of  it  and  had  it  set  in  a  bracelet,  1813  After  the  annexation 
of  the  Punjaub  by  the  English  the  crown  jewels  of  Lahore  were  confis- 
cated, and  the  Koh-i-noor  was  presented  to  Queen  Victoria  by  the  East 
India  Company  and  delivered  into  her  hands  June  3,  1850.  In  1889,  in 
a  most  insolent  letter,  Runjeet  Sing  demanded  its  restitution.  Its  weight 
was  186^  carats.  It  was  exhibited  in  the  Great  Exhibition  of  1851,  and 
valued  at  140, OOO/.  By  order  of  the  Queen  it  was  cut  into  a  brilliant  by 
Herr  Voorsanger,  whereby  the  weight  was  reduced  to  106 /^  carats. 


THE  WORLD  AND  ITS  WAYS.  359 

The  "rule  of  the  road"  in  the  United  States  is  "turn  to  the  right,"  in 
England  it  is  the  reverse.  The  rule  holds  in  this  country  in  the  case 
where  two  vehicles  going  in  opposite  diections  meet.  When  one  vehicle 
overtakes  another  the  foremost  gives  way  to  the  left  and  the  other  passes 
by  on  the  "offside,"  and  when  a  vehicle  is  crossing  the  direction  of 
another  it  keeps  to  the  left  and  crosses  in  its  rear.  These  two  rules  are 
the  same  in  this  country  and  in  England,  and  why  the  rule  concerning 
meeting  vehicles  should  have  been  changed  it  is  impossible  to  say.  We 
find  this  point  of  difference  noted  by  all  authorities,  but  no  reason  for  it 
is  ever  suggested.  Probably,  as  it  is  easier  to  turn  to  the  right  than  to 
the  left,  it  was  adopted  as  the  more  preferable  custom  in  some  of  the  early 
colonies,  and  in  due  time  became  embodied  in  local  law,  and  thus  was 
handed  down  to  later  time. 

The  Molly  Maguires  was  an  Irish  secret  society  which  during  the 
ten  years  preceding  1877  terrorized  the  coal  regions  of  Pennsylvania. 
The  name  was  imported  from  Ireland,  where  it  had  been  adopted  by  a 
branch  of  the  Ribbonmen,  whose  outrages  by  night  were  perpetrated  in 
female  disguise.  The  object  of  the  organization  in  Pennsylvania  ap- 
pears to  have  been  to  secure  for  its  members,  as  far  as  possible,  the  ex- 
clusive political  power  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  State.  Murders  were 
committed  in  the  open  day,  though  much  more  usually  by  night;  and 
the  terror  of  the  society  was  on  all  the  coal  country  until,  in  1876-77,  a 
number  of  the  leaders  were  convicted  and  executed,  mainly  by  the  evi- 
dence of  a  detective  named  McParlan,  who  had  acted  for  three  years  as 
secretary  of  the  Shenandoah  division. 

Capacity  of  the  largest  public  buildings  in  the  world:  Coliseum, 
Rome,  87,000;  St.  Peter's,  Rome,  54,000;  Theatre  of  Pompey,  Rome, 
40,000;  Cathedral,  Milan,  37,000;  St.  Paul's,  Rome,  32,000;  St.  Paul's, 
London,  31,000;  St.  Petronia,  Bologna,  26,000;  Cathedral,  Florence,  24,- 
300;  Cathedral,  Antwerp,  24,000;  St.  John  Lateran,  Rome,  23,000;  St. 
Sophia's,  Constantinople,  23,000;  Notre  Dame,  Paris,  21,500;  Theatre  of 
Marcellus,  Rome,  20,000;  Cathedral,  Pisa,  13,000;  St.  Stephen's,  Vienna, 
12,400;  St.  Dominic's,  Bologna,  12,000;  St.  Peters,  Bologna,  11,400;  Ca- 
thedral, Vienna,  11,000;  Gilmore's  Garden,  New  York,  8,443;  La  Scala, 
Milan,  8,000;  Auditorium,  Chicago,  7,000;  Mormon  Temple,  Salt  Lake 
City,  8,000;  St.  Mark's,  Venice,  7,500;  Spurgeon's  Tabernacle,  London, 
6,000;  Bolshoi  Theatre,  St.  Petersburg,  5,000;  Tabernacle  (Talmage's), 
Brooklyn,  5,000;  Music  Hall,  Cincinnati,  4,824. 

The  acclimated  word  boulevard  is  simply  the  name  given  in  France 
to  a  broad  street  or  promenade  planted  with  rows  of  trees.  Originally  it 
was  applied  to  the  bulwark  portion  of  a  rampart,  then  to  the  promenade 
laid  out  on  a  demolished  fortification.  The  boulevards  of  Paris  are  the 
most  famous.  The  line  from  the  Madeleine  to  the  Bastille  became  a 
walk  in  the  days  of  Louis  XIV. ,  and  then  a  street.  But  many  so-called 
recent  boulevards  in  Paris  and  elsewhere  are  simply  new  and  handsome 
streets,  planted  with  trees,  and  have  no  relation  to  old  fortifications  at 
all.  Some  parts  of  them  present  a  very  dazzling  spectacle,  and,  as  a 
whole,  they  afford  a  striking  exhibition  of  the  life  and  character  of  the 
French  capital  in  all  the  different  classes  of  society.  The  Boulevard  de 
la  Madeleine,  des  Capucines,  and  Montmartre  are  the  most  notable.  The 
Thames  Embankment  is  a  boulevard  in  the  usual  sense  of  the  term.  In 
the  United  States  the  term  is  applied  to  all  streets  on  which  no  traffic 
teams  are  permitted. 


360  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

In  feudal  times  villeins  were  a  species  of  serfs  who  cultivated  the 
portion  of  the  manor  reserved  by  the  feudal  lord  for  himself.  They  were 
bound  to  the  soil;  they  could  not  leave  the  manor,  and  their  service  was 
compulsory;  but  they  were  allowed  by  the  feudal  lord  to  cultivate  por- 
tions of  land  for  their  own  use.  These  lands,  which  they  held  ' '  at  the 
will  of  the  lord,  according  to  the  custom  of  the  manor  "—custom  which 
was  in  such  case  entered  in  the  roll  of  the  court-baron — frequently  passed 
from  father  to  son,  until  a  prescriptive  right  in  them  was  acquired;  and 
the  villeins,  whose  sole  title  was  an  authenticated  copy  of  these  entries, 
came  in  time  to  be  called  tenants  by  copy  of  court-roll,  and  their  tenures 
copyholds.  Villeinage  was  never  formally  abolished  in  England,  but  it 
ceased  to  exist  in  the  sixteenth  century. 

Hari-kari  is  a  term  applied  to  the  curious  Japanese  system  of  official 
suicide,  obsolete  since  1868.  The  Japanese  estimated  the  number  of  such 
suicides  at  500  per  annum.  All  military  men,  and  persons  holding  civil 
offices  under  the  government,  were  held  bound,  when  they  committed  an 
offence,  to  disembowel  themselves.  This  they  performed  in  a  solemn 
and  dignified  manner,  in  presence  of  officials  and  other  witnesses,  by 
one  or  two  gashes  with  a  short  sharp  sword  or  dagger  9>£  inches  long. 
Personal  honor  having  been  saved  by  the  self-inflicted  wound,  the  execu- 
tion was  completed  by  a  superior  executioner,  who  gave  the  coup  de 
grdce  by  beheading  the  victim  with  one  swinging  blow  from  a  long 
sword.  Japanese  gentlemen  were  trained  to  regard  the  hari-kari  as  an 
honorable  expiation  of  crime  or  blotting  out  of  disgrace. 

The  most  dreadful  earthquake  on  record  is  that  which,  November  1, 
1775,  destroyed  the  city  of  Lisbon,  Portugal.  The  only  warning  the  in- 
habitants received  was  a  noise  like  subterranean  thunder,  which,  without 
any  considerable  interval,  was  followed  by  a  succession  of  shocks  which 
laid  in  ruins  almost  every  building  in  the  city,  with  a  most  incredible 
slaughter  of  the  inhabitants  (60,000).  The  bed  of  the  river  Tagus  was  in 
many  places  raised  to  the  surface,  and  vessels  on  the  river  suddenly  found 
themselves  aground.  The  waters  of  the  river  and  the  sea  at  first  retreated 
and  then  immediately  rolled  violently  in  upon  the  land,  forming  a  wave 
over  forty  feet  in  elevation.  To  complete  the  destruction  a  large  quay, 
upon  which  great  numbers  of  the  people  had  assembled  for  security,  sud- 
denly sank  to  such  an  unfathomable  depth  that  not  one  body  ever  after- 
wards appeared  at  the  surface. 


TITLES,  OFFICES  AND  DIGNITIES. 
The  word  police  comes  from  polls,  a  city. 
Knight  in  the  original  Saxon  means  "  a  boy." 
Beg,  not  bey,  is  the  title  of  a  Turkish  governor. 
Oliver  Cromwell's  title  was  The  Lord  Protector. 
In  Scotland  the  mayor  of  a  town  is  called  provost. 
Duke  means  a  leader  and  was  first  a  military  title. 
Lieutenant  means  literally  "  holding  the  place  of." 
Garter-King-at- Arms  is  the  chief  herald  of  England. 
Lords  of  Appeal,  in  England,  are  made  peers  for  life. 
"  The  grand  old  gardener  "  is  a  poet's  title  for  Adam. 
The  Order  of  the  Garter  is  Britain's  highest  knighthood. 


THE   WORLD  AND  ITS  WAYS.  361 

Earl  means  an  elder.     Its  continental  equivalent  is  Count. 
A  marquis  was  originally  the  governor  of  a  frontier  province. 
Lictors  were  the  servants  who  attended  on  Roman  chief  magistrates. 
Mandarin  is  a  Portuguese,  not  a  native,  title  for  Chinese  high  officials. 
The  Great  Seal  of  England  is  the  symbol  of  the  Lord  Chancellor's 
office. 

.  Originally  a  sheik  was  an  Arab  chief ;  now  applied  to  Moslem  dig- 
nitaries. 

The  rank  of  admiral  was  first  created  in  this  country  (1866)  to  honor 
Farragut. 

Masters  in  Chancery  were  originally  the  assistants  to  the  Lord 
Chancellor. 

The  King-Maker  was  a  title  given  to  Richard  Nevil,  Earl  of  Warwick 
(1420-1471). 

Prince  Rupert  (1619-1682)  was  called  the  Mad  Cavalier  because  of 
his  reckless  daring. 

Lords  Spiritual  is  the  title  of  the  bishops  who  have  seats  in  the 
British  House  of  Lords. 

Incas  was  the  name  given  by  the  ancient  Peruvians  to  their  kings 
and  princes  of  the  blood. 

The  Master  of  the  Rolls  is  a  British  Judge  of  Chancery  who  keeps 
the  records  of  that  court. 

His  small  stature  and  original  army  rank  caused  Napoleon  to  be 
called  The  Little  Corporal. 

Robert  of  Normandy,  father  of  William  the  Conqueror,  well  earned 
the  title  of  Robert  the  Devil. 

The  Duke  of  Marlborough  (1650-1722)  was  dubbed  Corporal  John  by 
the  soldiers  who  served  under  him. 

Sahib,  an  Arabic  word  signifying  "lord"  is  the  title  of  courtesy  be- 
stowed by  Hind -Is  upon  Europeans. 

The  Iron  Duke  and  Marshal  Forward  were  both  popular  titles  of  the 
Duke  of  Wellington,  the  victor  of  Waterloo. 

Peers  of  the  House  of  Lords  are  generally  designated  Lords  Tem- 
poral in  contradistinction  to  the  Lords  Spiritual. 

The  title  applied  to  the  younger  princes  of  the  royal  houses  of  Spain 
and  Portugal  is  Infante.  A  princess  is  styled  Infanta. 

Titles  of  courtesy  are  those  titles  allowed  to  the  relatives  of  British 
peers  by  social  usage,  but  to  which  they  have  no  legal  right. 

An  officer  appointed  by  a  king  or  nobleman,  or  by  a  corporation,  to 
perform  domestic  and  ceremonial  duties,  is  called  a  Chamberlain. 

Overbury  says:  The  man  who  has  nothing  to  boast  of  but  his  illus- 
trious ancestry  is  like  a  potato — the  best  part  of  him  is  under  ground. 

The  Order  of  the  Bath  was  constituted  by  Henry  IV.  in  1399.  It 
comprises  Knights  Grand  Cross,  Knights  Commanders  and  Companions. 

A  commoner  is  anyone  in  England  under  the  rank  of  nobility;  also 
a  member  of  the  House  of  Commons.  At  some  of  the  great  schools  and 
at  Oxford,  a  class  of  students  eating  at  the  common  table  are  likewise 
termed  commoners. 


362  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

Archduke  and  archduchess  are  titles  now  borne  by  all  the  sons  and 
daughters  of  an  emperor  of  Austria,  and  by  their  descendants  through 
the  male  line. 

The  grade  of  titles  in  Great  Britain  stands  in  the  following  order 
from  the  highest:  A  prince,  duke,  marquis,  earl,  viscount,  baron, 
baronet,  knight. 

Scholarship,  a  benefaction,  generally  of  the  annual  proceeds  of  a  be- 
quest permanently  invested,  paid  for  the  maintenance  of  a  student  at  a 
university  or  at  a  school. 

A  charge  d'affaires  is  a  fourth-class  diplomatic  agent, accredited  not  to 
the  sovereign,  but  to  the  department  for  foreign  affairs;  he  also  holds  his 
credentials  only  from  the  minister. 

Defender  of  the  Faith  was  the  title  first  given  to  Henry  VIII.  by 
pope  Leo  X.,  for  a  volume  against  Luther,  in  defense  of  the  seven  sacra- 
ments. The  original  volume  is  in  the  Vatican. 

Advocatus  Diaboli  is  one  appointed  to  advance  every  conceivable 
reason  why  a  person  whose  name  is  submitted  for  canonization  should 
not  be  admitted  into  the  calendar  of  the  saints. 

The  East  Indian  term  Begum  is  a  title  of  honor  equivalent  to  "prin- 
cess," conferred  on  the  mothers,  sisters  or  wives  of  native  rulers.  The 
Begum  of  Oudh  is  well  known  in  Indian  history. 

The  name  Darbyites  is  often  applied  to  the  Plymouth  brethren  from 
their  principal  founder,  John  Nelson  Darby  (1800-82),  of  whose  collected 
writings  thirty- two  volumes  have  appeared  (1867-83). 

The  old  name  for  Christmas,  Yule,  is  still  used  in  Scotland  and  the 
north  of  England,  and  retained  in  the  term  "yule-log."  It  was  origin- 
ally, in  England  and  Scandinavia,  the  festival  of  the  winter  solstice. 

The  Imperial  Order  of  the  Crown  of  India  was  instituted  January  1, 
1878.  The  Queen,  the  Princess  of  Wales,  the  princesses  of  the  blood 
royal,  and  distinguished  ladies,  British  and  Indian,  constitute  the  order. 

Chouans  were  bands  of  royalist  Breton  peasants  organized  during  the 
French  Revolution,  1792,  by  three  brothers,  named  Cottereau.  The 
bands  got  their  name  from  Chat-huant,  screech  owl,  whose  cry  was  their 
signal.  They  were  suppressed  in  1830. 

The  familiar  term  "boss"  is  a  modified  form  of  the  Dutch  baas, 
master,  and  used  in  the  United  States  for  an  employer  of  labor,  or  a  local 
political  chief;  and  in  Britain  is  a  slang  wTord,  or  is  employed  humor- 
ously. To  "boss"  is  to  play  the  master. 

The  commandant  is  the  officer,  of  whatever  rank,  in  command  of  a 
fortress  or  military  post  of  any  kind.  The  title  is  also  given  to  an  officer 
commanding  a  larger  body  of  troops  than  is  proper  to  his  rank,  as  cap- 
tain-commandant, lieutenant-commandant. 

The  cardinal  is  the  highest  dignitary  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
next  to  the  popes,  who  are  selected  from  the  cardinals.  The  cardinals  are 
divided  into  three  classes,  six  bishops,  fifty  priests  and  fourteen  deacons, 
never  more  than  seventy  who  constitute  the  Sacred  College. 

A  Chatelaine  is  the  wife  of  the  chatelain  or  commander  of  a  feudal 
castle.  A  chaine  chdtelaine  or  simply  ch&telaine,  a  chain  such  as  a  lady 
chatelaine  might  wear,  is  a  chain  depending  from  the  waist,  to  which 
are  attached  keys,  scissors,  and  other  appliances  of  housewifery. 


THE  WORLD  AND  ITS  WAYS,  363 

Crest  is  a  heraldic  figure  or  ornament,  which  in  its  original  use  sur- 
mounted the  helmet.  Though  often  popularly  regarded  as  the  most 
important  part  of  the  heraldic  insignia  of  a  family,  it  is,  in  the  eyes  of 
heralds,  merely  an  accessory,  without  which  the  bearing  is  complete. 

Ambassadors  in  early  days  received  no  salary,  the  honor  of  serving 
a  monarch  being  deemed  more  than  a  compensation  for  their  services. 
Nor  did  they  ever  tender  pay  for  their  lodging  at  a  foreign  couit,  but  in- 
stead expected  to  receive  at  their  departure  presents  of  considerable  value. 

Chevalier  was  a  honorary  title  given,  especially  in  the  eighteenth 
century,  to  younger  sons  of  French  noble  families.  Their  indolence 
and  impecuniosity  not  seldom  led  them  into  devious  ways,  so  that  the 
term  chevalier  d'  Industrie  became  a  synonym  for  highwayman  or  swin- 
dler. 

A  Spanish  order  instituted  (1170)  by  Ferdinand  II.,  to  stop  the  in- 
roads of  the  Moors,  was  that  of  San  Yago,  or  St.  James.  Proof  of  noble 
descent  through  four  generations  was  required  from  the  knights.  The 
political  power  of  the  order  ceased  in  1522,  and  it  has  since  been  solely 
an  order  of  nobility. 

The  title  of  Count  is  of  considerable  antiquity.  We  find  it  used  in 
mediaeval  and  modern  Europe.  Earl  is  in  one  view  supposed  to  be  anal- 
ogous to  it,  the  Latin  equivalent  of  each  being  the  same,  and  the  wife 
of  an  earl  being  a  countess.  In  French  the  title  is  comte,  Italian,  conte, 
and  in  Spanish,  conde. 

Envoy  is  a  diplomatic  minister  of  the  second  order— i.e.  inferior  in 
rank  to  an  ambassador.  Like  the  latter,  he  receives  his  credentials  im- 
mediately from  the  sovereign,  though  he  represents  not  his  prince's  per- 
sonal dignity,  but  only  his  affairs.  The  envoy  is  thus  superior  in  rank 
to  the  Charge"  d' Affaires. 

In  the  United  States  navy,  commanders  have  a  rank  next  below  that 
of  captain,  and  next  above  that  of  a  lieutenant-commander,  and  rank 
with  lieutenant-colonels  in  the  army.  The  commander  in  the  British 
navy  is  an  officer  next  under  a  captain  in  rank,  and  serves  either  as 
second  in  command  in  a  large  ship,  or  in  independent  command  of  a 
smaller  vessel. 

Sovereign,  in  politics,  is  the  person  or  body  of  persons  in  whom  the 
supreme  executive  and  legislative  power  of  a  state  is  vested.  In  limited 
monarchies  sovereignty  is  in  a  qualified  sense  ascribed  to  the  king,  who 
though  the  supreme  magistrate,  is  not  the  sole  legislator.  A  state  in 
which  the  legislative  authority  is  not  trammeled  by  any  foreign  power 
is  called  a  sovereign  state. 

The  King  of  France:  So  the  monarchs  of  France  were  called  till 
October,  1789,  when  the  National  Assembly  ordained  that  Louis  XVI. 
should  not  be  styled  "King  of  France,"  but  "King  of  the  French." 
The  royal  title  was  abolished  in  France  in  1792,  but  was  restored  in  1814. 
When  Louis  Philippe  was  invited  in  1830  to  take  on  himself  the  govern- 
ment, he  was  styled  "King  of  the  French." 

The  Mufti  is  a  "doctor  of  the  law"  in  the  Mussulman  religion.  He 
interprets  both  the  text  and  ideas  of  the  Koran.  The  Grand  Mufti, 
called  the  "Sheik-ul-Islam, "  resides  at  Constantinople,  and  is  head  of 
the  lawyers  and  priests  or  ulemas.  His  ordinances,  called  fetfas,  must 
be  blindly  obeyed.  It  is  the  Grand  Mufti  who  girds  on  the  sultan's 
sword  at  his  coronation.  Every  town  has  its  mufti. 


364  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION 

Khedive,  a  title  granted  in  1867  by  the  Sultan  to  his  tributary  the 
Viceroy  of  Egypt,  and  since  then  used  by  the  latter  as  his  official  title. 
The  word  (pronounced  as  a  dissyllable)  is  derived  from  Persian  khidiv, 
and  means  "sovereign."  It  is  therefore  a  more  dignified  title  than  the 
former  one  of  vali,  "viceroy." 

Commander-in-chief  is  the  highest  staff  appointment  in  the  British 

'  army.     After  the  death  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington  in  1852,  this  title, 

which  had  been  borne  by  him  for  many  years,  was  allowed  to  lapse.     It 

was  recently  again  bestowed  on  the  Duke  of  Cambridge,  in  honor  of  his 

fifty  years'  service  in  the  army. 

Admiral  is  the  title  of  the  highest  rank  of  naval  officers.     The  office 

originated  with  the  Arabs  in  Spain  and  Sicily,  and  was  adopted  with  the 

name  by  the  Genoese,    French  and  the  English  under  Edward  III.  as 

4 '  amyrel  of  the  se. ' '     Admirals  are  generally  of  three  classes — admirals, 

vice-admirals  and  rear-admirals. 

In  India,  and  especially  in  Bengal,  the  Zemindar  is  the  landed  pro- 
prietor, who  pays  the  government  land-revenue,  as  opposed  to  the  "ryot," 
the  actual  cultivator  of  the  soil.  Under  the  Mogul  government  the 
zemindar  was  originally  merely  a  government  official,  charged  with  the 
collection  of  the  land  revenue,  and  with  no  rights  in  the  land.  These  he 
acquired  under  the  Permanent  Settlement  of  Lord  Cornwallis. 

Sizar,  the  name  of  an  order  of  students  at  Cambridge  and  Dublin 
universities,  so  called  from  the  allowance  of  victuals  (size]  made  to  them 
from  the  college  buttery.  Duties  of  a  somewhat  menial  kind,  such  as 
waiting  upon  the  fellows  at  table,  were  originally  required  of  the  sizars, 
but  these  have  long  since  gone  into  disuse.  At  Oxford  there  was  form- 
erly a  somewhat  similar  order  of  students  denominated  Servitors. 

Dauphin  was  the  title  of  the  eldest  son  of  the  French  king,  and  origin- 
ally that  of  the  sovereign  lords  of  the  province  of  Dauphine,  who  bore  a 
dolphin  as  their  crest.  The  last  of  these,  the  childless  Humbert  III., 
in  1343  bequeathed  his  possessions  to  Charles  of  Valois,  grandson  of 
Philippe  VI.  of  France,  on  condition  that  the  eldest  soft  of  the  king  of 
France  should  bear  the  title  of  Dauphin  of  Vienne,  and  govern  the 
province. 

Czar  (more  properly  Tsar,  Tzar,  or  Zar),  the  title  of  the  emperors  of 
Russia.  The  word  occurs  early  in  Old  Slavonic,  equivalent  to  king  or 
kaiser,  and  is  connected  with  the  Latin  Cczsar,  continued  in  the  Roman 
empire  as  a  title  of  honor  long  after  the  imperial  house  itself  had  become 
extinct.  In  the  Slavonic  Bible  the  word  basileus  is  rendered  by  czar;  Caesar 
(kaisar]  by  Cesar.  In  the  Russian  chronicles  also  the  Byzantine  emper- 
ors are  styled  czars,  as  are  also  the  khans  of  the  Mongols  who  ruled 
over  Russia. 

The  grandees  of  Spain — "  grandes  de  Espafia  de  primera  clase" — are 
in  some  sort  peers  of  the  kingdom  who  enjoy  certain  privileges  at 
court,  though  they  are  not,  nor  have  ever  been,  legislators  by  right  of 
birth.  They  are  supposed  to  be  by  courtesy  cousins  of  royalty,  and  they 
can  always  enter  the  palace  and  claim  an  audience  of  the  sovereign  at 
any  time,  while  the  greatest  of  Spanish  untitled  statesmen  and  generals 
must  ask  for  and  obtain  an  audience  before  they  can  enter  the  royal 
ante-chambers.  Only  the  field  marshals,  the  prelates,  and  the  knights 
of  the  Golden  Fleece  enjoy  the  same  footing  as  the  grandees  of  the  first 
class. 


THE  WORLD  AND  ITS  WA  YS.  365 

Sheikh  (Arab.,  "elder,"  "aged  person"),  a  title  applied  to  the  chief- 
tain of  an  Arab  tribe,  to  the  principal  preacher  in  a  Mahommedan 
mosque,  to  the  head  of  a  religious  order,  and  to  a  learned  man  or  a 
reputed  saint  of  Islam.  The  Sheikh  ul-Islam  at  Constantinople  is  the 
head  of  the  Mahommedan  church;  he  is  possessed  of  very  great  influ- 
ence and  power.  Sheikh  al-Jebel  (Old  Man  of  the  Mountain)  was  the 
name  of  the  chief  of  the  Assassins. 

Shah  (Persian,  "king,"  "monarch,"  "prince"),  the  general  title  of 
the  supreme  ruler  in  Persia,  Afghanistan  and  other  countries  of  southern 
and  central  Asia.  The  sovereign,  however,  may,  and  outside  of  Persia 
frequently  does,  decline  the  title,  assuming  in  its  place  that  of  Khan,  an 
inferior  and  more  common  appellation.  The  same  title  can  also  be 
assumed  by  the  shah's  sons,  and  upon  all  the  princes  of  the  blood  the 
cognomen  Shah-zada  ("king's  son")  is  bestowed. 

Originally  the  word  consul  was  applied  to  the  two  chief  magistrates 
of  the  Roman  republic.  Later  it  was  used  of  the  chief  magistrates  of 
France  after  the  Revolution  when  Bonaparte  was  First  Consul.  Now  it 
is  applied  to  that  officer  whom  the  government  maintains  in  a  foreign 
country  for  the  protection  of  its  trade  and  vindication  of  the  rights  of 
its  merchants,  and  to  whom  the  further  duty  is  assigned  of  keeping  the 
home  governmeut  informed  of  all  facts  bearing  on  the  commercial  in- 
terests of  the  country. 

The  calif  is  the  successor  of  Mahommed  the  prophet,  both  in  tem- 
poral and  spiritual  power.  At  first  there  was  but  one  calif,  whose  em- 
pire was  called  the  califate,  which  for  three  centuries  exceeded  the 
Roman  empire  in  extent;  but  in  970  there  were  three  califates,  viz.  one 
at  Bagdad,  one  at  Cairo,  and  one  at  Cordeva.  In  1031  the  califate  of  Cor- 
deva  ceased.  In  1158  the  calif  of  Bagdad  fled  to  Egypt  before  the  sword 
of  the  Monguls.  In  1517  the  Turks  conquered  Egypt,  and  the  sultan 
thus  became  the  one  and  only  calif. 

In  England  the  higher  nobility  consists  of  the  five  temporal  ranks 
of  the  peerage— duke,  marquis,  earl,  viscount  and  baron— who  have  seats 
in  the  House  of  Lords.  The  dignity  was  originally  territorial.  It  is 
hereditary;  but  by  the  Appellate  Jurisdiction  Act,  1876  (amended  1887), 
a  certain  number  of  life  peers  have  been  created,  styled  Lords  of  Appeal 
in  Ordinary.  In  England  only  the  head  of  a  noble  family  is  noble;  on 
the  Continent  all  the  members  of  a  noble  family  are  noble.  Baronets, 
who  belong  to  the  lower  nobility,  were  first  created  by  James  I.  (1611). 

General:  (1)  The  term  is  applied  in  the  army  to  the  rank  next  be- 
low field-marshal.  There  are  three  grades  in  the  British  service — viz., 
General,  Lieutenant-General,  and  Major-General.  (2)  In  the  United 
States  the  rank  of  general,  a  higher  rank  than  had  before  existed,  was 
created  by  act  of  congress  in  1866,  and  conferred  on  General  Grant.  It 
was  subsequently  conferred  on  Sherman  and  on  Sheridan.  The  highest 
rank  held  by  Washington  was  that  of  lieutenant-general,  which  is  also 
usually  that  of  the  general-in-chief  of  the  army.  There  is,  of  course,  but 
one  lieutenant-general;  and  bylaw  there  can  be  but  three  major-genej-als 
and  six  brigadier-generals.  The  general's  yearly  pay  is  $13,500;  the 
lieutenant-general's  is  $11,000;  the  major-general's,  $7,500;  the  brigadier- 
general's,  $5,000.  In  the  militia  of  some  of  the  states  there  are  major- 
generals  and  brigadier-generals,  and  the  title  of  general  as  a  form  of  ad- 
dress is  in  the  United  States  often  given  indiscriminately  to  those  hold- 
ing these  ranks. 


366 


MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 


Sheriff,  or  shereef,  designates  a  descendant  of  Mahommed  through 
his  daughter  Fatima  and  AH.  The  title  is  inherited  both  from  the  pater- 
nal and  the  maternal  side,  and  thus  the  number  of  members  of  this 
aristocracy  is  very  large  among  the  Moslems.  The  men  have  the  privi- 
lege of  wearing  green  turbans,  the  women  green  veils,  green  being  the 
prophet's  color.  Many  of  these  sheriffs  founded  dynasties  in  Africa; 
the  line  which  rules  in  Morocco  boasts  of  this  proud  designation. 

Promotion  of  officers  by  selection  to  a  higher  rank  irrespective  of 
there  being  any  vacancies  in  its  established  numbers,  is  termed  Brevet. 
A  general  promotion  by  Congress  (July  6, 1812),  authorized  the  President 
to  confer  brevet  rank  on  officers  of  the  army  distinguished  for  valor,  or  of 
ten  years'  service  in  any  one  grade.  Restricted  by  Act  of  Congress 
(April  16,  1818).  On  incorporation  of  Volunteers  (March,  1863),  it  was 
decided  that  officers  of  the  army  of  higher  rank  who  had  served  with  the 
Volunteers,  might  receive  Volunteer  brevet  rank.  In  July,  1870,  officers 
holding  brevet  commission  were  forbidden  to  wear  any  uniform  except 
that  of  their  actual  rank,  or  to  use  any  other  title  in  official  communi- 
cations. 


PREVIOUS  WORLD'S  FAIRS. 


YEAR. 

WHERE   HELD. 

ACRES  BLDGS. 

EXHIBITORS. 

ADMISSIONS. 

DAYS  OPEN. 

1851 

21 

17000 

6  039  195 

144 

1855 

Paris    

24  yz 

22000 

5,162  330 

200 

1862 
1867 

London  
Paris  

23>/2 
37 

29,000 
52,000 

6,211,103 
10,200,000 

171 
217 

1873 

1876 
1878 

Vienna  
Philadelphia...   . 
Paris      .           ... 

40 
60 
60 

42,000 
60,000 
52000 

7,254,687 
9,910,996 
13,000000 

186 
159 
494 

1889 

Paris  

nx 

60,000 

32.354,1)1 

183 

REMARKABLE  MODERN  PLAGUES. 


DATE. 

PLACE. 

DEATHS. 

WEEKS. 

DEATHS    PER 

WEEK. 

1656 

Naples 

380000 

28 

10  400 

1665 

68  800 

33 

2  100 

1720 

Marseilles  

39  100 

36 

1  100 

1771 

87  800 

32 

2  700 

1778 

170000 

18 

9  500 

1798 

Cairo                          

88000 

25 

3  500 

1812 

144  000 

13 

11  100 

1834 

Cairo                

57,000 

18 

3  200 

1835 

Alexandria                    .   .  . 

14  900 

17 

900 

1871 

Buenos  Ayres  

26,300 

11 

2,400 

GREAT  FAMINES  OF  HISTORY. 

Walford  mentions  160  famines  since  the  eleventh  century,  namely, 
England,  57;  Ireland  34;  Scotland,  12;  France,  10;  Germany,  11;  Italy, 
etc.,  36.  The  worst  in  modern  times  have  been: 

NO.   OF  VICTIMS. 

48,000 
1,029,000 
1,450,000 

Deaths  from  hunger  and  want  were  recorded  as  follows  in  1879,  ac- 
cording to  Mulhall:  Ireland,  3,789;  England,  312;  London,  101;  France, 
260.  The  proportion  per  1,000  deaths  was,  respectively,  37.6,  .6,  1.2,  .3. 


COUNTRY.  DATE. 

France 1770 

Ireland 1847 

India 1866 


THE  WORLD  AND  ITS  WAYS. 
RULERS   OF   ALL  NATIONS. 


367 


COUNTRY. 

Ruler. 

1 

Acceded. 

12  March,  1889 
1880 
12  Oct.,       1892 
2  Dec.,      1848 
1857 
10  Dec.,      1865 
12  Nov.,      1885 
15  Aug.,      1888 
23  Nov.,      1891 
7  July,      1887 
19  Nov.,      1891 
12  Jan.,      1875 
7  Aug.,     1886 
8  May.,     1890 
15  Nov.,      1863 
1  Sept.,     1886 
30  June,     1892 
7  Jan.,      1892 
3  Dec.,      1887 

15  June,     1888 

13  June,     1886 
29  Oct.,       1873 
6  Oct.,       1891 
5  Sept.,     1856 
13  March,  1892 
22  May,      1871 
21  Oct.,       1885 
15  April,    1883 
6  Sept.,     1860 
27  Feb.,      1853 
29  Aug.,      1893 
15  May,      1845 
20  June,     1837 
30  (18)  Mr.  1863 
1892 

Afghanistan.            
Argentine  Republic 

Abdur  Rahman  Khan,  A  mir  
Dr  lyiiis  Saenz  Pena   President       .... 

1845 
J830 

Baluchistan  

Mir  Khodadal,  Khan  

Leopold  II    King     

1835 

Seid  Abdul  Ahad,  A  mir  
Don  An  ice  to  Arce,  President  

Bolivia  
Brazil  (United  States  of)  . 
Bulgaria  
Chile        

General  Floriano  Peixoto  President    .... 

1861 
1847 
1871 

Ferdinand  of  Saxe-Coburg,  Prince  
Admiral  Jorge  Montt,  President  

China                   .   . 

Kuang  Hsu   Emperor 

Colombia  

Rafael  Nunez,  President  

Costa  Rica 

Jos<5  J.  Rodriguez,  President    .   .         

isis 

i874 
1837 

1859 

1848 
1828 
1848 
1826 
1868 
1831 
1837 
1851 
18'9 
1827 
1844 
1831 
1819 
1845 

Christian  IX     King 

Dominican  Republic  
Ecuador                

General  Ulises  Heureaux,  President    . 
Don  Condero   President. 

E  crypt 

Abbas  Pasha   Khedive 

France  
Germany 

Marie  Francois  Sadi  Carnot,  President  
William  II  ,  Emperor.           ...                 | 

Prussia  

William  II.,  King.,  j 

Bavaria  

Otto  King  (Prince  Luitpold,  Regent 

Saxony  
Wurtemburg  

Albert,  King    
William  II.,  King  ,  

Baden           

Frederick,  Grand  Duke  .                

Hesse  
Anhalt  
Brunswick  
Mecklenburg-Schwerin 
Mecklenburg-Strelitz  .  . 
Oldenburg  
Saxe-Coburg  and  Gotha 
Waldeck-Pyrmont  
Great  Britain,  Ireland,  etc. 
Greece  

Louis  V.,  Grand  Duke  
Frederick,  Duke  

Prince  Albrecht  Regent 

Frederick  Francis  III.,  Grand  Duke:  
Frederick  William,  Grand  Duke  
Peter    Grand  Duke      

Ernest  Albert,  Duke  

George  Victor,  Prince..          

Victoria    Queen  etc    

George,  King  
Gen.  Jos6  Maria  Reina  Barrios,  President 
Interregnum         ..   . 

Hawaii  
Hayti               .   . 

General  L.  M.  F.  Hyppolyte,  President  .  .  . 
General  Leiva  President      

17  Oct.,       1889 
1  Dec        1891 

Honduras  .  .-  

Italy             

Humbert   King 

1844 
1852 

1817 
1861 

isii 

1831 

1874 
1880 

9  Jan.,      1878 
13  Feb.,      1866 
7  Jan.,      1892 
23  Nov.,      1890 
13  July,      1883 
1  Dec.,      1884 
14  Aug.,     1860 
25  Sept.,     1873 

1881 
23  Nov.,     1890 
1  March,  1891 
4  June,     1888 
18  Dec.,      1888 
25  Sept.,     1890 
10  Sept.,     1848 
10  Aug.,     1890 
19  Oct.,       1889 
26  March,  1881 
13  (1)  Mr.,  1881 
11  Sept.,     1890 
11  June,     1868 
6  March,  1889 
1  Oct.,       1868 
17  May,      1886 
IS  Sept.,     1872 
17  Dec..      1891 

Japan 

Mutsu  Hito,  Emperor  (or  Mikado)  
J.  J.  Cheesman,  President  
Adolphus    Grand  Duke 

ifcia.:::::::..:.  ::.:".: 

Luxemburg  

Madagascar 

Mexico    
Montenegro  .  .   
Morocco 

General  Porfirio  Diaz,  President  
Nicholas   Prince 

Muleyel  Hassan,  Sultan  
Prithivi  Beer  Bikram  Shum  Shere  Jung 
Bahadur   Maharaja 

Nepaul  

Netherlands  

Wilhelmina  (a  minor)    Queen  

Nicaragua     .          .... 

Dr.  Robert  Sacasa,  President    
Seyyid  Feysal  bin  Turkee   Sullan 

Oman 

Orange  Free  State 

Dr  F  W   Reitz   President 

Paraguay  
Persia 

Juan  G.  Gonzalez,  President  
Nasir-ed-Din  Shah            ...                    .... 

i829 
1836 
1863 
1839 
1845 

i829 
1876 
1853 

1886 
1829 

Peru                    

Col.  Remjio  Morales  Bermudez,  President. 
Dom  Carlos,  King  
Charles,  King  

Roumania  

Russia               ...         .  . 

Alexander  III    Emperor    .          .... 

General  Carlos  Ezeta.  President  
SirChas.  Johnson  Brooke,  G.C.M  G.,  Raja 
Alexander  (  Obrenovitch  )  ,  King     
Phrabat  Somdet  Phra  Yiihua,  King  
Alfonso  XIII   (a  minor)   King 

Sarawak  

Servia             

Siam           

Sweden  and  Norway  
Switzerland.  .  .  . 

Oscar  II.,  King  

Walter  Hauser,  President..  .  . 

368 


MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 


RULERS   OF   ALL  NATIONS.— Concluded. 


.     COUNTRY. 

Ruler. 

ri 
% 

« 

Acceded. 

Transvaal  (S.A.  Republic) 
Tripoli  

S  J   P  Paul  Kriiger,  President  

1821 

1817 

1842 
1837 

April,     1883 
Nov.,      1881 
28  Oct.,       1882 
31  Aug.,      1876 
4  March,  1893 
1  March,  1890 
10  Oct.,       1892 
13  Feb.,      1890 

Ahmed  Rassim  Pasha,  Governor-General. 
Sidi  Ali  Pasha,  Bey  

Tunis 

Turkey  
United  States  (America). 
Uruguay  
Venezuela  
Zanzibar 

Abdul  Hamid  II    Sultan                 .... 

Grover  Cleveland,  President  
Dr  Julio  Herrera  y  Obes  President 

General  Crespo,  Provisional  President  
Seyyid  Ali  Sultan    

AREA  AND  POPULATION  OF  THE  CONTINENTS. 

The  following  table  shows  the  area,  population,  and  density  of  popu- 
lation in  each  of  the  divisions  of  the  earth: — 


Area:  square  miles. 

Population. 

Population  per  square  mile. 

Europe  

3  797  410 

357851,580 

94 

Asia 

17  039  066 

825  954  000 

48 

Africa  

11,518,104 

168,499,017 

14 

Australasia 

3458029 

5684  600 

1-6 

North  America  
South  America  .    ... 

7,952,386 
6844  602 

88,386,084 
33  342  700 

11 
5 

Polar  islands 

50,609,597 
1  689  834 

1,479,717,981 
11  170 

29 

Total  

52,299,431 

1,479,729,151 

28 

SALARIES  OF  THE  CROWNED  HEADS. 


Austria-Hungary,  Emperor  of,  $3,875,000. 

Bavaria,  King  of,  $1,412,000. 

Belgium,  King  of,  $660,000. 

Denmark,   King  of,  $^27,775;  and  Crown 

Prince,  $33,330. 
Greece  King  of,  $260,000,  including  $20,OOC 

a  year  each   from  Great  Britain,  France 

and  Russia. 
Netherlands,  King  of,  $250,000,  also  a  large 

revenue  from  domains,   and  $62,500  for 

royal  family,  courts,  and  palaces. 
Italy,  King  of,  $2,858,000,  of  which  $180,000 

for  family. 

Norway  and  Sweden,  King  of  $575,525. 
Portugal,  King  of,  $634,440. 


Prussia,  King  of,  $3,852,770;  also  a  vast 
amount  of  private  property,  castles,  for- 
ests, and  estates,  out  oi  which  the  court 
expenditure  and  royal  family  are  paid. 

Roumania,  King  of,  $237,000. 

Russia,  Czar  of,  has  private  estates  of  more 
than  1,000,000  square  miles  of  cultivated 
land  and  forests,  besides  gold  and  other 
mines  in  Siberia.  The  annual  income 
has  been  estimated  at  about  $12,000,000. 

Saxony,  King  of,  $735,000. 

Servia,  King  of,  $240,000. 

Spain,  King  of,  $1,400,000,  besides  $600,000 
for  family. 

Wurtemberg,  King  of,  $449,050. 


CROSSING    THE    LINE. 

The  first  authentic  account  of  the  ordeal  observed  on  board  ship 
dates  1702.  One  sailor  represents  Neptune  and  another  his  wife 
Amphitrite;  another  hiis  barber  and  the  rest  his  suite.  All  dress  in  the 
most  grotesque  raiment  they  can  obtain.  A  tarred  topsail  is  formed 
into  a  bath,  and  a  throne  is  provided  for  Neptune  and  his  wife.  Those 
midshipmen  who  have  never  crossed  the  line  are  then  brought  forth, 
while  the  men  pour  over  them  buckets  of  water,  or  play  the  fire  hose 
into  their  faces.  Their  faces  being  tarred  are  scraped  by  the  barber,  and 
the  victims  are  then  soused  into  the  bath  provided.  Here  they  are  left  to 
struggle  out  and  make  their  escape  as  they  best  can.  This  horse-play  is 
now  almost  entirely,  and  in  most  cases  wholly  abolished. 


THE  WORLD  AND  ITS  WAYS. 


369 


STATISTICS   OF  ALL  THE   CHIEF  COUNTRIES. 


COUNTRIES. 

Population. 

Sq.  Miles. 

Capitals. 

British  Empire                              

327,645,000 

9,043,577 

London. 

China  ,  

303,241,969 

4,468,750 

Peking. 

108  787  244 

8  457  289 

St   Petersburg 

France  and  Colonies  

65  894  242 

1  167  239 

Paris. 

France                             .  .   . 

38218903 

204  177 

27  675  339 

963062 

United  States     

62622250 

3602990 

Washington 

46  855  704 

211  108 

Berlin 

Prussia  

28313833 

134,467 

Berlin. 

Bavaria              

5416  180 

29291 

Munich. 

3  129  168 

5789 

Dresden 

1  994  849 

7  531 

Stuttgart 

Baden  .     .  .  T.     .              

1  600839 

5803 

Karlsruhe 

Alsace-Lorraine 

1  563  145 

5  602 

Hesse 

956  170 

2  965 

575  140 

5  137 

Schwerin 

518  712 

'l58 

372  580 

1  425 

Oldenburg  

341  250 

2479 

Oldenburg 

Saxe-  Weimar                                      .   .  . 

313  668 

1  387 

Weimar 

Anhalt                                          

247603 

906 

Saxe-Meiningen                 

214,697 

953 

Meiningen 

Saxe-Coburg  Gotha              

198  717 

760 

Gotha 

166392 

99 

161,129 

511 

Altenburg. 

123250 

472 

Detmold 

112  118 

319 

Gera 

98  371 

1  131 

Neu  Strelitz 

Schwarzburg  Rud     

83939 

363 

Rudolstadt 

73  623 

333 

Lubeck 

67  658 

115 

Waldeck                                 

56  565 

433 

Arolsen 

53787 

122 

Greiz 

Schaumburg  Lippe  

37,204 

131 

Buckeburg. 

Austro-Hungarian  Empire  

41,827,700 
39607234 

201,591 
147  669 

Vienna. 
Tokio 

33042238 

778  187 

Turkish  Empire                          .         

32000000 

1  731  280 

Constantinople. 

Italy 

29,£99  785 

110  665 

Spain  and  Colonies  

24,873,621 

361  953 

Madrid. 

Brazil                                               

14,000,000 

3219000 

Rio  de  Janeiro 

11  520041 

751  700 

Mexico 

Corea                   

10,519,000 

85,000 

Seul. 

Congo  State 

8000000 

802000 

7653600 

636000 

Teheran 

Portugal  and  Colonies  

7  249  050 

240,691 

Lisbon. 

Egypt  *                                              

6806381 

494000 

Cairo 

6  774  409 

298  974 

Stockholm 

Morocco  ,   

6,5(0,000 

314,000 

Fez. 

Belgium 

6  030  043 

11  373 

Brussels 

6000000 

106300 

Hue 

Siam     

5,700,000 

280,550 

Bangkok. 

Roumania  *                                  

5,376000 

46314 

Bucharest. 

4200000 

1  095  013 

Buenos  Ayres 

4000000 

331  420 

Bogota 

Afghanistan    

4,000,000 

279,000 

Cabul. 

Madagascar  .             

3,500,000 

230000 

Antananarivo. 

3000000 

129000 

2970000 

405040 

2,933,334 

15,981 

Berue. 

Chili                                

2,665,926 

256,860 

Santiago 

2,300000 

472000 

La  Paz 

2  187208 

24977 

Athens 

2,172205 

14,789 

Copen  hagen  . 

2,121  988 

566  159 

Caracas 

Servia 

2096  043 

18757 

Belgrade 

Bulgaria  *.... 

2,007,919 

24,700 

Sofia. 

TJ.  I. -24 


370 


MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 


STATISTICS  OF  ALL  THE  CHIEF  COUNTRIES.— Concluded. 


COUNTRIES. 

Population. 

Sq.  Miles. 

Capitals. 

Nepaul  ...   . 

2000  000 

56800 

Khatmandu 

Cochin-China 

1  642  182 

22  958 

Saigon 

Oman  

1,600000 

81  000 

Muscat. 

Guatemala          

1,427  116 

46  774 

New  Guatemala 

1  146,000 

144  000 

Quito 

Liberia  

1,150000 

14  000 

Monrovia 

Transvaal                .  .   . 

800000 

110  193 

Pretoria 

Uruguay  

700000 

72  112 

Montevideo. 

Khiva                          ... 

700000 

82  320 

Khiva 

651  130 

7  228 

Hayti  

550000 

29  830 

Porte  au  Prince 

476000 

145  000 

Honduras  

431,917 

42  658 

Teguciga  Ipa. 

Nicaragua 

400000 

51  660 

Managua 

Dominican  Republic  

350,000 

20,596 

San  Domingo. 

Montenegro                                           

245  380 

3  486 

Cetigno 

Costa  Rica  

213,785 

19,985 

San  Jos6. 

Orange  Free  State            

133518 

41  484 

Bloemfontein 

Hawaii  

86,647 

6,587 

Honolulu. 

*  Also  enumerated  with  Turkish  Empire,    t  Also  enumerated  with  Colonies  of  France. 


ALL  THE  FAMOUS  DIAMONDS. 
Following  is  an  accurate  list  of  the  largest  diamonds  in  the  world: 

CARATS  (UNCUT).          CUT. 


410 


112 

881/, 


NAME. 

Braganza King  of  Portugal. 

Rajah  of  Mattan.    (Borneo.) 

Star  of  the  South 

Orloff. Czar  of  Russia. 

Florentine Empress  of  Austria. 

King  of  Portugal. 

Pitt King  of  Prussia 

Koh-i-noor Queen  of  England. 

Shah  Czar  of  Russia. 

Pigott Messrs.  Rundell  and  Bridge. 

Nassac I/ord  Westminster. 

Blue 

Sancy Czar  of  Russia. 

Dudley Earl  of  Dudley. 

Pacha  of  Egypt Khedive  of  Egypt. 


THE  SWEATING  SYSTEM. 

As  the  result  of  an  informal  census  taken  in  England  in  1884  by 
the  Amalgamated  Society  of  Tailors,  it  was  discovered  that  fifteen  thou- 
sand tailors,  out  of  a  total  of  twenty  thousand  were  employed  under  the 
sweating  system.  A  report  by  Mr.  John  Burnett,  the  labor  correspondent 
of  the  Board,  to  the  Board  of  Trade,  on  the  subject  of  sweating  in  the  East 
of  London,  was  issued  in  1887,  and  in  1888,  on  the  motion  of  Lord  Dunra- 
ven,  a  committee  of  the  House  of  Lords  was  appointed  to  inquire  into  the 
sweating  system  of  the  East  of  London.  The  scope  of  the  committee  was 
on  its  report  the  same  year,  enlarged  to  take  evidence  on  the  sweating 
system  in  the  United  Kingdom  generally.  The  committee  was  reap- 
pointed  in  1889,  and  took  evidence  respecting  the  sweating  system  in 
numerous  trades,  and  also  in  respect  of  government  contracts.  A  report 
was  presented  in  the  House  of  Lords  in  1890,  establishing  the  fact  that  the 
sweating  system  prevailed  in  many  trades,  and  that  among  its  causes  were 
the  inefficiency  of  many  of  the  workpeople,  early  marriages  and  the  ex- 
cessive supply  of  unskilled  labor.  Recommendations  for  parliamentary 


THE  WORLD  AND  ITS  WAYS. 


371 


interference  were  made,  especially  in  respect  of  the  improvement  of  the 
sanitary  condition  of  many  factories,  workshops,  and  domestic  workshops 
where  work  of  a  sweating  character  was  performed.  Additional  inspec- 
tors with  enlarged  powers  were  also  declared  requisite.  Of  late  attention 
has  been  called  to  the  same  practices  in  the  large  cities  in  our  own  coun- 
try. A  congressional  committee  has  been  investigating  the  matter  with 
a  view  to  legislation. 

CASTE    AMONG    THE    HINDOOS. 

Caste  is  a  term  applied  to  the  division  into  social  classes  in  India- 
To  each  of  these  classes  certain  pursuits  are  limited  by  the  Laws  of  Manu, 
B.C.  960.  1.  The  Brahmans  or  sacerdotal  class,  which  "issued  from  the 
mouth  of  Brahma." 

2.  The  Chuttree  or  military  class,  which  "sprang  from  the  arm  of 
Brahma. ' ' 

3.  The  Bais  or  mercantile  class,  which  "sprang  from  the  thigh  of 
Brahma." 

4.  The  Sudras  or  servile  class,  which  '  'sprang  from  the  foot  of 
Brahma." 

The  Pariahs  and  Chandalas  are  nobodies,  or  worse,  for  it  is  pollu- 
tion to  be  touched  by  such  "scum  of  the  earth." 


HEIGHTS  OF  NOTED  EDIFICES. 


FEET. 

Eiffel  Tower,  Paris 989 

Washington  Monument 555 

Pyramid,  Cheops,  Egypt 543 

Cathedral,  Cologne 51 1 

"  Antwerp 476 

Strasburg 474 

Tower,  Utrecht 464 

Steeple,  St.  Stephen's,  Vienna 460 

Pyramid,  Khafras,  Egypt 456 

St.  Martin's  Church,  Bavaria 456 

Chimney,  Port  Dundas,  Glasgow 454 

St.  Peter's,  Rome  448 

Notre  Dame,  Amiens 422 

Salisbury  Spire,  England 406 

Cathedral,  Florence 380 

Cremona  372 

"  Freiburg 367 

St.  Paul's,  London 365 

Cathedral,  Seville 360 

Pyramid,  Sakkarah,  Egypt 356 

Cathedral,  Milan  355 

Notre  Dame,  Munich 348 

Invalides,  Paris 347 

Parliament  House,  London 340 

Cathedral,  Magdeburg 337 

St.  Patrick's,  New  York. 328 

St.  Mark's,  Venice 328 


FEET. 

Cathedral,  Bologna 321 

Norwich,  England 309 

Chichester,  England 300 

"  Lincoln,  England 300 

Capitol,  Washington 300 

St.  James'  Cathedral,  Toronto 316 

Trinity  Church,  New  York 283 

Cathedral,  Mexico 280 

Montreal 280 

Com panile  Tower,  Florence    276 

Column,  Delhi 260 

Cathedral,  Dantzic  250 

Porcelain  Tower,  Nankin 248 

Custom  House,  St.  Louis  240 

Canterbury  Tower,  England 235 

Notre  Dame,  Paris 232 

Chicago  Board  of  Trade 230 

St.  Patrick's,  Dublin 226 

Cathedral,  Glasgow 225 

Bunker  Hill  Monument 220 

Notre  Dame,  Montreal 220 

Cathedral,  Lima 220 

Rheims 220 

Garden  City,  L.I 219 

St.  Peter  and  Paul,  Philadelphia 210 

Washington  Monument,  Baltimore. ..  .210 
Vendome  Column,  Paris 153 


LANGUAGE  OF  FLOWERS. 

Around  many  flowers  a  consistent  and  well  understood  symbolism 
has  gathered,  but  the  Orientals  have  developed  this  into  a  perfect  vehicle 
for  communicating  sentimental  and  amatory  expressions  of  all  degrees 
of  warmth.  In  this  manner  a  cluster  of  flowers  can  be  made  to  express 
any  sentiment,  if  care  is  taken  in  the  selection. 

If  a  flower  is  offered  reversed,  its  original  signification  is  contradicted 
and  the  opposite  implied. 


372 


MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 


A  rosebud  divested  of  its  thorns,  but  retaining  its  leaves,  conveys  the 
sentiment — "I  fear  no  longer;  I  hope. ' '  Stripped  of  leaves  and  thorns,  it 
signifies— "There  is  nothing  to  hope  or  fear." 

A  full  blown  rose,  placed  over  two  buds,  signifies  "Secrecy." 

"Yes"  is  implied  by  touching  the  flower  given  to  the  lips;  "No,"  by 
pinching  off  a  petal  and  casting  it  away. 

"I  am"  is  expressed  by  a  laurel  leaf  twined  around  the  bouquet;  "I 
have,"  by  an  ivy  leaf  folded  together;  "I  offer  you,"  by  a  leaf  of  Virginia 
creeper. 

COMBINATIONS  AND  SYMBOLS. 


Mignonette, 
Colored  Daisy, 


(  Your  qualities  sur- 
-(    pass  your  charms 


Lily  of  the  Valley, 
Ferns, 

Yellow  Rose, 
Broken  Straw. 
Ivy, 

Scarlet  Geranium, 
Passion  Flower, 
Purple  Hyacinth, 
Arbor  Vitse. 


of  beauty. 
Your  unconscious 
sweetness      has 
fascinated  me. 
Your  jealousy  has 
broken  our 
friendship. 
I  trust  you  will 
find  consolation 
through  faith  in 
your  sorrow ;  be 
assured  of  my 
unchanging 
friendship. 

Arbor  Vltse. — Unchanging  friendship. 

Camelia,  White. — Loveliness. 

Candy-Tuft.—  Indifference 

Carnation,  White. — Disdain. 

China  Aster.— Variety. 

Clover,  Four-Leaf. — Be  mine. 

Clover,  White.— Think  of  me. 

Clover,  Red.— Industry. 

Columbine. — Folly. 

Daisy. — Innocence. 

Daisy,  Colored. — Beauty. 

Dead  Leaves.— Sadness. 

Deadly  Nightshade.— Falsehood. 

Fern . — Fascination . 

Forget-me-not.— Forget-me-not. 

Fuchsia,  Scarlet. — Taste. 

Geranium,  Horseshoe. — Stupidity. 

Geranium,  Scarlet.— Consolation. 

Geranium,  Rose. — Preference. 

Golden-rod.— Be  cautious. 

Heliotrope. — Devotion. 

Hyacinth,  White. — Loveliness. 

Hyacinth,  Purple.— Sorrow. 

Ivy. — Friendship. 

Lily,  Day.— Coquetry. 

Lily,  White.— Sweetness. 

Lily,  Yellow.— Gayety. 


Moss  Rosebud, 
Myrtle, 
Columbine, 
Day  Lily, 
Broken  Straw, 
Witch  Hazel, 
Colored  Daisy, 

White  Pink, 
Canary  Grass, 
Laurel, 
Golden  Rod, 
Monkshead. 
Sweet  Pea, 
Forget-me-not. 


ol 


spell  of  your 
ity. 


j  A    confession 
I      of  love. 

(Your  folly  and 
coquetry  have 
broken 
thes 
I     beau  _ 
Your  talent  and 
perseverance 
will  win  you 
glory. 
Be  cautious : 
danger  is  near; 
I  depart  soon : 
forget  me  not. 


Lily,  Water. — Purity  of  heart;  elegance. 

Lily  of  the  Valley.  —  Unconscious  sweet- 
ness. 

Mignonette.— Your  qualities  surpass  your 
charms. 

Monkshead.— Danger  is  nenr. 

Myrtle. — Love. 

Oak.— Hospitality. 

Orange  Blossoms. — Chastity. 

Pansy. — Thoughts. 

Passion  Flower. — Faith. 

Primrose. — Inconstancy. 

Rose. — Love. 

Rose,  Damask. — Beauty  ever  new. 

Rose,  Yellow.— Jealousy. 

Rose,  White. — I  am  worthy  of  you. 

Rosebud,  Moss. — Confession  of  love. 

Smilax.— Constancy. 

Straw. — Agreement. 

Straw,  Broken.— Broken  agreement. 

Sweat  Pea.     Depart. 

Tuberose. — Dangerous  pleasures. 

Thistle. — Sternness. 

Verbena. — Pray  for  me. 

White  Jasmine.— Amiability. 

Witch  Hazel.— A  spell. 


END  OF  THK  WORLD. 

This  ought  to  have  occurred,  according  to  Nicolas  de  Cusa,  in  1704. 
He  demonstrates  it  thus:  The  Deluge  happened  in  the  thirty-fourth 
jubilee  of  fifty  years  from  the  Creation  (A.M.  1700),  and  therefore  the  end 
of  the  world  should  properly  occur  on  the  thirty-fourth  jubilee  of  the 
Christian  era,  or  A.D.  1704.  The  four  grace  years  are  added  to  com- 
pensate for  the  blunder  of  chronologists  respecting  the  first  year  of 
grace. 

The  most  popular  dates  of  modern  times  for  the  end  of  the  world,  or 
what  is  practically  the  same  thing,  the  Millennium,  are  the  following: 


THE  WORLD  AND  ITS  WA  VS.  373 

1757,  Swedenborg;  1836,  Johann  Albrecht  Bengel,  Erkldrte  Offenbarung; 
1843,  William  Miller,  of  America;  1866,  Dr.  John  Gumming;  1881,  Mother 
Shipton. 

It  was  very  generally  believed  in  France,  Germany,  etc.,  that  the  end 
of  the  world  would  happen  in  the  thousandth  year  after  Christ;  and 
therefore  much  of  the  land  was  left  uncultivated,  and  a  general  famine 
ensued.  Luckily  it  was  not  agreed  whether  the  thousand  years  should 
date  from  the  birth  or  the  death  of  Christ,  or  the  desolation  would  have 
been  much  greater.  Many  charters  begin  with  these  words,  As  the 
world  is  now  drawing  to  its  close.  Kings  and  nobles  gave  up  their  state: 
Robert  of  France,  son  of  Hugh  Capet,  entered  the  monastery  of  St. 
Denis;  and  at  Limoges,  princes,  nobles,  and  knights  proclaimed  ' '  God's 
Truce,"  and  solemnly  bound  themselves  to  abstain  from  feuds,  to  keep 
the  peace  towards  each  other,  and  to  help  the  oppressed. 

Another  hypothesis  is  this:  As  one  day  with  God  equals  a  thousand 
years  (Psalm  xc.  4)  and  God  labored  in  creation  six  days,  therefore  the 
world  is  to  labor  6,000  years,  and  then  to  rest.  According  to  this  theory, 
the  end  of  the  world  ought  to  occur  A.M.  6000,  or  A.D.  1996  (supposing 
the  world  to  have  been  created  4,004  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ). 
This  hypothesis,  which  is  widely  accepted,  is  quite  safe  for  another  cent- 
ury at  least. 


GREAT  FLOODS  AND  INUNDATIONS. 

Following  is  a  list  of  the  greatest  floods  of  which  modern  history 
makes  mention: 

6S4  A.D.  Japan;  780  sq.  m.  of  Isle  of  Shikoku  covered  by  sea. 

968.  Persian  Gulf;  many  cities  destroyed,  and  new  islands  formed  by  irruption  of 
sea. 

1098  or  1100.   East  of  Kent  inundated;  Goodwin  Sands  formed. 

1161  or  1165.     Sicily;  irruption  of  sea;  thousands  drowned. 

1173.    Holland;  Zuider  Zee  much  enlarged. 

1219.     Nordland,  Norway;  lake  burst;  36,000  people  perished. 

1228.     Friesland;  invasion  of  sea;  100.000  people  drowned. 

1396.  Holland;  islands  of  Texel,  Vlieland,  and  Wieringen  separated  from  main- 
land, and  Marsdiep,  the  channel  between  Texel  and  North  Holland,  formed. 

1421  or  1446.  Holland;  72  villages  inundated,  of  which  20  permanently ;  about  100,000 
persons  drowned.  Biebosch  formed  east  of  Dordrecht,  and  this  town  separated  from 
mainland. 

1521.     Holland;  103,000  lives  by  an  inundation. 

1570.  Holland;  storm  drove  in  the  sea,  destroying  numerous  villages  and  20,000 
people  in  Friesland. 

1617.    Catalonia,  Spain;  15,000  perished  in  floods. 

1612.    China,  at  Kaifong;  300,000  drowned. 

1*546.    Holland  and  Friesland  in  undated;  loss  of  life  110,000. 

1745.    Peru;  Callao  destroyed  by  irruption  of  sea  caused  by  earthquakes. 

1767.    England;  irruption  of  sea  on  east  coast. 

1782.    Formosa;  west  side  of  island  submerged,  and  Taiwan  destroyed. 

1787-88.     India,  in  Northwestern  Provinces  and  Punjab;  15,000  lives  lost  by  floods. 

1791.    Cuba;  floods  from  excessive  rain;  3,000  drowned. 

1811.    Hungary;  24  villages  swept  away  by  overflow  of  Danube. 

1813.  Austria,  Hungary,  Poland  and  Prussian  Silesia;  floods  caused  by  rains;  4,000 
perished  in  Poland,  6,000  in  Silesia. 

1834.    St.  Petersburg  and  Cronstadt,  10,000  lives  lost  from  overflow  of  Neva. 

1825.  Denmark;  sei  broke  through  from  North  Sea  to  Limfjord,  making  northern 
Jutland  an  island;  one-third  of  Friesland  submerged  by  rising  of  sea  and 
rivers. 

1851.  Northern  China;  Yellow  River  burst  its  banks,  and  made  a  new  outlet  into 
Gulf  of  Pechili. 

1856.    South  of  France;  floods  did  damage  to  extent  of  $35,600,000. 

1888.     Peru;  Arica  and  Iquique  nearly  destroyed  by  earthquake  waves. 

1874.  United  States ;  Mill  River  valley  (Massachusetts)  inundated  by  bursting  of  a 
dam;  144  drowned.  Also  floods  in  western  Pennsylvania;  220  drowned, 


374  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

1876.    China;  floods  in  northern  provinces;  in  Bengal  200,090  persons  perished  from 

inundation  of  a  tidal  wave. 
18S3.    Java  and  Sumatra;  west  coast  of  former  and  east  coast  of  latter  submerged 

by  volcanic  wave,  new  islands  formed  in  Sunda  Straits,  whilst  part  of  Kra- 

katoa  disappeared. 
1887.    China;  floods  in  Ho-nan,  caused  by  the  Hoang-ho  bursting  its  southern  bank; 

millions  of  lives  lost. 
1889.    Johnstown  (Pennsylvania),  United  States;  10,000  lives  lost  from  bursting  of  a 

reservoir  

HISTORIC    FIRES. 

London,  September  2-6,  1666.— Eighty-nine  churches,  many  public 
buildings  and  13,200  houses  destroyed;  400  streets  laid  waste;  200,000 
persons  homeless.  The  ruins  covered  436  acres. 

New  York,  December  16,  1835.— 600  buildings;  loss,  $20,000,000. 
September  6,  1839.— $10,000,000  worth  of  property. 

Pittsburgh,  April  10,  1845.— 1,000  buildings;  loss,  $6,000,000. 

Philadelphia,  July  9,  1850.— 350  buildings;  loss,  $1,500,000;  25  per- 
sons killed;  9  drowned;  120  wounded. 

San  Francisco,  May  3-5,  1851.— 2,500  buildings;  loss,  $3,500,000; 
many  lives  lost.  June  22,  1851.— 500  buildings;  loss,  $3,000,000. 

Santiago  (Spain),  December  8,  1863. — A  fire  in  the  church  of  the 
Campania,  beginning  amid  combustible  ornaments;  2,000  persons  killed, 
mostly  women. 

Charleston,  S.  C.,  February  17,  1865.— Almost  totally  destroyed,  with 
large  quantities  of  naval  and  military  stores. 

Richmond,  Va.,  April  2  and  3,  1865. — In  great  part  destroyed  by  fire 
at  time  of  Confederate  evacuation. 

Portland,  Me.,  July  4,  1866.— Almost  entirely  destroyed;  loss,  $15,- 
000,000. 

Chicago,  October  8  and  9,  1871.— 3>£  square  miles  laid  waste;  17,450 
buildings  destroyed;  200  persons  killed;  98, 500  made  homeless.  July  14, 
1874.— Another  great  fire;  loss,  $4,000,000. 

Great  forest  fires  in  Michigan  and  Wisconsin,  October  8-14,  1871 — 
2, 000  lives  lost. 

Boston,  November  9-11,  1872.— 800  buildings;  loss,  $73,000,000.  15 
killed. 

Fall  River,  Mass.,  September  19,  1874.— Great  factory  fires;  60  per- 
sons killed. 

Brooklyn  Theater  burned  Decembers,  1876. — 300  lives  lost. 

Seattle  and  Spokane,  Wash.,  1889.— About  $10, 000, 000 each. 


ALL  WHO   EVER  LIVED. 

According  to  a  recent  writer,  it  is  impossible  to  give  any  close  figures 
on  the  number  of  persons  who  have  lived  on  this  earth.  It  is  generally 
considered  that  one  person  in  every  thirteen  dies  each  year.  At  this 
rate  the  population  would  be  renewed  every  thirteen  years.  Assuming 
that  the  population  of  the  world  is  1,000,000,000  and  that  it  has  been 
1,000,000,000  at  any  time  during  the  last  6,000  years,  we  find  that  the 
population  has  been  renewed  about  461  times;  that  is,  that  462,000,000,000 
have  lived  on  this  earth  since  its  creation.  This,  of  course,  is  vastly  in 
excess  of  the  real  number,  for  the  world,  so  far  as  we  can  tell,  is  more 
thickly  populated  now  than  ever  before.  Probably  if  we  were  to  cut 
those  figures  in  two  we  should  still  be  above  the  actual  number,  with  a 
total  of  231,000,000,000  persons. 


RACES  AND  TRIBES  OF  MEN. 


The  human  race, 

Of  every  tongue,  of  every  place, 

Caucasian,  Coptic  or  Malay, 
All  that  inhaoit  this  great  earth, 
Whatever  be  their  rank  or  worth, 
Are  kindred  and  allied  by  birth, 

And  made  of  the  same  clay. 

— IvONGFELLOW. 

FEATURES,  TYPES  AND  STUDIES. 
Ethnology  treats  of  races. 
Medicine  studies  individuals. 
Ethnography  is  the  description  of  peoples. 
Philology  inquires  into  the  language  of  man. 
The  Guanches  were  the  aborigines  of  the  Canary  Islands. 
Sociology  investigates  the  principles  of  human  development. 
Anthropology  studies  man  as  a  whole  and  in  his  relations  to  other 
animals. 

Blumenbach  divided  man  into  five  races — Mongolian,  Malay,  Ameri- 
can, Ethiopian  and  Caucasian. 

The  most  influential  of  the  people  of  Hungary  are  the  Magyars.  In 
language  they  are  closely  related  to  the  Finns. 

The  Bible  tells  us  that  the  differences  in  language  of  men  began  with 
the  confusion  of  tongues  at  the  tower  of  Babel. 

The  Calumet  is  the  pipe  of  peace  smoked  by  the  North  American 
Indians,  both  in  their  councils  and  on  the  conclusion  of  a  peace. 

Craniology  or  the  study  of  the  skull  has  proved  a  valuable  though  not 
entirely  trustworthy  aid  in  the  investigation  of  racial  differences. 

Cyclopaean  works  are  ancient  structures  of  huge,  unhewn  and  un- 
cemented  blocks  of  stone.  Examples  in  Sicily,  Peru  and  Ireland. 

The  three  types  of  man  differ  much  in  temperament.  The  Ethi- 
opian is  sensuous,  unintellectual,  cheerful  and  even  boisterous,  but  fitful. 

The  I/esghians  are  a  Tartar  race  of  the  Eastern  Caucasus,  and  form 
the  majority  of  the  people  of  Daghestan.  They  are  Mahommedan  in 
religion. 

The  Cimbri  were  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Jutland,  of  disputed 
nationality.  They  made  serious  incursions  into  Italy,  but  were  utterly 
routed  by  the  Romans,  101  B.  c.,  and  were  afterwards  merged  in  the 
Saxons. 

375 


376  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION, 

Borough-English  was  an  ancient  custom  by  which  the  youngest  son 
inherits  property  instead  of  the  eldest  son.  It  is  mentioned  as  early 
as  834. 

The  Huns  were  a  fierce  tribe  of  Asiatics.  They  invaded  Hungary 
(376)  and  expelled  the  Goths,  but  were  thoroughly  beaten  (451)  at  Chalons 
by  Aetius. 

In  India  there  are  separate  classes  of  society  called  castes.  They  are 
the  Brahmins,  the  military  class,  the  commercial  class,  and  the  servile 
class  or  pariahs. 

The  study  of  man's  speech  is  a  study  of  man  himself.  His  words 
originated  in  his  wants  and  works  and  indicate  to  us  his  occupation  and 
to  some  extent  his  character. 

Anthropophagi  is  another  name  for  cannibals.  It  is  said  that  the 
Caribs  were  cannibals  before  the  Spanish  conquest,  and  that  the  term 
cannibal  arose  from  that  fact.  • 

Cuvier  and  Talu,  scientists,  have  combined  the  first  three  in  Blumen- 
bach's  classification  and  consider  the  fundamental  types  of  man  as  three 
— Ethiopic,  Mongolic  and  Caucasic. 

The  original  inhabitants  of  Borneo  were  called  Dyaks.  They  were 
great  pirates  and  practiced  head-hunting,  but  modern  civilization  has 
nearly  demolished  those  practices. 

The  full-blooded  South  African  negro  is  remarkable  for  his  extraord- 
inary length  of  arm,  the  Aymara  Indian  of  Peru  for  the  surprising  short- 
ness of  the  corresponding  member. 

I^and  held  by  the  community  in  Anglo-Saxon  times  was  called  Folc- 
land.  It  could  be  let  for  a  term  to  individuals,  but  reverted  to  the  com- 
munity on  the  expiration  of  that  term. 

Avebury  stones  are  supposed  to  be  the  remains  of  Druidical  structures 
at  Avebury,  in  Wiltshire,  and  are  the  largest  in  England.  They  are  up- 
right stones  of  about  seventeen  feet  in  height. 

The  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  Crimea  were  called  Cimmerians.  In 
the  "Odyssey"  the  Cimmerii  were  people  living  beyond  the  ocean  in 
thickest  gloom  ;  hence  "  Cimmerian  darkness." 

Shamanism  was  the  heathen  religion  of  the  Turanian  races  of  Siberia. 
Its  characteristic  is  a  belief  in  magic,  the  shaman,  or  wizard-priest,  being 
closely  akin  to  the  medicine-man  of  the  Red  Indians. 

Coolies  are  Indian  and  Chinese  laborers  who  emigrate  to  foreign 
lands.  The  American  and  European  residents  in  the  treaty  ports  of  China 
apply  the  same  term  to  the  native  laborers  in  their  employ. 

The  system  in  Anglo-Saxon  times  by  which  communities  were  divided 
into  tithings  of  ten  houses,  the  holders  of  which  were  responsible  for 
faults  or  crimes  committed  by  any  of  them,  was  called  "  fraud  pledge." 

The  Wends,  a  branch  of  the  western  Slavs,  were  in  the  sixth  century  a 
powerful  race,  extending  from  the  Elbe  to  the  Vistula,  but  they  are  now 
confined  to  the  district  known  as  Lusatia,  partly  in  Prussia  and  partly  in 
Saxony. 

The  Goorkhas  are  a  tribe  of  mountaineers  in  Nepaul,  India.  Though 
small  in  stature,  they  are  possessed  of  indomitable  courage  and  bravery, 
having  signally  distinguished  themselves  in  the  campaign  undertaken  by 
the  British  in  India. 


RACES  AND  TRIBES  OF  MEN.  377 

The  period  during  which  stone  implements,  unpolished,  were  used 
by  early  man  is  called  the  Palaeolithic  Age.  Contemporaneous  with  the 
Palaeolithic  Age  were  many  mammals  now  extinct,  as  the  cave  bear,  the 
woolly  rhinoceros,  etc. 

The  Celts  were  an  ancient  Aryan  race  formerly  inhabiting  Gaul.  The 
name  has  been  applied  to  the  primitive  races  of  Ireland,  Scotland  and 
Wales,  but  neither  Greeks  nor  Romans  regarded  the  British  Isles  as  be- 
longing to  the  Celtic  world. 

The  Belgae  were  German  and  Celtic  tribes  inhabiting  the  tract  of 
country  extending  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Rhine,  and  from  the  Marne  to 
the  Seine.  They  were  very  valiant,  and  some  of  them  were  found  in  Kent 
and  Sussex  by  Caesar  on  his  invasion  of  Britain. 

The  countries  relatively  richest  in  horses  and  horned  stock  are 
Argentine  and  Uruguay;  Austria  has  the  most  sheep;  Servia  the  greatest 
relative  number  of  pigs  to  population.  The  poorest  in  horses  is  Italy; 
in  cattle,  Portugal;  in  sheep,  Belgium;  in  hogs,  Greece. 

The  people  known  as  lake-dwellers  gave  rise  to  the  term  "I/acustrian 
Period,"  an  extremely  remote  age  when  human  habitations,  for  the  sake 
of  security,  were  built  in  the  midst  of  lakes.  Remains  of  such  habitations 
exist  in  certain  lakes  of  Switzerland,  Scotland,  Ireland,  etc. 

Brochs  are  prehistoric  structures  in  Scotland  resembling  low  circular 
roofless  towers,  with  walls  of  great  thickness  of  unhewn  stones  and. 
enclosed  by  a  narrow  passage,  chiefly  in  Orkney,  Shetland,  etc.  The 
brochs  of  Mousa  is  a  typical  and  the  best  preserved  example. 

The  Mahrattas  are  a  native  Indian  race  which  founded  an  empire  in 
Central  and  Western  India,  1674.  After  1795,  Scindia,  Holkar  and  Berar 
became  independent ;  the  confederacy  of  Mahratta  states  came  to  an  end 
in  1818,  and  all  the  chiefs  became  dependants  of  the  British  Crown. 

In  the  Spanish  province  of  Gerona  a  fairly  pure  type  of  the  dwarf 
race  of  Morocco  and  the  Atlas  has  been  traced.  These  people  average 
about  3^  feet  in  height,  and  are  otherwise  characterized  by  a  yellow  skin, 
broad,  square  faces,  Mongolian  eyes  and  red  hair  of  a  woolly  texture. 

A  people  now  frequently  heard  of  are  the  Bechuanas,  a  powerful  and 
warlike  race  of  the  Kaffir  stock,  inhabiting  a  large  tract  of  South  Africa, 
north  of  Cape  Colony.  They  are  engaged  in  agriculture  and  the  rearing 
of  cattle.  The  greater  part  of  the  territory  is  under  British  influence. 

By  the  law  of  Gavelkind  the  land  of  the  father  was,  at  his  decease, 
divided  among  the  sons;  if  there  were  no  sons,  it  was  divided  among  the 
daughters.  After  the  Norman  Conquest  Gavelkind  gave  place  to  the 
feudal  law  of  primogeniture,  and  was  only  observed  in  Kent  and  Wales. 

A  Scotch  or  Gaelic  tribe  formed  of  members  of  one  family  and  their 
descendants  is  called  a  clan.  It  is  supposed  to  have  arisen  in  Scotland 
about  1008.  The  chiefs  exercised  jurisdiction  as  the  fathers  of  the  clans, 
but  their  legal  and  heritable  jurisdiction  was  abolished  in  1747,  after  the 
rebellion. 

The  Romans  used  frequently  to  be  at  war  with  the  Volsci,  an  ancient 
people  of  Latium.  Their  chief  city  was  Coriole,  from  which  Caius  Mar- 
tius,  who  defeated  them,  obtained  his  name  of  Coriolanus  (about  490  B.  c.). 
They  were  again  utterly  defeated  (389  B.  c.)  by  M.  Furius  Camillus,  the 
conqueror  of  Veii,  and  finally  (c.  338  B.  c.)  were  incorporated  with  the  Ro- 
man people. 


378  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

Scythians  were  a  nomad  race  of  Asia  known  to  the  ancient  writers. 
The  name  bore  two  significations,  meaning  (1)  the  Scythians  proper  or 
Scolots,  (2)  all  the  nomad  tribes  (Sacae,  Sarmatians,  Massagetae,  Scplots) 
who  dwelt  in  the  steppes  from  what  is  now  Hungary  to  the  mountains  of 
Turkestan. 

The  name  Moors  was  first  applied  to  the  inhabitants  of  Mauritania  ; 
afterwards  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  whole  of  Africa  north  of  the  Sahara 
and  west  of  Tripoli.  Now  it  is  given  to  the  people  of  Morocco,  but  it  is 
sometimes  loosely  used  as  synonymous  with  Arab,  Saracen,  or  even  Ma- 
hommedan. 

The  Basques  are  descendants  of  the  ancient  Iberi,  who  occupied  Spain 
before  the  Celts.  They  occupy  the  provinces  of  Biscay,  Guipuzcoa,  and 
Alava  in  Spain,  and  the  departments  of  the  Upper  and  Lower  Pyrenees, 
Ariege,  and  Upper  Garonne,  and  retain  their  ancient  language,  manners, 
and  customs. 

The  Fire  Ordeal  was  an  ancient  form  of  trial  for  persons  of  high  rank 
in  England  and  Germany,  in  which  the  accused  had  to  walk  barefoot  over 
nine  red  hot  ploughshares,  or  over  red-hot  cinders,  or  to  carry  a  red-hot 
iron  in  his  hand  for  a  certain  distance.  If  he  escaped  unhurt  he  was  con- 
sidered innocent. 

Shire  is  the  Anglo-Saxon  equivalent  of  the  Norman  county.  The 
Earl  was  originally  the  head  of  the  shire,  but  his  duties  were  gradually 
carried  out  by  the  Shire-reeve,  as  the  king's  representative  in  the  shire, 
who  levied  the  various  dues,  fines,  etc.,  in  the  king's  name,  and  acted  as 
his  legal  representative. 

In  the  fourth  century  B.  c.  the  Goths  were  found  inhabiting  the  coasts 
of  the  Baltic,  and  later  the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea,  and  north  of  the 
Lower  Danube.  Defeated  and  killed  the  Roman  emperor,  Decius  (251). 
Claudius  (269)  defeated  the  Goths  with  great  slaughter.  Dacia  ceded  to 
the  Goths  (272)  by  Aurelian. 

According  to  the  Bible  the  Midianites  were  the  descendants  of 
Midian,  son  of  Abraham  by  Keturah,  inhabiting  the  country  between  the 
Red  Sea  and  the  plains  of  Moab.  They  were  powerful  at  one  time,  but, 
with  their  allies  the  Amalekites,  were  completely  routed  by  Gideon,  and 
are  seldom  heard  of  afterwards. 

The  Chaldeans  or  Akkadians  are  a  non-Semitic  race  who  came  orig- 
inally from  the  mountain  country  of  Elam,  and  were  formerly  the  domi- 
nant people  of  Babylonia.  One  of  the  four  great  cities  of  Shinar  was 
Accad.  The  Babylonians  were  indebted  to  the  Sumero- Akkadians  for 
their  cuneiform  writing,  religion,  and  mythology. 

The  ancient  sea-rovers  of  Scandinavia  (Denmark,  Norway  and 
Sweden),  or  Northmen,  called  themselves  Vikings  (sea-kings).  Their 
ravages  extended  from  the  eighth  to  the  thirteenth  centuries,  and  they 
formed  permanent  settlements  in  England,  Ireland,  Northern  France,  and 
Southern  Italy.  In  France  the  name  was  contracted  into  Normans. 

Closely  related  to  the  Sabines  were  the  Samnites,  who  were  long  for- 
midable rivals  of  the  Romans,  and  were  only  subdued  after  three  san- 
guinary wars,  waged  with  little  interruption  from  343  B.C.  to  290  B.C.  The 
Samnites  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  social  war  (90  B.  c.),  and  espoused 
the  cause  of  Marius  against  Sulla,  by  whom  they  were  almost  extirpated 
(82  B.  c.). 


RACES  AND  TRIBES  OF  MEN.  379 

Fire  worship  was  established  by  Zoroaster  amongst  the  Persians,  who 
worshipped  the  sun,  and  held  that  the  sacred  fires  of  their  temples  and 
the  sun  were  the  especial  places  of  the  divine  habitation.  Fire  worship 
is  also  practised  by  the  Parsees.  Among  the  early  Hindus  the  sun  was 
worshipped  under  the  simulacrum  of  the  god  Agni  and  represented  in 
the  Vedas  as  the  god  of  Fire  Worship. 

In  the  third  century  the  Saxons,  a  Teutonic  race,  made  numerous 
settlements  on  the  coasts  of  Normandy  and  Brittany,  thence  called  the 
"Saxon  Shore."  In  the  fifth  century  they  laid  the  foundations  of  the 
Saxon  kingdoms  in  England.  Those  who  remained  in  Germany,  some- 
times called  old  Saxons,  spread  south  and  east  over  Saxony.  They  were 
finally  subdued  by  Charlemagne  in  803. 

Cromlech  is  a  modern  term  formerly  applied  by  archaeologists  to  a 
class  of  tnegalithic  monuments,  consisting  of  one  flat  stone  supported  on 
two  or  more  upright  stones,  and  forming  a  kind  of  open  chamber  with  a 
roof.  It  is  now  generally  recognized,  however,  that  these  are  merely  the 
denuded  or  uncovered  chambers  of  cairns  or  barrows,  for  which  another 
modern  term,  '  'dolmen, ' '  is  now  generally  substituted. 

The  Varangians  were  the  Norse  vikings,  who  in  the  ninth  century  laid 
the  foundations  of  the  Russian  Empire.  Many  of  them  entered  the  serv- 
ice of  the  Byzantine  emperors,  and  in  the  days  of  the  Comneni  the  Var- 
angians regularly  formed  the  imperial  bodyguard  at  Constantinople. 
The  Varangians  at  Constantinople  were  largely  recruited  by  Anglo-Saxons 
and  Danes  from  England  after  the  Norman  Conquest. 

The  Hottentots  are  an  African  native  race  occupying  the  country 
north  from  the  Cape  Colony  to  Mossamedes,  stretching  westward  to  the 
Atlantic,  and  bounded  on  the  East  by  the  Kalahari  desert.  Formerly  a 
numerous  nation,  the  Hottentots  have  been  greatly  diminished  by  the 
oppression  of  the  Boers,  and  the  race  is  now  nearly  extinct.  The  Hot- 
tentots include  the  Griquas,  Bushmen,  Korannas,  Namaquas,  and 
Damaras. 

The  Pygmie,  a  fabled  race  of  dwarfs,  mentioned  by  Homer  (II.  iii.  3N 
and  Pliny.  They  were  said  to  have  inhabited  the  shores  of  the  Nile.  A 
race  of  pygmies,  the  Wambutti,  was  discovered  by  Mr.  H.  M.  Stanley 
during  his  recent  expedition  in  "Darkest  Africa."  He  tells  us  how  the 
"dwarfs  with  poisoned  arrows,  securely  hidden  behind  buttress  or  in 
some  dark  recess,"  disputed  his  march  with  relentless  vigilance  and  vin- 
dictiveness. 

The  Sabines  were  an  important  tribe  of  ancient  Italy,  allied  to  the 
Latins,  Samnites,  etc.  Famous  in  Roman  history  as  the  people  whose 
daughters  were  treacherously  seized  by  the  Romans  at  the  Consualia,  or 
games  in  honor  of  the  God  Census.  A  treaty  of  peace  was  concluded 
with  the  Sabines  (750  B.  c.).  After  frequent  wars,  the  Sabines  were  finally 
defeated  (449  B.  c.)  by  M.  Horatius,  and  were  incorporated  with  Rome  in 
the  third  century  B.  c. 

The  Hivites  were  a  Canaanitish  people  specially  associated  with  the 
Amorites,  dwelling  in  the  time  of  Joshua  (Josh,  ix.)  near  the  center  of 
Palestine  and  near  Mount  Hermon  and  Mount  Lebanon,  the  latter  being 
regarded  as  the  country  of  the  Amorites  in  the  Egyptian  texts  and  Tel-el- 
Amarna  tablets.  The  Hivites  are  first  mentioned  in  Scripture  in  Gen.  x, 
17;  they  were  subjected  to  tribute  by  Solomon,  after  whose  reign  then- 
name  no  longer  appears. 


380  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

Animism  is  a  term  which  explains  all  natural  phenomena  by  the 
medium  of  spiritual  agency.  The  Greek,  Roman,  and  other  ancient 
nations  of  antiquity,  worshipped  natural  phenomena  in  a  concrete  form  as 
divinities.  Compare  Ra,  the  Egyptian  sun-god,  Sanskrit  Dyu,  Greek 
Zeus,  the  sky,  etc.  The  term  animism  was  first  applied  by  Dr.  E.  B. 
Tylor,  to  express  the  general  theory  of  spiritual  beings. 

Albinos,  called  also  Leucoethiopes,  or  white  negroes,  and  by  the 
Dutch  and  Germans  Kakerlaken,  were  at  one  time  considered  a  distinct 
race,  but  closer  observation  has  shown  that  the  same  phenomenon  occurs 
in  individuals  of  all  races,  and  that  the  peculiar  white  appearance  arises 
from  an  irregularity  of  the  skin.  The  iris  of  the  eye  is  red  in  the  Albino. 
Albinoism  occurs  also  in  other  mammalia,  birds  and  insects. 

The  Teutones  were  a  German  tribe,  mentioned  by  Roman  writers  as  in- 
habiting the  northwest  part  of  Germany  north  of  the  Elbe.  In  conjunc- 
tion with  the  Cimbri,  they  invaded  Gaul  (103  B.  c.),  destroying  three 
Roman  armies,  and  then  proceeded  to  invade  Italy ;  but  the  Teutones 
were  defeated  and  almost  annihilated  by  Marius  at  Aquae  Sextiae  (102  B. 
C.),  and  the  Cimbri  at  Campus  Raudius,  near  Verullae  (101  B.  c.) . 

The  Druids  were  ancient  priests  and  legislators  of  the  Britons,  Ger- 
mans and  Gauls.  They  reverenced  the  oak  and  the  mistletoe  growing 
upon  it.  They  believed  in  the  immortality  and  transmigration  of  the  soul, 
and  were  acquainted  with  astronomy,  philosophy,  and  physic.  They  ex- 
ercised great  power  over  the  people,  and  resisted  the  landing  of  Caesar  in 
Britain.  They  were  exterminated  by  Suetonius  Paulinus,  A.  D.  61 . 

In  the  vicinity  of  Palenque,  a  Mexican  village,  are  the  grandest  and 
most  extensive  ruins  in  the  American  continent,  dating  from  before  the 
Spanish  conquest.  The  chief  structure  is  a  huge  pile  called  the  palace, 
two  hundred  and  twenty  eight  feet  long,  one  hundred  and  eighty  feet 
wide,  and  twenty-five  feet  high,  with  numerous  sculptures  and  hiero- 
glyphics, raised  on  a  grand  basement,  square  on  the  plan,  and  rising  by 
huge  steps  to  the  summit. 

The  Aztecs  were  the  early  inhabitants  of  Mexico,  who  became  highly 
civilized  and  adopted  a  monarchical  form  of  government  in  1352.  Then 
most  celebrated  king  was  Montezuma-Illumicamina,  who  erected  several 
magnificent  buildings,  the  remains  of  which  are  still  to  be  seen.  They 
believed  in  a  Supreme  Being,  whom  they  never  represented  by  sculpture 
or  painting,  as  they  believed  him  to  be  invisible.  The  Aztecs  were  con- 
quered by  the  Spaniards  under  Cortez,  1521. 

The  Ethiopic  type  of  man  is  a  worshipper  of  nature  and  believes  in 
fetichism  and  witchcraft.  The  Mongolic  type  believes  in  dreams  and 
visions  and  is  a  spirit  worshipper,  while  the  Caucasic  type  has  creeds 
based  on  revelation  and  a  priesthood  with  the  idea  of  mediation  promi- 
nent. The  Mongolian  is  sluggish,  somewhat  morose  and  taciturn — with 
little  of  the  initiative  but  much  endurance.  The  Caucasian  has  a  high 
imagination,  is  active  and  enterprising,  speculative  yet  practical. 

rhe  word  Boers  (Dutch,  "agriculturists,"  "farmers")  is  the  name  ar>, 
plied  to  the  Dutch  Colonists  of  South  Africa  who  are  engaged  in  agricult- 
ure and  the  care  of  cattle.  Their  first  settlement  was  at  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  about  the  sixteenth  century.  The  Boers  are  the  republican  land- 
holders of  South  Africa;  by  no  means  scrupulous  and  humane  in  their 
dealings  with  the  natives,  but  remarkable  for  courage,  love  of  freedom, 
sobriety  and  industry.  They  are  good  horsemen  and  splendid  marksmen. 


RACES  AND  TRIBES  OF  MEN.  381 

The  Bedouins  are  that  class  of  Arabs  who  lead  a  nomadic  life.  Liv- 
ing in  the  desert  of  Arabia  they  have  evolved  characteristics  as  robbers 
and  herdsmen,  intimately  connected  with  their  mode  of  life.  Keen  of 
physical  sense,  with  active  imagination,  yet  destitute  of  solid  knowledge, 
the  Bedouin  unites  independence  and  love  of  liberty,  with  a  violent  pas- 
sion, an  infamous  love  of  plunder  and  an  entire  disregard  of  the  rights  of 
property.  They  are  professedly  Mahommedan.  Bigamy  is  rare,  polyg- 
amy scarcely  known. 

The  ancient  inhabitants  of  Samaria  were  a  mixed  people,  composed 
of  the  remnant  of  Ephraim  and  Manasseh,  and  of  Assyrian  colonists  in- 
troduced after  the  captivity  of  the  Ten  Tribes  (721  B.C.).  In  the  New 
Testament  "The  Samaritans"  is  used  as  the  name  of  a  religious  com- 
munity opposed  to  the  Jews.  They  accepted  only  the  Pentateuch,  and 
maintained  that  the  sanctuary  of  the  divine  choice  was  not  Mount  Zion, 
but  Mount  Gerizim  (Shechem),  where  they  had  a  temple  destroyed  by 
John  Hyrcanus  (128  B.C.).  A  few  of  the  race  and  religion  still  exist. 

The  Albic  word  "cairn5'  or  "earn,"  signifying  a  protuberance,  a  h^ap, 
is  applied  among  archaeologists  to  the  artificial  heaps  of  unhewn  stones 
found  in  England,  Wales,  Scotland  and  Brittany.  Both  burnt  and  un- 
burnt  remains  have  been  found  in  these  cairns,  indicating  that  they  were 
used  as  family  sepulchres.  They  vary  in  shape  and  size.  One  of  the 
largest  is  the  great  chambered  cairn  of  New  Grange,  near  Droghede,  with 
a  diameter  of  three  hundred  and  fifteen  feet  and  a  height  of  twenty  feet. 
Its  main  chamber  is  about  thirteen  feet  in  diameter  with  side  recesses  of 
smaller  size.  The  site  of  the  cairn  is  surrounded  by  a  circle  of  standing 
stones. 

The  Visigoths,  or  Western  Goths,  were  the  descendants  of  that  branch 
of  the  Gothic  race  established  by  Aurelian  in  Dacia  (270).  The  descend- 
ants of  the  other  branch  of  the  race,  which  remained  in  Southern  Russia, 
were  called  Ostrogoths  (Eastern  Goths).  On  the  death  of  Theodosius,  the 
Visigoths,  under  Alaric,  overran  Greece  (396)  and  Italy  (400).  After  Al- 
aric's  death  (410)  they  established  a  kingdom  at  Toulouse  (418)  which 
eventually  comprised  the  whole  of  Gaul  south  of  the  Loire  and  west  of  the 
Rhone,  as  well  as  Provence  and  the  greater  part  of  Spain.  With  the  de- 
feat (and  death)  of  Alaric  II.  by  Clovis,  on  the  field  of  Vougle  (or  Vouille 
or  Voclad)  near  Poitiers  (507 j,  the  kingdom  of  Toulouse  came  to  an  end, 
and  the  Visigoths  abandoned  to  the  conqueror  all  their  territories  north 
of  the  Pyrenees,  with  the  exception  of  a  small  tract  of  country  in  Gaul, 
including  the  cities  of  Carcassone,  Narbonne,  and  Nimes. 

The  Hittites  were  one  of  the  most  important  tribes  in  the  south  of 
Canaan.  They  are  mentioned  in  Gen.  x.  as  the  descendants  of  Heth,  a 
son  of  Canaan.  In  the  age  of  Abraham  the  Hittites  inhabited  Hebron 
and  its  neighborhood  (Gen.  xxiii.).  The  primitive  seat  of  the  Hittites 
was  probably  the  Taurus  mountains  of  Asia  Minor,  from  whence,  as  indi- 
cated by  the  cuneiform  records  of  Tel-el-Amarna,  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
eighteenth  Egyptian  dynasty,  they  invaded  Syria,  and  later,  in  the  reign 
of  Rameses  II.,  were  settled  at  Kadesh,  ultimately  spreading  to  the  south 
of  Palestine.  In  race  the  Hittites  were  probably  Turanian,  and  in  their 
language  allied  to  the  Alarodian  family.  The  peculiar  hieroglyphic 
writings  found  on  Hittite  monuments  in  Syria,  Asia  Minor,  etc.,  are  be- 
ginning to  be  deciphered.  In  common  with  the  Hyksos  the  deity  of  the 
Hittites  was  Seti,  the  Egyptian  Typhon,  and  the  local  goddess  of  Kadesh, 
Anata,  the  Canaanitish  goddess  of  war. 


382  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

According  to  Greek  tradition  the  Amazons  were  communities  of  wo- 
men, who  dwelt  in  Asia  and  Scythia,  the  most  famous  inhabiting  Pontus. 
They  are  said  to  have  built  Ephesus.  Of  their  queens,  one,  Hypolyta, 
was  conquered  by  Hercules  ;  another,  Penthesilea,  was  killed  by  Achilles, 
when  aiding  the  Trojans  ;  a  third,  Thalestris,  visited  Alexander  the  Great. 
The  name  Amazon  is  derived  from  the  Greek  amazos,  i.e.,  without  a 
breast,  from  the  removal  of  the  right  bosom  to  facilitate  the  use  of  the 
javelin  and  bow.  The  bodyguard  of  the  King  of  Dahomey  consists  of 
women  called  Amazons. 

The  Walloons  are  the  inhabitants  of  the  south-eastern  division  of 
Belgium,  their  country  comprising  the  provinces  of  Hainault,  Namur, 
Liege,  and  Luxemburg,  with  part  of  Brabant.  The  Walloons  are  Roman- 
ized Gauls,  lineal  representatives  of  the  ancient  Belgse,  distinguished 
from  their  Flemish  (Teutonic)  neighbors  by  their  Romance  language,  their 
stronger  physique,  and  their  darker  complexion.  The  Walloon  language, 
however,  a  strongly  marked  dialect  of  Northern  France  (the  Langued'Oil), 
is  now  merely  a  provincial  patois,  French  being  the  written  standard  and 
official  language  of  the  whole  kingdom. 

The  Vandals  were  one  of  the  Teutonic  peoples  who  overthrew  the 
Roman  Empire.  They  were  first  heard  of  as  occupying  Brandenburg  and 
Pomerania.  In  406  they  crossed  the  Rhine  and  entered  Gaul,  and  in  409 
they  crossed  the  Pyrenees  and  entered  Spain,  where  they  waged  twenty 
years  of  bloody  warfare  with  the  imperial  armies  and  with  their  fellow- 
barbarians,  the  Goths  and  Suevi.  Under  Genseric  they  invaded  (429)  and 
conquered  Roman  Africa,  Carthage  being  taken  in  439.  Genseric  formed 
a  powerful  fleet  and  took  and  plundered  Rome  (455).  Ultimately  (533-6) 
the  Vandal  kingdom  in  Africa  was  overthrown  by  Belisarius,  the  general 
of  Justinian. 

The  Montenegrins  belong  to  the  Servian  branch  of  the  Slavs,  who 
inhabit  Montenegro,  an  independent  principality  on  the  eastern  side  of 
the  Adriatic,  between  Dalmatia,  Herzegovina,  Bosnia,  and  Albania.  In 
the  fourteenth  century  Montenegro  was  a  principality  subject  to  the  Serv- 
ian empire,  but  when  the  Servian  power  was  broken  by  the  Turks  at  the 
battle  of  Kossovo  (1389),  it  became  the  asylum  of  all  who  disd  lined  to  sub- 
mit to  the  Turkish  yoke;  and  since  then  the  main  business  of  the  Monte- 
negrins has  been  to  fight  the  Turks.  They  joined  Servia  (1876)  and  Russia 
(1877-78)  against  the  hereditary  foe,  with  the  result  that  they  acquired  an 
accession  of  territory  in  1878  (Antivari,  etc.),  and  again  in  1880  (Dulcignp). 
There  was  temporary  fighting  between  the  Turks  and  the  Montenegrins 
at  Cetinje  (July  3-4,  1886). 

The  wearing  of  beards  dates  from  an  early  period,  the  Assyrians  being 
thus  depicted  in  their  sculptures.  The  Egyptians  were  shaven,  or  wore 
their  beards  cut  square.  By  the  Levitical  law  the  Jews  were  forbidden  to 
shave  their  beards.  The  Persians,  the  Greeks  (until  the  time  of  Alexan- 
der the  Great),  and  the  Romans,  were  bearded;  among  the  last  named 
shaving  was  introduced  about  296  B.  c.  In  England  beards  were  not  in 
fashion  from  the  Conquest  to  the  thirteenth  century,  and  at  the  time  of 
Charles  II.  the  beards  were  out  of  use.  In  1851  the  custom  of  wearing  the 
beard  was  revived.  Peter  the  Great  caused  all  the  Russians  to  shave.  In 
France  modern  shaving  is  said  to  have  come  into  force  during  the  reigns 
of  Louis  XIII.  and  XIV.  In  the  East  the  beard  is  regarded  as  a  mark  of 
dignity,  and  an  insult  offered  to  the  beard  is  highly  resented. 


RACES  AND  TRIBES  OF  MEN.  383 

Of  dwarf  races  of  men,  the  most  notable  are  the  Bushmen,  four  feet 
seven  inches  high;  the  Akkas  in  Central  Africa,  about  four  feet  ten  inches 
high,  with  whom  Emin's  men  identified  the  hordes  of  forest  dwarfs 
("a  venomous,  cowardly,  and  thievish  race,  and  very  expert  with  their 
arrows")  by  whom  Stanley's  march  in  1888  was  so  harrassed;  the  Obongos, 
on  the  Gaboon,  and  the  still  smaller  Batwas,  four  feet  three  inches;  a 
tribe  called  M'Kabba,  near  Lake  Ngami,  reported  as  only  four  feet  one 
inch;  also  the  Andaman  Islanders  (under  five  feet),  the  Aetasin  the  Phil- 
ippines, the  Malayan  Samangs,  the  Javan  Kalangs.  The  Lapps,  Ainos, 
Fuegians,  and  Veddahs  are  somewhat  taller. 

The  Hyksos,  or  Shepherd  Kings,  were  a  race  of  Asiatic  origin,  possi- 
bly of  Mongoloid  type,  whose  nationality  is  a  matter  of  dispute.  Accom- 
panied by  a  horde  of  Semites  they  invaded  and  occupied  the  northern  part 
of  Egypt  about  sixteen  hundred  years  before  Christ,  overthrowing  the  Mid- 
dle Empire,  and  holding  possession  of  the  country  for  six  hundred  and 
sixty-nine  years.  Ahmes,  the  founder  of  the  eighteenth  Egyptian  dynasty, 
conquered  the  Hyksos,  the  more  important  part  of  whom  were  driven  from 
Egypt.  It  was  held,  as  stated  by  Eusebius — a  view  supported  by  manv 
of  the  best  Egyptologists — that  Joseph  ruled  Egypt  during  the  sway  of  the 
Hyksos  dynasty.  Important  discoveries  of  the  Hyksos  dynasty  have  re- 
cently been  made  by  M.  Naville,  atBubastis,  among  these  being  mutilated 
twin  statues  of  the  Hykso  King  Apepi,  probably  contemporaneous  with 
Joseph. 

ABOUT  THE  SARACENS. 

The  term  Saracens  is  of  doubtful  origin.  At  first  it  was  applied  by 
the  Greeks  and  Romans  to  the  nomad  Arabs,  who  harassed  the  frontier 
of  the  empire  from  Egypt  to  the  Euphrates;  but  afterwards,  during  the 
middle  ages,  to  the  Moslems  in  general,  the  Saracens  having  been  the 
earliest  and  most  enthusiastic  converts  of  Islam.  In  the  seventh  century 
the  Saracens  conquered  Arabia,  North  Africa,  and  part  of  Asia;  and  in  the 
eighth  century  they  conquered  Spain  (711),  but  their  progress  in  France 
was  stopped  by  their  defeat  by  Charles  Martel,  at  Tours  (732).  The  great 
caliphate  of  Bagdad,  founded  in  764,  fell  before  the  assaults  of  the  Tartars 
in  1277;  the  great  caliphate  of  Cordova,  founded  in  756,  endured  till  1031, 
when  it  was  broken  up  into  smaller  governments,  the  last  of  which,  the 
kingdom  of  Granada,  fell  before  Ferdinand  of  Spain  in  1492.  Like  the 
Normans,  the  Saracens  w  ere  a  people  of  great  enterprise  and  rare  adapta- 
bility, and  quickly  surpassed  their  teachers  in  all  the  arts  which  embellish 
life.  

OUR  NATION'S  PREDECESSORS. 

Mound  Builders  is  the  name  given  to  a  vanished  race  by  whose  labor 
the  remarkable  earth  mounds  found  in  the  United  States  were  raised. 
These  mounds  exist  in  extraordinary  numbers  over  all  the  country  be- 
tween the  Alleghany  and  Rocky  Mount?  ins,  but  chiefly  in  Ohio,  Illinois, 
Indiana,  and  Missouri;  they  are  abundant  in  all  the  Gulf  States,  and  even 
farther  south,  and  they  extend  at  least  as  far  north  as  the  great  lakes. 
Their  usual  height  is  from  six  to  thirty  feet,  with  a  diameter  of  forty  to 
one  hundred  feet.  The  majority  are  simply  conical  burial  mounds,  mostly 
rising  from  fifteen  to  twenty-five  feet,  though  one  in  West  Virginia  is  sev- 
enty feet  high  and  over  three  hundred  feet  in  diameter  at  the  base.  But 
very  many  others  of  these  mounds  are  defensive,  and  others  again  have  a 


384  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

religious  origin.  The  fortifications,  usually  earthworks  raised  on  heights 
near  some  water  course,  embrace  walls,  trenches,  watch-towers,  and  are 
too  skill  fully  constructed  to  have  been  temporary  defences;  many  archaeol- 
ogists believe  that  there  was  a  connected  line  of  defensive  works  from 
New  York  to  Ohio.  In  the  Mississippi  Valley,  where  the  largest  mounds 
are,  these  forts  disappear;  and  it  is  supposed  that  the  principal  enemies  of 
the  Mound  Builders  had  their  home  in  the  east — perhaps  in  the  Allegha- 
nies.  Some  of  the  Ohio  fortresses  enclose  over  one  hundred  acres,  the 
walls  of  earth,  winding  in  and  out,  in  each  case  being  several  miles  long. 


THE  GREAT  HUMAN  FAMILY. 

The  three  primary  divisions  of  man,  as  indicated  by  Latham,  are  V4ie 
Indo-European,  the  Mongolian  and  the  African. 

I.  THE  INDO-EUROPEAN  OR  CAUCASIC  race  originally  extended  from  India  across 
Europe,  and  increasing  ever  in  civilization  and  intellectual  power  from  age  to  age, 
has  become  the  dominant  one  in  the  world,  extending  its  influence  to  every  part  of 
the  earth,  supplanting  many  inferior  races,  and  repeopling  wide  areas,  as  in  America 
and  Australia. 

The  Caucasic  race  comprises  two  principal  branches — the  Aryan  and  the  Semitic. 
A  third  branch,  according  to  M.  de  Quatrefages,  includes  the  Caucasians  proper, 
Euscarians  (Basques),  and  others. 

Most  of  the  inhabitants  of  Europe  belong  to  the  Aryan  Family;  they  are  arranged 
in  the  following  groups  : 

1.  The  Keltic,   in  the  N.  W.,  comprising  the  Welsh,  Gaels,  Erse,  Manx,  and 
Armoricans. 

2.  The  Italic,  chiefly  in  the  S.  W.  and  S.,  comprising  the  Italian  and  other  Ro- 
mance nations — French,  Spanish,  Portuguese,  Roumanesch,  and  Roumanians. 

3.  The  Thraco-Hellenic,  in  the  S.  E-,  Greeks  and  Albanians. 

4.  The  Teutonic,  in  the  N.  N.  W.  and  center,  comprising  the  Germans,  Scandi- 
navians, Danes,  Icelanders,  Dutch,  Flemings,  English. 

5.  The  Lithuanian,  S.  E.  of  the  Baltic. 

6.  The  Slavonic,  in  the  E.,  comprising  the  Russians,  Poles,  Tsekhs,  Serbs,  Croats, 
Bulgarians,  etc. 

The  Indo-European  or  Caucasic  race  in  Asia  comprises  the  Hindus,  Baluchis, 
Afghans,  Iranians  (Persia),  Galchas  (Zarafshan),  and  the  Semitic  tribes  of  Armenia, 
Syria,  Arabia,  etc. 

II.  THE  MONGOLIAN  is  divisible  into  three  branches,  according  to  geographical 
position,  which  again  form  numerous  smaller  families. 

1.  The  Asiatic,  comprising  the  Mongolians  of  the  Chinese  Empire,  India,  and 
Indo-China;  the  Kalmucks,  adjoining  the  Turks,  who  extend  from  Southern  Europe 
far  into  Central  Asia;  the  Magyars  of  Hungary;  the  Yakuts  and  Samoeids  (or  Samo- 
yedes)  of  Siberia;  with  the  Lapps,  Finns,  and  various  tribes  of  East  Europe. 

2.  The  Oceanic  Mongolians  are  composed  of  two  classes.    I.    The  black-skinned 
found  in  New  Guinea,   Australia,  Tasmania,  and  the  islands  between  New  Zealand 
and  New  Caledonia.     II.     The  yellow,  olive  or  brown  race,  occupying  New  Zealand, 
the  Malay  Peninsula,  Sumatra,  Borneo,  Java,  Moluccas,  Philippines,  Madagascar,  etc. 

3.  The  American    Mongolians  comprise  a  large  number  of  tribes,  the  chief  of 
which  in  North  America  are — the   Athabaskans,  Algonkins,   Sioux,    Paducas,  and 
Mexicans.    In  South  America,  the  Quichuas,  Chilians  and  Patagonians  extend  along 
the  west  coast.     The  Caribs,  Maypures,  Brazilians,  Moxos,  andChiquitos  occupy  the 
north,  east  and  center  of  the  continent.     The  Eskimos  form  a  connecting  link  be- 
tween the  Asiatic  and  American  branches  of  this  family. 

III.  THE  AFRICAN,  forming  the  third  great  division  of  the  human  race,  is  exhib- 
ited in  its  purest  form   by  the  natives  of  Western  Africa.    The  Negroes  occupy  the 
whole  central  portion  of  the  country  from  Cape  Verde  on  the  west  to  Khartoom  on 
the  east,  and  south  to  the  Congo.    South  of  the  Negroes  are  the  Bantus  (including  the 
Kafirs),  inhabiting  the  greater  part  of  Africa  between  the  4th  parallel  of  N.  lat.  and 
the  Cape.    In  the  S.  W.  are  the  Hottentots.     Certain   dwarfish  tribes  are  found  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  continent,  as  the  Bushmen  of  the  Kalahari  Desert,  the  Obongo  ol 
the  Ogowe  basin,  and  others.     The  Fulas  and  Nubas  occupy  parts  of  the  Soudan  ;  the 
former,  in  the  N.  W. ,  extend  from  the  Senegal  and  Niger  towards  Lake  Tchad  ;   the 
latter  are  found  iu  Nubia,  Kordofan,  Darfur,  etc.    The  Gallas,  Copts,  Somali,  of  the 
Sahara,  Egy.pt,  and  East  Africa;  the  Abyssinians  ;  and  the  Berbers,  Kabyles,  Tuareks 
and  other  tribes  of  North  Africa,  belong  to  the   Hamitic  race,  which  is  closely  allied 
to  the  Semitic  race.    The  latter  is  represented  by  the  Arabs  of  the  N.  coast,  and  of  the 
Arabian  Peninsula,  and  by  the  Tigres  and  other  tribes  of  Abyssinia. 


RACES  AND  TRIBES  OF  MEN.  385 

THE  GYPSY  TRIBES. 

The  word  Gypsy  is  a  corruption  of  Egyptian,  but  is  best  understood 
as  applied  to  a  mysterious  vagabond  race,  scattered  over  the  whole  of 
Europe  and  parts  of  Asia,  Africa,  and  America.  Whence  they  originally 
came  is  not  definitely  known,  but  India  seems  to  have  been  the  cradle  of 
the  tribe.  For  centuries  past  they  have  drifted  about  over  Europe  in 
small  bands,  having  no  permanent  homes;  living  by  begging,  fortune 
telling,  and  various  tricks.  The  first  notice  of  them  which  occurs  in  Eu- 
ropean literature  is  embodied  in  a  free  paraphrase,  in  German,  of  the 
Book  of  Genesis,  written  by  an  Austrian  monk  about  1122.  On  August 
17,  1427,  a  band  of  them,  coming  from  Bohemia,  made  their  appearance 
before  Paris,  which,  however,  they  were  not  allowed  to  enter,  but  were 
lodged  at  La  Chapelle  Saint  Denis.  Other  hordes  succeeded  these  in  the 
following  years,  spreading  in  rapid  succession  over  all  parts  of  Germany, 
over  Spain,  England,  Russia,  Scandinavia,  and,  indeed,  over  the  remotest 
parts  of  Europe.  The  account  which  they  most  frequently  gave  of  them- 
selves was,  that  they  originally  came  from  "Little  Egypt,"  that  the  King 
of  Hungary  had  compelled  about  4,000  of  them  to  be  baptized,  had  slain 
the  remainder,  and  had  condemned  the  baptized  to  seven  years'  wander- 
ing. In  France,  Germany,  Scotland,  and  other  countries  the  most  strin- 
gent laws  were  formerly  enforced  against  them  and  they  were  slain  by 
thousands.  The  jargon  spoken  by  the  Gypsies  is  styled  Romany  and 
contains  many  Sanscrit  words  and  corrupted  Hebraisms. 


THE  SCATTERED  NATION. 

The  Hebrew  race  is  distributed  over  the  Eastern  continent  as  follows: 

In  Europe  there  are  5,400,000;  in  France,  63,000;  Germany,  562000, 
of  which  Alsace- Loraine  contains  39,000;  Austro- Hungary,  1,544,000; 
Italy,  40,000;  Netherlands,  82,000;  Roumania,  265,000;  Russia,  2,552,000; 
Turkey,  105,000,  and  in  other  countries  35,000,  Belgium  containing  the 
smallest  number,  only  3,000. 

In  Asia  there  are  319,000;  Asiatic  Turkey,  47,000,  in  Palestine  there 
being  25,000;  Asiatic  Russia,  47,000;  Persia,  18,000;  Middle  Asia,  14,000; 
India,  19,000,  and  China,  1,000. 

Africa  contains  350,000;  Egypt,  8,000;  Tunis,  55,000;  Algiers,  35,000; 
Morocco,  60,000;  Tripoli,  6,000,  and  Abyssinia,  200,000. 

The  entire  number  of  Hebrews  in  the  world  is  nearly  6,300,000. 


UNITY  OF  THE  RACE. 

Geology  has  revealed  to  us  the  existence  in  prehistoric  times  of  ani- 
mals allied  to  those  which  now  exist,  but  with  great  variation  in  organi- 
zation, and  differing  very  considerably  in  size.  Among  the  fossils  are 
the  skeletons  of  creatures  far  exceeding  in  size  any  now  living,  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  bones  of  a  small  animal  scarcely  larger  than  a  dog  of  one  of 
the  breeds  of  medium  size,  which  geologists  assert  was  the  progenitor  of 
the  modern  horse.  But  so  far  as  science  has  been  able  to  discover  the 
human  being  has  ever  been  of  the  same  average  dimensions.  Indi- 
viduals of  all  races  vary  in  height;  the  average  bulk  of  the  inhabitants  of 
tropical  climates  is  generally  less  than  that  of  the  people  who  dwell  in 
the  regions  of  temperate  climate;  and  stunted  men  and  women  occupy 
the  colder  parts  of  the  earth;  but  so  it  has  been  apparently  in  all  ages. 
The  skeletons  found  in  old  barrows,  representatives  of  the  men  of  the 
U.  I— 25 


386  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

prehistoric  period,  the  bones  found  imbedded  in  strata  of  great  antiquity, 
are  of  about  the  same  dimensions  as  those  of  the  men  of  to-day.  No 
necessity  of  existence  has  lengthened  the  arms  or  neck,  changed  toes 
into  thumbs,  or  added  a  finger  to  the  hand.  The  general  type  of  all  men 
in  all  regions,  from  the  equator  to  the  poles,  is  that  they  are  two-handed, 
walk  erect,  have  the  power  of  speech  more  or  less  developed,  and  that 
between  even  those  of  lowest  organization  and  the  most  intelligent  of 
quadrupeds  there  is  a  very  marked  distinction.  Human  idiots  there  are, 
as  there  are  human  monstrosities  of  form;  but  they  are  exceptions  which 
prove  the  permanence  of  the  typical  characteristics.  While,  however, 
the  general  agreement  in  organization  appears  to  be  ineradicable, 
there  are  certain  external  differences,  in  complexion,  hair,  facial 
contour,  and  other  minor  matters,  which  seem  to  indicate  separate  groups 
or  families  of  the  human  race,  and  have  suggested  the  theories  advo- 
cated by  some  ethnologists  of  distinct  centres  of  creation,  in  opposition 
to  the  more  generally  accepted  belief  in  the  derivation  of  all  human 
beings  from  the  same  stock.  In  discussing  this  question,  we  may  fairly 
take  into  consideration  that,  in  the  respect  of  the  means  by  which  the 
human  race  might  have  spread  over  the  earth,  we  are  not  encountered  by 
the  difficulties  which  present  themselves  when  we  are  examining  the 
history  of  the  movements  of  other  members  of  animated  nature.  The 
will  to  travel,  inspired  by  many  motives,  is  added  to  the  power  to  travel, 
given  by  natural  adaptability  to  endure  atmospheric  and  other  varia- 
tions, and  by  the  exercise  of  the  reasoning  power;  and  in  cases  of  acci- 
dental drifting  to  unknown  islands  or  continental  coasts,  there  is  a 
power  to  make  the  best  of  adverse  conditions.  It  is  quite  possible  that 
the  intelligent  and  active  descendants  of  a  small  family  located  in  south- 
western Asia  should  in  the  course  of  thousands  of  years  have  made  their 
way  east  and  west,  north  and  south,  making  at  intervals  settlements 
which  became  centres  of  new  dispersions.  From  Asia  to  Western  Europe 
was  a  comparatively  easy  journey,  allowing  many  centuries  for  its  accom- 
plishment. Africa  could  be  peopled  not  only  by  passing  across  the  neck 
of  land  which  divides  it  from  Asia,  but  by  settlements  on  the  coast  made 
by  adventurous  mariners,  or  by  parties  drifted  to  the  shores.  The  straits 
which  separate  north-eastern  Asia  from  northwestern  America  could  be 
crossed  by  canoes,  visiting  the  chain  of  islands  on  their  wray.  We  know 
that  adventurous  Northmen  of  Europe  reached  the  North  American 
coast  from  Greenland  centuries  before  Columbus  crossed  the  Atlantic; 
and  the  Chinese  have  traditions  of  discoveries  and  settlements  on  the 
western  coast  of  North  America,  nearly  as  far  south  as  California.  Long 
residence  in  hot  climates  affects  the  color  of  the  skin,  and  it  becomes 
hereditary.  The  necessity  of  constant  physical  exertion  to  maintain  ex- 
istence, and  the  absence  of  intellectual  training,  develop  the  muscles  and 
bony  framework,  and  induce  a  dwindling  of  the  brain.  The  facial  angle 
becomes  more  acute,  the  jaw-bone  more  prominent  and  the  figure  more 
lithe  and  active.  In  very  hot  climates  less  animal  food  can  be  eaten, 
even  by  recent  settlers,  and  in  the  course  of  ages  is  dispensed  with  alto- 
gether— sometimes  from  religious  considerations,  as  among  the  natives 
of  the  Indian  peninsula  and  other  parts  of  Asia — and  the  resulting  differ- 
ence of  physique  is  very  noticeable.  Other  causes,  such  as  the  effects  of 
the  chemical  constituents  of  the  atmosphere  and  of  water,  it  may  be 
the  effects  of  terrestrial  magnetism,  are  in  continual  operation,  and  the 
results,  aided  by  hereditary  transmission,  produce  the  differences  which 
mark  what  are  popularly  called  the  races  of  mankind. 


HEALTH,  HYGIENE  AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 


The  surest  road  to  health,  say  what  they  will, 
Is  never  to  suppose  we  shall  be  ill: — 
Most  of  those  evils  we  poor  mortals  know 
From  doctors  and  imagination  flow. 

—CHURCHILL. 

MEDLEY  OF  FACTS  AND  COUNSELS. 

Don't  sleep  in  a  draught. 

Don't  go  to  bed  with  cold  feet. 

Don't  stand  over  hot-air  registers. 

A  bag  of  hot  sand  relieves  neuralgia. 

Warm  borax  water  removes  dandruff. 

Salt  should  be  eaten  with  nuts  to  aid  digestion. 

Don't  eat  what  you  do  not  need,  just  to  save  it. 

Don't  sit  in  a  damp  or  chilly  room  without  a  fire. 

Don't  try  to  get  cool  too  quickly  after  exercising. 

Homoeopathy  began  in  the  United  States  in  1825. 

Don't  sleep  in  a  room  without  ventilation  of  some  kind. 

Medicine  was  introduced  into  Rome  from  Greece  200  B.C. 

Hippocrates,  450  B.C.,  is  styled  the  "Father  of  Medicine." 

It  rests  you,  in  sewing,  to  change  your  position  frequently. 

There  was  a  foundling  hospital  at  Milan,  Italy,  as  early  as  787. 

Don't  try  to  get  along  without  flannel  underclothing  in  winter. 

Oxygen,  the  life  element,  was  discovered  by  Dr.  Priestly  in  1774. 

If  an  artery  is  severed,  tie  a  small  cord  or  handkerchief  above  it. 

Don't  stuff  a  cold  lest  you  should  be  next  obliged  to  starve  a  fever. 

A  little  soda  water  will  relieve  sick  headache  caused  by  indigestion. 

Well-ventilated  bedrooms  prevent  morning  headaches  and  lassitude. 

Sprains  and  bruises  call  for  an  application  of  the  tincture  of  arnica. 

Tickling  in  the  throat  is  best  relieved  by  a  gargling  of  salt  and  water. 

Harvey,  the  discoverer  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  made  his 
earlier  studies  in  Italy,  where  the  science  of  anatomy  had  but  lately 
been  revived. 


388  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

For  bilious  colic,  soda  and  ginger  in  hot  water.  It  may  be  taken 
freely. 

A  cupful  of  strong  coffee  will  remove  the  odor  of  onions  from  the 
breath. 

A  popular  proverb  says  that  '  'a  man  is  either  a  physician  or  a  fool 
at  forty." 

Pains  in  the  side  are  most  promptly  relieved  by  the  application  of 
mustard. 

A  cupful  of  hot  water  drank  before  meals  will  relieve  nausea  and 
dyspepsia. 

For  cold  in  the  head,  nothing  is  better  than  powdered  borax,  sniffed 
up  the  nostrils. 

One  in  a  faint  should  be  laid  flat  on  his  back,  then  loosen  his  clothes 
and  let  him  alone. 

There  were  48,930  blind  people  in  the  United  States  in  1880,  and 
33,880  deaf  mutes. 

There  is  &  personal  as  well  as  a  public  hygiene — your  business  is  to 
care  for  the  former. 

It  is  stated  that  but  sixteen  of  the  134  scholars  attending  Amherst 
College  use  tobacco. 

It  was  Galen,  150  A.D.,  who  first  applied  experimental  methods  to 
Jthe  study  of  disease. 

It  is  agreed  on  all  hands  that  nicotine,  the  active  principle  of  tobacco, 
is  a  powerful  poison. 

Consumptive  night-sweats  may  be  arrested  by  sponging  the  body 
nightly  in  salt  water. 

In  1874  all  London  houses  were  compelled  for  the  first  time  to  be 
connected  with  sewers. 

A  fever  patient  can  be  made  cool  and  comfortable  by  frequent  spong- 
ing off  with  soda  water. 

To  beat  the  whites  of  eggs  quickly  add  a  pinch  of  salt.  Salt  cools, 
and  cold  eggs  froth  rapidly. 

Whooping-cough  paroxysms  are  relieved  by  breathing  the  fumes  of 
turpentine  and  carbolic  acid. 

Nervous  spasms  are  usually  relieved  by  a  little  salt  taken  into  the 
mouth  and  allowed  to  dissolve. 

A  drink  of  hot,  strong  lemonade  before  going  to  bed  will  often  break 
up  a  cold  and  cure  a  sore  throat. 

Broken  limbs  should  be  placed  in  natural  positions,  and  the  patient 
kept  quiet  until  the  surgeon  arrives. 

Diphtheria  is  a  specific  poison  and  sometimes  kills  without  any 
formation  of  the  diphtheritic  membrane. 

It  was  Swift  who  asserted  that  "the  best  doctors  in  the  world  are 
Dr  Diet,  Dr.  Quiet  and  Dr.  Merryman." 

More  cases  of  consumption  appear  among  needlemakers  and  file- 
makers  than  any  other  classes  of  laborers. 

The  scorpion  is  a  total  abstainer.  If  a  drop  of  whisky  be  placed  on 
one's  back  it  will  immediately  sting  itself  to  death. 


HEALTH,  HYGIENE  AND  PHYSIOLOGY.  389 

Hemorrhages  of  the  lungs  or  stomach  are  promptly  checked  by 
small  doses  of  salt.  The  patient  should  be  kept  as  quiet  as  possible. 

Sleeplessness  caused  by  too  much  blood  in  the  head  may  be  over- 
come by  applying  a  cloth  wet  with  cold  water  to  the  back  of  the  neck. 

In  Bacon's  works  we  read:  "A  man's  own  observation,  what  he  finds 
good  of  and  what  he  finds  hurt  of,  is  the  best  physic  to  preserve  health." 

Wind  colic  is  promptly  relieved  by  peppermint  essence,  taken  in  a 
little  warm  water.  For  small  children  it  may  be  sweetened.  Paregoric 
is  also  good. 

Sickness  of  the  stomach  is  most  promptly  relieved  by  drinking  a 
teacupful  of  hot  soda  and  water.  If  it  brings  the  offending  matter  up, 
all  the  better. 

Men  of  marked  ability  in  any  line  have  usually  one  deep,  perpen- 
dicular wrinkle  in  the  middle  of  the  forehead,  with  one  or  two  parallel  to 
it  on  each  side. 

Japanese  doctors  never  present  bills  to  their  patients.  They  await 
the  patient's  inclination  to  pay,  and  then  thankfully  accept  whatever 
sum  is  offered. 

For  stomach  cramps,  ginger  ale  or  a  teaspoonful  of  the  tincture  of 
ginger  in  a  half  glass  of  water,  in  which  a  half  teaspoonful  of  soda  has 
been  dissolved. 

The  Roman  houses  aod  palaces  were  so  imperfectly  lighted  that  in 
many  living  rooms  the  inmates  were  forced  to  depend  on  lamps  by  day 
as  well  as  by  night. 

Assuming  the  working  age  to  be  from  twenty  to  thirty  years,  and 
counting  only  male  workers,  440  persons  in  this  country  live  on  the 
labor  of  every  100  workers. 

Naltknehoff,  of  Geneva,  says  there  are  311,000  blind  persons  in 
Europe,  mostly  from  fevers,  and  that  75  per  cent  would  have  kept  their 
sight  had  they  been  properly  treated. 

The  marriage  rate  of  Germany  rose  10  per  cent  in  the  year  follow- 
ing the  Franco-Prussian  war.  The  same  phenomenon  was  observed  after 
the  French  war  which  ended  in  1815. 

Absinthe  is  an  alcoholic  solution  highly  flavored  with  wormwood. 
It  is  much  drunk  in  France,  particularly  in  Paris.  Its  abuse  is  produc- 
tive of  much  evil  to  the  nervous  system. 

Tracheotomy  is  the  operation  of  making  an  opening  into  the  wind- 
ipe.  It  was  performed  upon  the  late  German  emperor,  Frederick,  who 
ied  of  cancer  of  the  larynx,  June  15,  1888. 

A  man  will  die  for  want  of  air  in  five  minutes;  for  want  of  sleep  in 
ten  days;  for  want  of  water,  in  a  week;  for  want  of  food,  at  varying  in- 
tervals, dependent  on  various  circumstances. 

The  human  hair  is  absolutely  the  most  profitable  crop  that  grows. 
Five  tons  of  it  are  annually  imported  by  the  merchants  of  London.  The 
Parisians  harvest  upward  of  200,000  Ibs.,  equal  in  value  to  $400,000  per 
annum. 

American  life  average  for  professions  (Boston):  Storekeepers,  41.8 
years;  teamsters,  43.6  years;  laborers,  44.6  years;  seamen,  46.1  years; 
mechanics,  47. 3 years;  merchants,  48.4  years;  lawyers,  52.6 years;  farmers, 
64.2  years. 


I 


390  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

The  best  time  to  bathe  is  just  before  going  to  bed,  as  any  danger  of 
taking  cold  is  thus  avoided;  and  the  complexion  is  improved  by  keep- 
ing warm  for  several  hours  after  leaving  the  bath. 

The  flavor  of  cod-liver  oil  may  be  changed  to  the  delightful  one  of 
fresh  oyster,  if  the  patient  will  drink  a  large  glass  of  water  poured  from 
a  vessel  in  which  nails  have  been  allowed  to  rust. 

In  1684,  four  men  were  taken  alive  out  of  a  mine  in  England,  after 
twenty-four  days  without  food.  In  1880  Dr.  Tanner,  in  New  York,  lived 
on  water  for  forty  days,  losing  thirty -six  pounds  in  weight. 

During  the  last  Paraguayan  war  it  was  noticed  that  the  men  who 
had  been  without  salt  for  three  months,  and  who  had  been  wounded, 
however  slight,  died  of  their  wounds  because  they  would  not  heal. 

A  hospital  for  quarantine  or  for  infectious  diseases  is  called  a  laza- 
retto. This  word  is  not  derived  from  Lazarus,  the  Bible  beggar,  but 
from  the  isle  of  St.  Lazarus,  in  Venice,  where  such  an  hospital  was  first 
built  in  1484. 

Calisthenics,  or  callisthenics  (Gr.  kalos,  "beautiful,"  and  sthenos, 
"strength"),  is  a  name  for  exercises  for  promoting  gracefulness  and 
strength,  and  comprises  the  more  gentle  forms  of  gymnastics,  especially 
adapted  to  girls. 

The  natural  rate  of  the  pulse  varies  at  different  ages.  The  beats  per 
minute  are  as  follows:  At  birth,  130-140;  1  year,  115-130;  2  years,  100-115; 
3  years,  95-105;  4  to  7  years,  85-95;  7  to  14  years,  80-90;  14  to  21  years, 
75-85;  21  to  60  years,  70-75,  and  old  age,  75-85. 

Appendicitis,  the  medical  term  for  inflammation  of  a  small  intes- 
tinal appendix,  the  use  of  which  no  one  has  been  able  to  discover,  has 
become  so  common  that  physicians  are  advocating  its  removal  from  all 
infants  as  a  preventive  measure,  like  vaccination. 

Spirits  are  said  to  be  "proof"  when  they  contain  fifty-seven  per  cent 
of  alcohol.  The  maximum  amount  of  alcohol,  says  Parkes,  that  a  man 
can  take  daily  without  injury  to  his  health  is  that  contained  in  2  oz. 
brandy,  }£  pt.  of  sherry,  ft  pt.  of  claret,  or  1  pt.  of  beer. 

One  should  be  cautious  about  entering  a  sick  room  in  a  state  of  per- 
spiration, as  the  moment  you  become  cool  your  pores  absorb.  Do  not 
approach  contagious  diseases  with  an  empty  stomach,  nor  sit  between 
the  sick  and  the  fire,  because  the  heat  attracts  the  vapor. 

Influenza  (Ital.,  "influence;"  called  in  French  la  grippe),  one  of  the 
class  of  diseases  to  which  the  term  zymotic  is  now  applied,  has  long 
been  recognized  by  medical  writers.  The  popular  application  of  the 
name  to  any  severe  cold  in  the  head  is  not  sanctioned  by  medical  author- 
ity. 

Sal  Volatile,  a  well-known  remedy  for  faintness,  consists  essentially 
of  a  solution  of  carbonate  of  ammonia  in  alcohol.  It  contains  in  addi- 
tion free  ammonia  and  the  volatile  oils  of  lemon  and  nutmeg.  As  it  is  a 
strongly  caustic  liquid,  it  should  never  be  taken  unless  well  diluted  with 
water. 

Ot  every  1,000  clergymen  between  the  ages  of  45  and  65,  it  is  found 
that  only  15.93  die  annually.  But  of  every  1,000  doctors  between  the  ages 
of  45  and  65  no  fewer  than  28.02  die  every  year.  This  is  to  say,  the  mor- 
tality of  medical  men  is  almost  double  that  of  clergymen,  and  the  rate  is 
increasing. 


HEALTH,  HYGIENE  AND  PHYSIOLOGY.  391 

Small  rose  pimples  are  a  sign  of  chicken  pox;  diffuse  redness  and 
swelling,  of  erysipelas;  small  red  dots  like  flea  bites,  of  measles;  bright 
diffuse  scarlet,  of  scarlet  fever;  small  red  pimples  changing  to  pustules, 
of  smallpox;  rose  colored  spots,  scattered,  of  typhoid  fever. 

After  the  age  of  fifty  the  brain  loses  an  ounce  every  ten  years. 
Cuvier's  weighed  64,  Byron's  79,  and  Cromwell's  90  ounces,  but  the  last 
was  diseased.  Post-mortem  examinations  in  France  give  an  average  of 
55  to  60  ounces  for  the  brains  of  the  worst  class  of  criminals. 

Most  fatal  of  historic  plagues  was  the  "  Black  Death,"  a  name  given 
to  a  form  of  typhus  in  which  the  body  turns  black  and  rapidly  putrifies. 
An  outbreak  occurred  in  1348,  which  desolated  the  world  from  China  to 
Ireland.  In  Europe  alone  2,500,000  died  and  in  London  100,000  died. 

In  the  cholera  visitation  of  1866,  the  proportion  of  deaths  per  10,000 
inhabitants  in  the  principal  cities  of  Europe  was  as  follows:  London,  18; 
Dublin,  41;  Vienna,  51;  Marseilles,  64;  Paris,  66;  Berlin,  83;  Naples,  89; 
St.  Petersburg,  98;  Madrid,  102;  Brussels,  184;  Palermo,  107;  Constanti- 
nople, 738. 

Coagulation  is  the  amorphous  solidification  of  a  liquid,  or  part  of  a 
liquid,  as  when  the  casein  of  milk  is  solidified  by  rennet  in  making 
cheese,  or  the  white  of  an  egg  by  boiling.  The  process  varies  in  various 
substances.  Albumen,  or  the  white  of  an  egg,  coagulates  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  160°. 

Hair  which  is  lightest  in  color  is  also  lightest  in  weight.  Light  or 
blonde  hair  is  generally  the  most  luxuriant,  and  it  has  been  calculated 
that  the  average  number  of  hairs  of  this  color  on  an  average  person's 
head  is  140,000;  while  the  number  of  brown  hairs  is  110,000,  and  black 
only  103,000. 

Homoeopathy  (homoion,  "like;"  pathos,  "disease")  is  a  medical  doc- 
trine, which  teaches  that  diseases  should  be  treated  or  cured  by  drugs 
capable  of  producing  similar  symptoms  of  disordered  health  to  those 
presented  by  them;  or,  as  it  is  commonly  phrased,  "like  cures  like" 
— similia  similibus  curantur. 

It  is  estimated  that  the  number  of  insane  persons  in  the  United  States 
is  168,900.  Causes  of  Insanity.— Hereditary,  24  per  cent.;  drink,  14  per 
cent.;  business,  12  per  cent.;  loss  of  friends,  11  per  cent.;  sickness,  10  per 
cent. ;  various,  29  per  cent.  This  result  is  the  medium  average  arrived  at 
by  Mulhall  on  comparing  the  returns  for  the  United  States,  England, 
France  and  Denmark: 

Among  the  most  valuable  of  medicinal  agents  are  blisters,  which  when 
applied  to  the  skin*  raise  the  cuticle  into  vesicles  filled  with  serous  fluid. 
They  have  for  their  object  the  establishing  of  a  counter-irritation  or  di- 
version of  inflammatory  action  from  apartin  which  it  cannot  be  reached 
by  remedies,  or  from  some  organ  where  it  may  do  permanent  mischief, 
to  some  more  superficial  part  of  the  body 

The  measurement  of  that  part  of  the  skull  which  holds  the  brain  is 
stated  in  cubic  inches  thus:  Anglo-Saxon,  105;  German,  105;  Negro,  96; 
Ancient  Egyptian,  93;  Hottentot,  58;  Australian  native,  58.  In  all  races 
the  male  brain  is  about  ten  per  cent  heavier  than  the  female.  The 
highest  class  of  apes  has  only  16  ounces  of  brain.  A  man's  brain,  it  is 
estimated,  consists  of  300,000,000  nerve  cells,  of  which  over  3,000  are  dis- 
integrated and  destroyed  every  minute. 


392  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

Color-blindness  is  a  term  introduced  by  Sir  David  Brewster  to  de- 
nominate a  defect  of  vision  owing  to  which  some  persons  are  unable  to 
distinguish  certain  colors  correctly.  It  is  also  called  Daltonism,  from 
Dalton  the  chemist,  who  suffered  from  the  defect,  and  who  gave  the  first 
detailed  description  of  it  in  1794. 

Snoring  isn't  confined  to  sleep.  Persons  with  some  forms  of  nasal 
catarrh  snore  continually.  But  a  healthy  man  snores,  as  a  rule,  only 
when  asleep,  because  then  he  does  not  control  himself.  He  gets  into 
some  position,  with  his  mouth  open,  and  inhales  through  his  mouth.  If 
the  mouth  were  shut  he  wouldn't  snore. 

Travelers  in  arctic  regions  say  that  the  physical  effects  of  cold  there 
are  about  as  follows:  Fifteen  degrees  above,  unpleasantly  warm;  zero, 
mild;  10  degrees  below,  bracing;  20  degrees  below,  sharp,  but  not 
severely  cold;  30  degrees  below,  very  cold;  40  degreees  below,  intensely 
cold;  50  degrees  below,  a  struggle  for  life. 

Curling  is  a  sport  on  the  ice  common  in  Scotland  and  Canada,  where 
it  is  played  by  all  classes  of  people.  Frozen-over  lakes  and  rivers  answer 
for  the  purpose,  but  under  the  auspices  of  curling  clubs,  artificial  shallow 
ponds  are  maintained  for  the  sake  of  this  popular  sport;  and  the  bon- 
spiel*,  or  set  matches,  are  contested  with  great  spirit. 

The  average  duration  of  human  life  is  about  33  years.  One  quarter 
of  the  people  on  the  earth  die  before  age  6,  one-half  before  age  16,  and 
only  about  one  person  of  each  100  born  lives  to  age  65.  The  deaths  are 
calculated  at  67  per  minute,  97,790  per  day,  and  35,639,835  per  year;  the 
births  at  70  per  minute,  100,800  per  day,  and  36,792,000  per  year. 

The  percentage  of  illegitimate  births  for  various  countries,  as  stated 
by  Mulhall,  is  as  follows:  Austria,  12.9;  Denmark,  11.2;  Sweden,  10.2; 
Scotland,  8.9;  Norway,  8.05;  Germany,  8.04;  France,  7.02;  Belgium,  7.0; 
United  States,  7.0;  Italy,  6.8;  Spain  and  Portugal,  5.5;  Canada,  5.0; 
Switzerland,  4.6;  Holland,  3.5;  Russia,  3.1;  Ireland,  2.3;  Greece,  1.6. 

Highly  arched  eyebrows  are  said  to  denote  vivacity  and  brilliancy; 
level  brows,  strength  of  intellect;  regularly  curved  eyebrows  express 
cheerfulness,  square  ones  deep  thought;  irregular,  fickleness,  versatility, 
excitability;  raised  at  the  inner  corner,  melancholy;  joined  over  the  nose, 
an  unsettled  mind.  Thick  and  bushy  eyebrows  denote  physical  strength. 

The  periods  of  gestation  are  11  months  for  the  horse  and  ass;  camel, 
12  months;  elephant,  2  years;  lion,  5  months;  cow,  9  months;  buffalo, 
12  months;  sheep,  5  months;  dog,  9  weeks;  cat,  8  weeks;  sow,  16  weeks; 
the  wolf  90  to  95  days.  The  goose  sits  30  days;  swans,  42;  hens,  21; 
ducks,  30;  peahens  and  turkeys,  28;  canaries,  14;  pigeons,  14;  parrots,  40. 

The  stethoscope  is  an  instrument  used  by  medical  men  in  perform- 
ing an  auscultation.  It  is  a  hollow  cylinder  of  light  wood  or  gutta- 
percha,  the  funnel-shaped  end  of  which  is  placed  upon  the  thorax, 
abdomen,  or  other  part  of  the  body  of  the  patient,  and  the  other  end,  to 
which  is  attached  a  circular  ivory 'plate,  to  the  ear  of  the  practitioner. 
It  was  invented  by  Laennec,  of  Paris,  in  1816. 

Coma,  derived  from  the  Greek,  is  a  term  used  in  medicine  to  signify 
a  state  of  more  or  less  profound  insensibility  allied  to  sleep,  but  differing 
from  natural  sleep  in  its  character  as  well  as  in  the  circumstances  under 
which  it  occurs.  In  coma  the  patient  lies  on  his  back,  and  is  either 
simply  insensible  to  external  impressions,  or  has  a  confused  and  dull  per- 
ception of  them,  with  restlessness  and  low  delirium. 


HEALTH,  HYGIENE  AND  PHYSIOLOGY.  393 

There  are  3,000,000  opium  smokers  in  China.  A  paper  read  before 
<he  New  York  Medical  Society  by  Dr.  F.  N.  Hammond  presents  some 
important  facts.  In  1840  about  20,000  pounds  of  opium  were  consumed 
in  the  United  States;  in  1880,  543,450  pounds.  In  1868  there  were  about 
90,000  habitual  opium  eaters  in  the  country,  now  they  number  over  500,- 
000.  More  women  than  men  are  addicted  to  the  use  of  the  drug. 

The  elephant  lives  100  years  and  upward;  rhinoceros,  20;  camel,  100; 
lion,  25  to  70;  tiger,  leopard,  jaguar,  hyena,  25;  beaver,  50;  deer,  wolf, 
20;  fox,  14  to  16;  monkey,  16  to  18;  hare,  8;  squirrel,  rabbit,  7;  swine, 
25;  horse,  30;  ass,  30;  sheep,  10;  cow,  20;  ox,  30;  swans,  parrots,  ravens, 
200,  eagle,  100;  geese,  80;  hens  and  pigeons,  10  to  16;  hawks,  36  to  40; 
cranes,  24;  blackbird,  10;  codfish,  15;  eel,  10;  crocodile,  100;  tortoise, 
100  to  200;  whale,  1,000  (estimated). 

If  the  condensed  breath  collected  on  the  cool  window  panes  of  a  room 
where  a  number  of  persons  have  been  assembled  be  burned,  a  smell  as  of 
singed  hair  will  show  the  presence  of  organic  matter,  and  if  the  con- 
densed breath  be  allowed  to  remain  on  the  windows  for  a  few  days,  it 
will  be  found,  on  examination  by  the  microscope,  that  it  is  alive  with 
animaculae.  It  is  the  inhalation  of  air  containing  such  putrescent 
matter  which  causes  half  of  the  sick  headaches,  which  might  be  avoided 
by  a  circulation  of  fresh  air. 

Hunger  or  appetite  is  generally  used  to  indicate  the  natural  desire 
for  food  experienced  in  health.  Its  causes  are  two:  (1)  A  condition  of 
the  stomach  not  yet  accurately  understood,  relieved  by  taking  food;  (2) 
A  condition  of  the  system,  not  relieved  till  the  products  of  digestion  begin 
to  be  absorbed  into  the  blood.  These  are  usually  present  together,  but 
either  may  act  without  the  other.  The  stomach  condition  is  that  in  which 
the  organ  is  in  the  most  favorable  state  for  digestion,  and  tends  to  recur  at 
the  habitual  meal  hours;  but  often  passes  off  if  eating  be  long  deferred, 
though  the  need  and  craving  of  the  system  for  food  remains.  Hence  the 
importance  of  taking  food  at  regular  hours. 

Seidlitz  powders  (are  so  named  from  the  village  of  Seidlitz  or  Sed- 
litz  in  northern  Bohemia,  where  there  is  a  spring  of  natural  aperient 
mineral  water  with  similar  constituents)  and  are  composed  of  120 
grains  of  tartrate  of  soda  and  potash,  and  40  grains  of  bicar- 
bonate of  soda  reduced  to  powder,  mixed  and  enclosed  in  a  blue 
paper,  and  thirty-eight  grains  of  powdered  tartaric  acid  in  a  white  paper. 
The  contents  of  the  blue  paper  are  dissolved  in  from  half  a  tumbler  to  a 
tumbler  of  water,  and  those  of  the  white  paper  are  then  stirred  in.  The 
mixture  should  be  taken  while  the  effervescence  from  the  liberation  of 
the  carbonic  acid  is  still  going  on.  These  powders  act  as  an  agreeable 
and  mild  cooling  aperient. 

The  nutritive  fluid  of  the  tissues,  as  well  as  the  great  carrying 
agent  of  the  body,  is  the  blood.  As  such  its  functions  are  of  a  three-fold 
nature:  (1)  it  conveys  the  food  material  to  all  the  tissues  of  the  body.  (2) 
removes  thence  the  waste  products;  and  (3)  its  red  corpuscles  are  the 
great  carriers  of  oxygen,  without  which  the  act  of  respiration  could  not 
be  carried  on.  The  blood  going  to  the  tissues  (arterial  blood)  is  of  a 
bright  red  color,  due  to  the  presence  of  a  large  excess  of  oxygen  obtained 
in  the  lungs;  whereas  the  blood  returning  from  the  tissues  back  to  the 
heart  and  lungs  (venous  blood)  is  of  a  dark  purple  color,  its  oxygen  hav- 
ing been  removed  from  it  in  the  tissues,  and  a  large  quantity  of  carbonic 
acid  having  been  added  to  it. 


394  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

There  were  2,180  lepers  in  Norway  in  1883.  The  number  in  Spain 
and  Italy  is  considerable  In  the  Sandwich  Islands  the  disease  is  so  prev- 
alent that  the  island  of  Molokai  is  set  apart  for  lepers,  who  are  under 
the  direction  of  a  French  Jesuit  priest.  The  death  of  Father  Damien,  in 
1889,  called  attention  to  the  noblest  instance  of  self-sacrifice  recorded  in 
the  nineteenth  century.  His  place  is  now  filled  by  a  younger  member 
of  his  order,  who  voluntarily  sacrifices  his  health  and  life  to  aid  the  out- 
casts. In  the  Seychelles  Islands  leprosy  is  also  common. 

The  limits  of  vision  vary  with  elevation,  conditions  of  the  atmos- 
phere, intensity  of  illumination  and  other  modifying  elements  in  differ- 
ent cases.  On  a  clear  day  an  object  one  foot  above  a  level  plain  may  be 
seen  at  a  distance  of  1.31  miles;  one  10  feet  high,  4.15  miles;  one  20  feet 
high,  5.86  miles;  one  100  feet  high,  13.1  miles;  one  a  mile  high,  as  the 
top  of  a  mountain,  95.23  miles.  This  allows  7  inches;  or,  to  be  exact, 
6.99  inches,  for  the  curvature  of  the  earth,  and  assumes  that  the  size  and 
illumination  of  the  object  are  sufficient  to  produce  an  image. 

Stammering,  or  stuttering,  is  an  infirmity  of  speech,  the  result  of 
failure  in  co-ordinate  action  of  certain  muscles  and  their  appropriate 
nerves.  It  is  analogous  to  some  kinds  of  lameness;  to  cramp  or  spasm, 
or  partial  paralysis  of  the  arms,  wrists,  hands,  and  fingers,  occasionally 
suffered  by  violinists,  pianists,  and  swordsmen;  to  the  scrivener's  palsy, 
or  writer's  cramp,  of  men  who  write  much.  For  speech — like  writing, 
fencing,  fingering  a  musical  instrument,  and  walking — is  a  muscular 
act  involving  the  co-ordinate  action  of  many  nerves  and  muscles.  The 
words  stammering  and  stuttering  practically  denote  the  same  infirmity. 

In  the  small  pox  epidemic  of  1881,  in  England,  the  returns  showed 
4,478  deaths  per  million  inhabitants — 98  vaccinated  to  4, 380  unvaccinated 
or  in  the  proportion  of  44  to  1.  In  the  epidemic  at  Leipsic  in  1871,  thedeath 
rate  was  12,700  per  million,  70  per  cent  of  whom  were  unvaccinated.  In 
Boston  the  proportion  was  15  to  50,  and  in  Philadelphia  17  to  64.  During 
the«Franco-German  war  the  Germans  lost  only  263  men  from  this  disease, 
the  French  23,499,  the  former  having  been  revaccinated  in  barracks.  In 
the  war  in  Paraguay,  the  Brazilians  lost  43,000  men  from  malignant  or 
black  small-pox,  that  is  35  per  cent,  of  their  army,  nine  cases  in  ten 
proving  fatal. 

Longevity  is  the  term  used  for  great  length  of  life  attained  by  indi- 
viduals, many  remarkable  instances  of  which  are  on  record.  Among 
those  on  record  in  England  may  be  mentioned  Thomas  Parr  (died  1635) 
aged  153;  Cardinal  de  Solis  (d.  1785),  aged  110;  Charles  Macklin,  the 
actor  (d.  1797)  aged  107;  Anthony  Beresford  (d.  1874)  aged  101;  Mrs.  Bags- 
ter,  wife  of  the  well-known  publisher,  Samuel  Bagster  (d.  1887)  aged  100; 
Sir  Moses  Montefiore  (d.  1889),  aged  100.  The  expectation  of  life  taking 
the  averages  as  giveri  by  several  assurance  offices,  is  as  follows:  Aged  ten 
expectation  48'36  years  longer  life;  twenty,  41 '49;  thirty,  34'43;  forty, 
27-28;  fifty,  20'18;  sixty,  13'77;  seventy,  8'54;  eighty,  4'78;  ninety,  211. 
The  average  duration  of  life  is  longer  for  women  than  men. 

Epizootics  (Gr.  eft,  "upon,"  and  zoon,  "an  animal")  are  diseases  of 
animals,  which  manifest  a  common  character,  and  prevail  at  the  same 
time  over  considerable  tracts  of  country.  A  curious  circumstance  in  con- 
nection with  them  is  that  they  usually  follow  the  same  line  of  route  as 
the  diseases  of  the  human  race;  and,  as  a  rule,  when  there  has  been  a 
great  epidemic,  it  has  been  followed  or  accompanied  by  an  equally  de- 
structive pestilence  among  animals.  The  cause  of  epizootics  is  not 


HEALTH,  HYGIENE  AND  PHYSIOLOGY. 


395 


altogether  clear,  but  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  insufficient  food  and 
overcrowding  have  great  influence.  Being  apt  to  take  on  a  low  type  of 
fever,  they  are  better  treated  by  supporting  than  by  reducing  remedies. 
Influenza  in  horses,  and  pleuro-pneumonia  and  vesicular  epizootic  in 
cattle,  are  examples. 

Ah!  what  avail  the  largest  gifts  of  Heaven, 
When  drooping  health  and  spirits  go  amiss? 
How  tasteless  then  whatever  can  be  given  ! 
Health  is  the  vital  principle  of  bliss, 
And  exercise  of  health. 

—Thomson. 

WEIGHT  AND  STATURE  OF  MAN. 


AGE. 

MALES. 

FEMALES. 

Feet.           Lbs. 

Feet. 

I,bs. 

0  Years                                     

1.64 
2.60 
3.04 
3.44 
4.00 
4.36. 
4.72 
5.07 
5.36 
5.44 
5.49 
5.52 
5.52 
5.49 
5.38 
5.32 
5.29 
5.29 

7.06 
25.01 
31.38 
38.80 
49.95 
59.77 
75.81 
96.40 
116.56 
127.59 
132.46 
140.38 
140.42 
139.96 
136.07 
131.27 
127.54 
127.54 

1.62 
2.56 
300 
3.38 
3.92 
4.26 
4.60 
4.92 
5.10 
5.13 
5.16 
5.18 
5.18 
5.04 
4.97 
4.97 
4.94 
4.94 

6.42 
23.53 
28.67 
35.29 
47.10 
56.57 
72.65 
89.04 
104.34 
112.55 
115.30 
119.82 
121.81 
123.86 
119.76 
113.60 
108.80 
108.81 

a 

4                  

6                                   

g 

11 

13 

15 

17                         

18                                .   . 

20 

30                          

40 

50 

60                    .                   

70 

80                

90                                         ..   .                

Mean  weight  

103.66 

93.73 

The  average  weight  of  a  male  infant  at  birth,  it  will  be  seen,  is  a  little  over  7  Ibs. 
of  a  female  infant,  a  little  less  than  G%. 


COMPOSITION  AND  DIGESTION  OF  FOODS. 


FAT,   WATER  AND  MUSCL.E  PROPERTIES. 


100  PARTS.        WATER. 

Cucumbers  97.0 

Turnips 94.4 

Cabbage 90.0 

Milk,  cows'  86.0 

Apples  84.0 

Eggs,  yolk  of 79.0 

Potatoes 75.2 

Veal 68.5 

Eggs,  white  of 53.0 

I,amb 50.5 

Beef 50.0 

Chicken 46.0 


MUSCLE. 
1.5 
1  i 

FAT. 
1.0 

4  0 

100  PARTS. 
Mutton  
Pork 

WATER. 

44.0 
385 

4.0 

5.0 

Beans  

14.8 

50 

80 

Buckwheat  . 

..     142 

5.0 

10.0 

Barley  

...14.0 

15.0 

27.0 

Corn  

14.0 

1.4 

22.5 

Peas      

14.0 

10  1 

1  6 

Wheat    

140 

170 

0 

Oats                .   . 

136 

11.0 

35.0 

Rice  

135 

15.0 

30.0 

Cheese  

10.0 

18.0 

32.0 

Butter... 

MUSCLE.   FAT. 
12.5  40.0 

10.0  50.0 
24.0 
8.6 
15.0 
12.0 
23.4 
14.6 

66.4 
795 
19.0 
100.0 


57.7 
75.4 
68.8 
73.0 
60.0 


17.0 

6.5 

65.0 


PERCENTAGE  OF  NUTRITION. 


Raw  cucumbers.  2;  raw  melons,  3;  boiled  turnips,  4^;  milk,  7 :  cabbage,  7%;  currants, 
10;  whipped  eggs,  131  beets,  14;  apples,  16;  peaches,  20;  boiled  codfish,  21;  broiled  veni- 
son, 22;  potatoes,  22^;  fried  veal,  24;  roast  pork,  24;  roast  poultry.  26;  raw  beef,  26;  raw 
grapes,  27;  raw  plums,  29;  broiled  mutton,  30;  oatmeal  porridge,  75;  rye  bread,  79;  boiled 
beans,  87,  boiled  rice  88;  barley  bread,  88:  wheat  bread,  90;  baked  corn  bread,  9i;  boiled 
barley,  92;  butter,  93;  boiled  peas,  93;  raw  oils,  94. 


396 


MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 


PERIODS  OF  DIGESTION. 
Length  of  time  required  for  digestion  of  various  foods. 


HOURS. 

Rice 

Eggs,  raw 

Apples 

Trout,  boiled 

Venisoo,  broiled 

Sago,  boiled  

Milk      "       2 

Bread,  stale 2 

Milk,  raw  2 

Turkey,  boiled 2 

Goose,  roast 2 

Lamb,  broiled 2 

Potatoes 2 

Beans,  boiled 2 

Parsnips,  boiled 2 

Oysters,  raw 2 

Eggs,  boiled 3 


MIN. 

0 
30 
30 
30 
35 
45 

0 

0 
15 
25 
30 
30 
30 
30 
30 
55 

0 


HOURS. 

Mutton,  boiled 3 

Beef,  roast H 

Bread,  fresh 3 

Carrots,  boiled 3 

Turnips,     "      

Potatoes     "        

Butter 

Cheese 

Oysters,  stewed 

Eggs,  hard 

Pork,  boiled , 

Fowl,  roast 4 

Beef,  fried     4 

Cabbage  4 

Wildfowl 4 

Pork,  roast 5 

Veal,  roast 5 


MIN. 

0 

0 
15 
15 
30 
30 
30 
30 
30 
30 
30 

0 

0 
30 
30 
15 
30 


BLEEDING  AT  THE  NOSE. 


Roll  up  a  piece  of  paper  and  press  it  under  the  upper  lip.  In  obsti- 
nate cases,  blow  a  little  gum  arabic  up  the  nostril  through  a  quill,  which 
will  immediately  stop  the  discharge;  powdered  alum,  dissolved  in  water, 
is  also  good.  Pressure  by  the  finger  over  the  small  artery  near  the  ala 
(wing)  of  the  nose,  on  the  side  where  the  blood  is  flowing,  is  said  to 
arrest  the  hemorrhage  immediately.  Sometimes  by  wringing  a  cloth 
out  of  very  hot  water,  and  laying  it  on  the  back  of  the  neck,  gives  relief. 
Napkins  wrung  out  of  cold  water  must  be  laid  across  the  forehead  and 
nose,  the  hands  dipped  in  cold  water,  and  a  bottle  of  hot  water  applied 
to  the  feet. 

NEURALGIA. 

Pain  may  have  its  seat  along  the  course  of  any  nerve.  It  receives 
different  names  corresponding  to  the  seat  of  pain.  Thus  we  hear  of 
facial  neuralgia,  inter-costal  neuralgia,  occipital  neuralgia,  sciatica,  or 
neuralgia  of  the  sciatic  nerve,  gastralgia,  or  neuralgia  of  the  stomach, 
etc.,  etc. 

The  pain  of  neuralgia  varies  in  different  cases  and  at  different  times 
from  a  slight  dull  ache  to  the  most  excruciating  torture.  The  nerve 
which  is  the  seat  of  pain,  in  many  instances  at  least,  is  in  a  state  of  in- 
flammation. It  is  usually  tender,  as  shown  by  examination,  at  points 
where  pressure  can  be  made  upon  the  nerve,  and  following  an  attack 
there  is  usually  a  certain  soreness  and  tenderness  over  the  seat  of  the 
pain. 

Treatment.—  It  is  impossible  in  this  article  to  give  the  space  which 
the  subject  demands.  The  treatment  embraces  a  large  number  of  reme- 
dies and  many  methods  of  procedure.  That  which  has  effected  a  perma- 
nent cure  in  one  case  may  have  no  effect  in  another.  In  some  cases  the 
pain  is  so  persistent  as  to  tax  the  physician  to  the  utmost,  who  finds  a 
remedy  after  having  almost  exhausted  the  pharmacopoeia. 

Some  form  of  opium  will  always  afford  temporary  relief  if  taken  in 
sufficient  doses,  and  it  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  curative  remedies  in 
many  cases  The  patient  is  apt  to  be  in  poor  flesh.  In  such  a  case,  if  a 
permanent  cure  is  to  be  anticipated,  the  general  health  must  be  im- 
proved, and  the  body  weight  greatly  increased.  A  method  has,  of  late 


HEALTH,  HYGIENE  AND  PHYSIOLOGY.  397 

years,  been  very  successfully  employed  in  sanitariums,  where  the  patient 
is  required  to  take  the  necessary  amount  of  rest  in  bed,  to  take  a  large 
amount  of  the  most  nourishing  food,  at  intervals  of  only  a  few  hours, 
and  accompanied  with  baths,  massage  and  suitable  tonic  treatment.  By 
this  means  the  body  weight  is  greatly  increased,  the  general  health 
built  up,  and  this  is  almost  always  followed  by  entire  and  permanent 
relief  from  pain. 

THE  DREADED   CONSUMPTION. 

Of  the  total  number  of  deaths  the  percentage  traceable  to  consump- 
tion in  the  several  States  and  Territories  is  as  follows:  Alabama,  9.6; 
Arizona,  6.1;  Arkansas,  6.4;  California,  15.6;  Colorado,  8.2;  Connecticut, 
15.1;  Dakota,  8.8;  Delaware,  16.1;  District  of  Columbia,  18.9;  Florida, 
8.3;  Georgia,  7.9;  Idaho,  6.8;  Illinois,  10.3;  Indiana,  12.6;  Iowa,  9.9; 
Kansas,  7.3;  Kentucky,  15.7;  Louisiana,  10.4;  Maine,  19.2;  Maryland, 
14.0;  Massachusetts,  15.7;  Michigan,  13.2;  Minnesota,  9.3;  Mississippi, 
8.8;  Missouri,  9.8;  Montana,  5.6;  Nebraska,  8.8;  Nevada,  6.3;  New 
Hampshire,  5.6;  New  Jersey,  8.9;  New  Mexico,  2.4;  New  York,  8.1; 
North  Carolina,  9.5;  Ohio,  13.8;  Oregon,  12.1;  Pennsylvania,  12.6;  Rhode 
Island,  14.6;  South  Carolina,  9.8;  Tennessee,  14.5;  Texas,  6.5;  Utah, 
2.8;  Vermont,  16.1;  Virginia,  12.2;  Washington,  13.2;  West  Virgina, 
13.0;  Wisconsin,  10.4;  Wyoming,  2.6;  Average,  12.0. 


INSOMNIA. 

Insomnia,  or  sleeplessness,  is  a  symptom  common  to  many  nervous 
diseases,  and  one  which  requires  prompt  attention,  as  without  sleep 
little  good  can  be  accomplished  in  other  directions  by  treatment.  The 
treatment  must  depend  very  much  upon  the  age,  occupation  and  other 
circumstances  of  the  patient.  If  in  a  child,  out-door  play  at  games  re- 
quiring exercise  sufficient  to  produce  fatigue  should  be  encouraged. 

In  men  and  women  worried  by  business  or  domestic  cares,  disap- 
pointments or  anxieties,  the  case  is  much  more  serious.  If  possible,  they 
should,  for  a  time,  leave  home  and  business,  when  they  will  often  leave 
their  worries  also  behind  them.  Mental  labor  should  be  abandoned  en- 
tirely, and  physical  labor  or  sports  requiring  little  thought,  of  a  kind 
most  comformable  to  the  tastes  of  the  patient,  and  affording  the  most 
pleasant  diversion,  should  be  chosen  and  followed  to  the  point  of  fatigue. 
A  generous  diet  of  the  most  nutritious  food  should  be  taken,  and  a  com- 
fortable spring-bed,  in  a  well  ventilated,  cheerful  room,  should  be  pro- 
vided. One  of  the  bromides,  with  tonics,  may  be  prescribed,  together 
with  meat  and  milk.  In  severe  cases  the  hydrate  of  choral,  in  from 
fifteen  to  thirty-grain  doses,  may  be  given  at  bed-time. 


COLDS  AND   HOARSENESS. 

Borax  has  proved  a  most  effective  remedy  in  certain  forms  of  colds. 
In  sudden  hoarseness  or  loss  of  voice  in  public  speakers  or  singers,  from 
colds,  relief  for  an  hour  or  so  may  be  obtained  by  slowly  dissolving,  and 
partially  swallowing,  a  lump  of  borax  the  size  of  a  garden  pea,  or  about 
three  or  four  grains  held  in  tne  mouth  for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  before 
speaking  or  singing.  This  produces  a  profuse  secretion  of  saliva,  or 
"watering"  of  the  mouth  and  throat,  just  as  wetting  brings  back  the 
missing  notes  to  a  flute  when  it  is  too  dry. 


398  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

A  flannel  dipped  in  boiling  water,  and  sprinkled  with  turpentine, 
laid  on  the  chest  as  quickly  as  possible,  will  relieve  the  most  severe  cold 
or  hoarseness. 

Another  simple,  pleasant  remedy  is  furnished  by  beating  up  the 
white  of  one  egg,  adding  to  it  the  juice  of  one  lemon,  and  sweetening 
with  white  sugar  to  taste.  Take  a  teaspoonful  from  time  to  time.  It 
has  been  known  to  effectually  cure  the  ailment. 

Or,  bake  a  lemon  or  sour  orange  twenty  minutes  in  a  moderate  oven. 
When  done,  open  at  one  end  and  take  out  the  inside.  Sweeten  with 
sugar  or  molasses.  This  is  an  excellent  remedy  for  hoarseness. 

An  old  time  and  good  way  to  relieve  a  cold  is  to  go  to  bed,  and  stay 
there,  drinking  nothing,  not  even  water,  for  twenty-four  hours,  and  eat- 
ing as  little  as  possible.  Or,  go  to  bed;  put  your  feet  in  hot  mustard  and 
water;  put  a  bran  or  oatmeal  poultice  on  the  chest;  take  ten  grains  of 
Dover's  powder,  and  an  hour  afterwards  a  pint  of  hot  gruel;  in  the 
morning,  rub  the  body  all  over  with  a  coarse  towel,  and  take  a  dose  of 
aperient  medicine. 

Violet,  pennyroyal,  or  boneset  tea,  is  excellent  to  promote  perspira- 
tion in  case  of  sudden  chill.  Care  should  be  taken  next  day  not  to  get 
chilled  by  exposure  to  fresh  out-door  air. 

ASTHMA. 

Asthma  is  caused  by  a  spasm  of  the  muscular  fibers  of  the  small 
bronchial  tubes,  which  obstruct  the  outward  flow  of  air  from  the  lungs; 
hence  the  great  distress  for  want  of  breath,  and  the  loud  wheezing  sounds. 
The  disease  is  of  nervous  origin,  and  is  sometimes  hereditary.  It  is  gen- 
erally worse  at  night. 

Treatment. — There  are  many  remedies  which  for  a  time  relieve  the 
bad  symptoms,  and  a  change  of  climate  is  almost  always  attended  by  re- 
lief. An  attack  may  be  brought  on  by  any  irritating  smoke,  or  vapor 
or  dust  contained  in  the  breathing  air.  The  emanation  from  a  feather 
pillow  is  sufficient  in  some  persons  to  produce  a  paroxysm.  The  writer 
has  found  the  following  prescription  of  use  in  a  greater  number  of  cases 
than  any  other.  It  usually  cuts  short  the  attack  within  a  few  hours: 

Iodide  of  potassium 90  grains. 

Carbonate  of  ammonia 60  grains. 

Syrup  of  orange  peel 1  ounce. 

Simple  syrup 1  ounce. 

Mix. 

Take  a  teaspoonful  every  two  to  four  hours  until  relieved. 


CORYZA. 

Coryza,  or  cold  in  the  head,  is  an  acute  inflammation  of  the  lining 
membrane  of  the  nose.  The  eyes  in  this  disease  are  also  frequently  in- 
flamed and  red  and  the  tears  flow  over  the  face.  The  symptoms  begin  with 
an  itching  or  tingling  sensation  in  the  nose,  which  is  followed  by  sneezing. 
A  slight  fever  accompanies  these  symptoms,  and  not  unfrequently  there 
is  more  or  less  headache. 

Treatment. — Twenty  or  twenty-five  drops  of  laudanum  should  be 
taken  at  bed- time,  the  first  evening  after  the  symptoms  are  noticed.  Not 
unfrequently  this  will  effect  a  cure.  If  not,  another  dose  may  be  taken 
the  following  evening,  and  this  repeated  the  next.  If  the  cold  is  severe 
the  laudanum  should  be  taken  night  and  morning  until  relieved.  It  is 


HEALTH,  HYGIENE  AND  PHYSIOLOGY.  &J9 

also  well  to  take  four  grains  of  quinine  night  and  morning.  Instead  of 
laudanum,  one-sixth  of  a  grain  of  morphine,  or  a  full  dose  of  Dover's 
powder,  will  serve  the  purpose  equally  well.  Treated  in  the  beginning, 
nothing  is  surer  than  a  perfect  cure  in  from  twenty-four  to  forty-eight 
hours,  but  if  not  effectually  treated,  it  is  apt  to  extend  to  the  larynx  and 
become  a  severe  bronchitis,  or  eventuate  in  a  chronic,  low-grade  inflam- 
mation of  the  nasal  membrane,  called  catarrh. 


CATARRH. 

Catarrh  is  a  name  that  properly  applies  to  all  inflammations  01  any 
part  of  the  mucous  membrane,  such  as  catarrh  of  the  stomach  or  of  the 
bladder,  but  by  common  usage,  unless  qualified  by  another  word,  has 
come  to  mean  a  chronic  inflammation  of  the  nasal  mucous  membrane. 
It  is  a  very  troublesome  disease,  and  is  often  very  difficult  to  treat. 
Patients  are  frequently  seen  who  have  suffered  from  the  disease  for  years. 
The  inflammation  is  apt  to  extend  through  the  eustachian  tube  to  the 
ears,  and  sometimes  with  not  only  the  effect  to  impair  the  hearing,  but 
to  quite  destroy  it.  The  odor  is,  in  bad  cases,  most  penetrating,  render- 
ing the  patient  very  offensive  to  his  associates. 

Treatment. — In  the  beginning  the  most  effective  treatment  is  that 
recommended  for  coryza.  Later,  tonics  should  be  given.  Quinine  in 
two-grain  doses,  three  times  a  day;  laudanum  in  small  doses  and  iodide 
of  potassium  in  five-grain  doses  three  times  a  day.  In  the  beginning 
powders  and  solutions  snuffed  up  the  nose  usually  do  harm,  and  it  is  a 
question  whether  they  ever  do  good  in  any  stage.  The  most  effective 
treatment  for  a  chronic  case  is,  perhaps,  a  change  of  climate.  Some 
excellent  cures  have  been  known  to  result  from  a  residence  in  Northern 
Wisconsin,  or  in  the  region  of  Lake  Superior. 


BRONCHITIS. 

Bronchitis  is  an  inflammation  of  the  lining  membrane  of  the  trachea 
and  bronchial  tubes.  It  may  be  either  acute  or  chronic.  If  acute,  there 
will  be  a  slight  fever  and  considerable  cough.  The  treatment  should  be 
the  same  as  that  advised  for  coryza. 

Chronic  Bronchitis  usually  eventuates  from  an  acute  attack.  The 
disease  may  be  of  years'  standing.  Those  cases  of  death  of  elderly  people 
from  exhaustion,  attended  by  cough  and  expectoration,  and  accredited 
to  consumption,  may  usually  be  put  down  as  bronchitis.  Consumption 
rarely  attacks  persons  after  40  or  45  years  of  age. 

Treatment  should  consist  partly  in  good  living  and  warm  dressing. 
Any  of  the  bitter  tonics,  with  iron,  may  be  taken,  together  with  some 
form  of  opium  to  relieve  the  cough.  Iodide  of  potassium  in  five-grain 
doses,  with  two  grains  of  carbonate  of  ammonia,  taken  after  meals,  will 
be  found  very  useful. 

TYPHOID  FEVER. 

Typhoid  Fever  is  a  disease  caused  by  bad  sewerage,  the  odor  from 
old  privy  vaults,  or  drinking  water  contaminated  with  human  excre- 
ment, especially  from  typhoid-fever  patients.  It  is  a  low  grade  of  fever, 
which  attacks  a  person  but  once.  It  comes  on  so  gradually  that  it  is 
hard  to  say  when  the  disease  began.  It  generally  runs  its  course  in  spite 
of  treatment.  Treatment  may  save  a  case  from  a  fatal  termination,  or 


400  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

reduce  its  duration  to  the  minimum,  which  is  three  weeks.  At  first  the 
patient  complains  of  fatigue,  loss  of  appetite,  mental  dullness  and  lack  of 
interest  in  his  work.  There  may  be  diarrhoea.  Pulse  ranges  from  90 
to  110  per  minute;  temperature  from  100  to  104  degrees.  The  skin  is 
dry  and  of  a  bronze  hue.  There  may  be  bleeding  from  the  nose.  The 
tongue  will  have  a  brown  coat,  which,  if  the  patient  is  not  given  an 
abundance  of  water,  will  become  very  dry.  The  lips  and  teeth  collect 
a  dark  brown  or  blackish,  gum-like  matter,  called  sordies.  In  the  sec- 
ond week  the  patient  may  become  more  or  less  delirious,  and,  if  not 
closely  watched,  may  get  out  of  bed,  in  consequence  of  delusions.  It  is 
a  common  thing  for  the  patient  to  imagine  himself  away  from  home. 
Little  red  spots,  like  fleabites,  may  make  their  appearance  upon  the 
abdomen.  If  there  has  been  diarrhoea,  the  abdomen  may  become  dis- 
tended with  gas.  Hemorrhage  from  the  bowels  may  take  place.  During 
the  third  week  any  or  all  of  these  symptoms  may  become  aggravated. 

If  the  patient  does  well  at  the  end  of  the  third  week,  he  will  begin 
to  improve,  the  tongue  will  clean,  the  skin  become  moist  or  wet  with 
perspiration,  and  the  mind  perhaps  become  clear.  He  has  not  asked 
for  anything,  but  now  he  may  express  a  desire  for  food  or  drink. 

The  treatment  for  this  disease,  in  a  mild  case,  is  simply  good  hy- 
gienic surroundings  and  care.  On  account  of  the  low  mental  condition, 
he  may  not  be  conscious  of  his  wants.  Hence  he  may  never  call  for 
water  or  food. 

He  should  have  milk  and  other  nutritious  food  in  such  quantities  as 
he  can  digest,  at  short  but  regular  intervals. 

The  bowels  will  need  attention.  If  there  be  diarrhoea,  some  mild 
astringents  may  be  given,  as  fluid  extract  of  logwood.  If  the  bowels  are 
distended  by  gas,  spirits  of  turpentine  may  be  given.  If  constipation 
ensue,  some  mild  laxative,  as  castor-oil,  syrup  or  tincture  of  rhubarb, 
or  an  enema  of  tepid  water,  will  relieve  the  symptoms.  The  tempera- 
ture and  circulation  can  be  controlled,  as  laid  down  under  the  head  of 
fevers  in  general. 

In  bad  cases  any  or  all  of  the  symptoms  may  be  aggravated,  and  will 
need  special  attention. 

Young  persons  are  more  likely  to  recover  than  persons  advanced 
in  life.  They  are  also  more  liable  to  contract  the  disease. 


LEAD    COLIC. 

Lead  colic  is  caused  by  the  poison  from  lead.  The  lead  may  be 
taken  into  the  system  by  many  different  ways,  without  the  knowledge  of 
the  patient.  Persons  manufacturing  paints  or  working  in  shot  factories 
or  other  places  where  lead  is  used  may  be  poisoned.  Painters  are  very 
liable  to  lead  poisoning.  Persons  have  been  poisoned  by  sleeping  in  a 
newly  painted  room,  or  by  using  certain  face  washes  and  hair  dyes  which 
contain  lead,  or  by  drinking  water  which  has  stood  in  lead  pipes,  or  beer 
or  cider  which  has  been  for  some  time  in  contact  with  a  lead  faucet,  and 
by  many  accidental  or  intentional  adulterations  of  food.  Lead  poisoning 
is  manifested  by  various  affections  of  the  nervous  system,  such  as 
paralysis,  as  of  the  extensor  muscles  of  the  hand,  and  neuralgias,  of 
which  colic,  or  neuralgia  of  the  intestines,  is  one. 

The  bowels  are  usually  constipated.  The  pain  is  sometimes  dull 
and  heavy,  and  sometimes  sharp  and  cutting.  It  usually  comes  on  very 
gradually,  beginning  with  slight  pain,  and  grows  worse  until  it  may  be- 


HEALTH,  HYGIENE  AND  PHYSIOLOGY.  401 

2ome  very  severe.  There  is  seldom  entire  relief  from  pain,  but  there  are 
periods  of  great  increase,  when  the  paroxysms  are  excruciating.  If  not 
relieved  by  treatment,  the  pain  is  likely  to  continue  for  days,  and  per- 
haps for  weeks,  and  attacks  will  frequently  occur.  Persons  do  not  die 
from  lead  colic,  although  they  may  from  other  effects  of  lead  poisoning. 
A  blue  line  along  the  gums  next  the  teeth  is  usually  present  in  these 
cases. 

Treatment  should  first  be  given  as  in  ordinary  colic.  When  the 
pain  is  relieved  and  the  bowels  moved,  the  following  prescription  should 
be  taken,  which  will  produce  a  permanent  cure: 

Iodide  of  potassium 1  ounce. 

Distilled  water,  ad 1  ounce. 

Mix. 

Dose:  As  directed. 

The  above  is  a  saturated  solution.  Begin  with  five  drops  in  a  wine 
glass  of  water  three  times  a  day  after  meals,  and  increase  one  drop  each 
day  until  the  patient  is  taking  twenty-five  to  thirty  drops  three  times  a 
day. 

RHEUMATISM. 

Rheumatism  is  a  constitutional  disease,  characterized  by  certain 
local  manifestations.  These  manifestations  are  due  to  inflammation, 
acute  or  chronic,  of  the  synovial  membrane  lining  the  joints,  of  certain 
serous  membranes,  particularly  those  of  the  heart,  and  of  fibrous  tissue 
elsewhere  in  the  body.  Rheumatism  is  classified  as  acute  articular  rheu- 
matism and  chronic  rheumatism. 

In  acute  articular  rheumatism  the  lining  membranes  of  the 
joints  are  inflamed.  In  the  course  of  the  disease  certain  complications 
involving  internal  organs  are  liable  to  arise.  The  parts  more  likely  to 
become  affected  are  the  serous  membranes,  the  endocardium  and  peri- 
cardium lining  and  surrounding  the  heart. 

The  attack  usually  begins  suddenly.  Sometimes  there  is  a  slight 
amount  of  fever  for  a  day  or  two  preceding  the  joint  affection;  some- 
times the  pain  and  tenderness  of  the  joints  precede  the  fever,  but  usually 
these  symptoms  appear  together.  The  disease  may  attack  any  joint  of 
the  body,  and  is  indeed  very  seldom  confined  to  one  or  two.  The  af- 
fected joints  are  swollen,  red  and  extremely  tender.  Pain  is  not  so  great 
except  when  attempting  to  move,  or  when  disturbed  or  jarred.  The 
slightest  movement  causes  the  most  excruciating  pain.  Swelling  is  most 
apparent  when  the  knees,  ankles  or  wrists  are  the  joints  involved.  The 
swelling  is  usually  in  proportion  to  the  severity  of  the  inflammation.  One 
joint  after  another  generally  becomes  involved.  'Sometimes  upon  attack- 
ing a  new  joint  all  tenderness  and  swelling  disappear  from  the  joints 
first  involved.  The  fever  ranges  in  this  disease  between  102  and  108  de- 
grees. Profuse  sweating  is  a  common  symptom. 

The  disease  very  rarely  proves  fatal.  When  it  does  it  is  due  to  the 
extension  of  the  inflammation  to  the  heart,  and  the  development  of 
pericarditis.  Even  then  the  number  of  deaths  during  the  acute  attack  is 
very  small,  but  in  the  fact  that  the  heart  is  so  frequently  attacked  lies  the 
danger  of  the  disease,  for,  as  explained  under  the  head  of  diseases  of  the 
heart,  the  great  majority  of  valvular  diseases  of  the  heart  are  due  to 
endocarditis  developed  during  an  attack  of  acute  rheumatism.  Usually, 
however,  the  lesion  of  the  valves  causes  no  inconvenience  until  a  number 
U.  I.-26 


402  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

of  years  afterward.  The  heart  is  more  likely  to  become  involved  the 
more  intense  the  disease.  Other  organs,  such  as  the  pleura,  the  perito- 
neum and  the  membranes  enveloping  the  brain,  have  been  known  tb 
suffer  inflammation  during  the  attack,  but  it  is  extremely  rare.  The 
head  is  usually  free  from  pain.  The  duration  of  the  attack  varies  from 
ten  days  to  five  or  six  weeks.  There  are  sometimes  relapses.  One  who 
has  once  suffered  from  acute  rheumatism  is  more  liable  to  subsequent 
attacks. 

Treatment:  Nothwithstanding  the  popularity  of  salicylic  acid,  or 
the  salicylate  of  soda,  in  the  treatment  of  rheumatism  during  the  last 
few  years,  we  believe  that  as  much  or  more  may  be  accomplished  by 
the  use  of  what  has  been  known  as  the  alkaline  treatment.  The  alkali, 
either  bicarbonate  of  potassa  or  soda,  should  be  given  in  full  doses,  every 
three  or  four  hours.  Lemon  juice  may  be  added  to  the  dose  and  taken 
while  effervescing.  As  soon  as  the  urine  is  rendered  alkaline  (which  may 
be  told  by  testing  with  litmus  paper,  which  turns  to  blue  if  dipped  into 
an  alkaline  fluid),  the  dose  should  be  greatly  diminished,  and  taken  there- 
after only  once  or  twice  a  day.  Tonics  are  useful.  Quinine  in  two-grain 
doses  may  be  given.  Tincture  of  aconite  applied  to  the  swollen  joints 
often  affords  relief.  Chloroform  liniment  or  soap  liniment  is  used  for 
this  purpose.  The  salicylate  of  soda  is  much  employed— perhaps  at  this 
time  more  than  any  other  remedy. 

Chronic  rheumatism  differs  from  the  acute  variety  in  the  degree 
of  severity  of  the  symptoms,  and  in  their  duration.  In  mild  cases  the 
patients  are  able  to  go  about  their  work,  but  suffer  more  or  less  pain  in  the 
affected  joints.  In  other  cases,  more  severe,  the  patient  is  confined  to 
his  bed,  and  frequently,  with  those  about  their  avocations,  there  is  more 
or  less  deformity  of  the  joints. 

Treatment:  The  alkalies  may  be  used  in  small  doses;  also  the 
salicylate  of  soda.  Iodide  of  potassium  is  sometimes  very  useful,  and  in 
malarious  districts  quinine  is  to  be  employed. 

The  local  applications  to  the  joints  here  are  of  more  importance  than 
in  the  acute  Variety.  Tincture  of  aconite,  tincture  of  iodine  and  chloro- 
form liniment  are  very  useful.  

MALARIAL  FEVER.— AGUE. 

Intermittent  fever  is  one  form  of  malarial  fever.  It  has  cold,  hot  and 
sweating  stages,  with  a  normal  interval  following.  The  patient  may  go 
through  these  stages  every  day,  every  other  day,  or  every  third  day.  This 
disease  is  caused  by  decaying  vegetable  matter.  It  prevails  in  new  coun- 
tries, river  bottoms,  districts  which  overflow,  or  in  the  neighborhood  of 
canals  or  mill-ponds.  It  may  prevail  in  houses  with  bad  cellars,  or 
where  the  sills  and  floors  are  in  a  state  of  decay.  It  does  not  make  its 
appearance  while  the  land  is  under  water,  but  when  the  water  recedes 
and  exposes  the  half  rotten  vegetable  matter  to  the  sun.  Some  physi- 
cians suppose  this  disease  to  be  caused  by  a  microscopic  vegetable  germ 
which  enters  the  system,  contaminating  the  blood. 

Intermittent  fever  is  not  self-protecting  nor  self-limiting.  Some  per- 
sons are  never  free  from  it  while  they  reside  in  a  malarial  district.  It 
runs  an  indefinite  course  if  not  checked  by  remedial  agents.  If  not 
treated,  the  blood  of  the  patient  becomes  impoverished,  the  lips  pale,  the 
skin  sallow,  the  muscles  weak  and  the  body  emaciated.  The  spleen  be- 
comes large,  vulgarly  called  an  ague  cake.  Some  persons  may  become 
acclimated,  improve,  and  finally  get  well  without  medicine,  but  the  ma- 


HEALTH,  HYGIENE  AND  PHYSIOLOGY.  403 

jority  would  go  from  bad  to  worse  and  die,  or  become  so  weak  as  to  have 
no  physical  endurance  or  resistance,  and  would  finally  succumb  to  some 
other  disease  which  they,  in  the  depraved  state  of  the  system,  are  not 
able  to  withstand.  The  system  may  become  so  surcharged  with  the  poi- 
son as  to  cause  death  from  the  severity  of  the  chill  before  reaction  or  the 
fever  stage  comes  on.  This  is  what  is  called  a  "congestive  chill."  Every 
chill  is  in  reality  a  congestive  chill — that  is,  during  the  chill  some  internal 
organ  is  congested,  or  contains  an  abnormal  amount  of  blood;  hence  the 
variety  of  symptoms  during  this  stage.  One  may  have  difficulty  of  breath- 
ing because  of  congestion  of  the  lungs;  another  may  have  pain  in  the 
head;  another,  in  the  stomach  or  heart. 

Instead  of  the  cold,  hot  and  sweating  stages,  the  patient  may  have 
severe  periodical  pains  along  the  course  of  a  nerve.  This  constitutes  one 
form  of  neuralgia.  At  another  time,  or  another  patient,  instead  of  suffer- 
ing from  either  chills  or  neuralgia,  may  have  a  periodical  diarrhoea,  or 
there  may  be  hemorrhage  from  some  part  of  the  mucous  membrane. 

Treatment. — The  night-air  contains  the  malarial  poison  in  greater 
abundance  than  that  of  the  day,  so  that  if  persons  must  live  in  a  malarial 
region,  they  can  lessen  the  liability  to  contract  disease  by  being  in  the 
house  before  sunset,  and  remaining  there  until  after  sunrise  in  the  morn- 
ing. An  attack  may  be  induced  in  some  persons  by  eating  anything  which 
is  difficult  to  digest.  It  becomes  those  who  are  susceptible  to  the  influence 
of  this  virus  to  look  well  to  their  food. 

Some  preparation  of  Peruvian  bark  enters  into  almost  every  formula 
for  the  cure  of  intermittent  fever.  Sulphate  of  cinchona  is  the  cheapest, 
but  it  is  more  likely  to  disturb  the  stomach.  Cinchonidia  is  cheaper  than 
quinine,  and  is  like  it  in  appearance.  It  is  not  as  likely  to  disturb  the 
stomach  as  the  sulphate  of  cinchona,  but  more  so  than  quinine.  Quinine 
is  more  used  because  it  is  less  irritating  to  the  stomach,  though  it  is  of  a 
higher  price.  Quinine  is  the  king  in  this  realm  of  remedies.  If  the  in- 
terval between  the  paroxysms  is  short,  we  must  give  larger  doses,  and 
closer  together.  When  the  paroxysms  are  farther  apart, .  we  can  give 
smaller  doses — three  or  four  grains  every  two  hours.  We  believe  we  shall 
have  better  effect  from  small  doses  close  together  than  by  giving  doses  of 
five  or  ten  grains,  four  or  five  hours  apart.  We  need,  in  ordinary  cases, 
to  administer  from  twenty  to  thirty  grains  between  the  paroxysms.  The 
taste  of  quinine  can  be  disguised  by  putting  it  in  cold  coffee  or  tea.  A 
few  doses  of  bromo-hydric  acid  will  prevent  the  disagreeable  effects  and 
the  ringing  in  the  ears  produced  by  quinine. 

Occasionally  we  meet  with  persons  who  cannot  take  quinine.  We 
can  use  salicine  in  the  same  doses  as  quinine,  or  a  little  larger  doses  even. 

Arsenic  is  used  in  chronic  forms  of  the  disease  and  may  be  used  where 
quinine  cannot  be  employed. 

Nux  vomica  or  strychnine  may  be  used  in  combination  with  other 
remedies.  

TYPHUS  FEVER. 

Typhus  fever  is  a  disease  arising  from  the  crowding  of  human  beings 
into  a  small  space,  as  in  emigrant  ships,  in  prisons  and  in  the  poorer 
quarters  of  large  cities.  Typhoid  fever  is  produced  from  human  effete 
matter  thrown  off  from  the  bowels.  Typhus  is  liable  to  become  epidemic 
after  famine  or  excessive  privation  of  any  kind.  When  once  originated, 
it  is  contagious  in  densely  populated  districts;  thence  it  may  spread  to 
cleaner  and  more  healthy  parts  of  the  city. 


404  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

The  attack  is  more  sudden  and  its  duration  shorter,  and  the  temper- 
ature and  pulse  somewhat  higher  than  in  typhoid.  The  eruption  on  the 
skin  is  somewhat  like  measles.  Gangrenous  spots  are  liable  to  appear, 
and  may  assume  a  very  serious  aspect.  The  tongue  becomes  contracted, 
dry  and  black;  the  bowels  are  constipated;  no  appetite;  delirium  is 
present,  and  is  followed  by  coma,  in  which  condition  the  patient  may 
sink  and  die,  or  gradually  pass  into  a  more  natural  sleep,  from  which  he 
may  wake  convalescent. 

Treatment  similar  to  typhoid.  Personal  cleanliness;  perfect  ventila- 
tion; good,  easily-digested  food;  milk  in  its  various  forms;  an  abundance 
of  cold  water.  The  circulation  and  temperature  are  to  be  controlled  a? 
directed  in  fevers  in  general.  

HOW  TO  CATCH  COLD. 

A  great  many  cannot  see  why  it  is  they  do  not  take  cold  when  ex- 
posed to  cold  winds  and  rain.  The  fact  is,  and  ought  to  be  more  gener- 
ally understood,  that  nearly  every  cold  is  contracted  indoors,  and  is  not 
directly  due  to  the  cold  outside,  but  to  the  heat  inside.  A  man  will  go 
to  bed  at  night  feeling  as  well  as  usual,  and  get  up  in  the  morning  with 
a  royal  cold.  He  goes  peeking  around  in  search  of  cracks  and  keyholes 
and  tiny  drafts.  Weather-strips  are  procured,  and  the  house  made  as 
tight  as  a  fruit  can.  In  a  few  days  more  the  whole  family  has  colds. 

Let  a  man  go  home,  tired  or  exhausted,  eat  a  full  supper  of  starchy 
and  vegetable  food,  occupy  his  mind  intently  for  a  while,  go  to  bed  in  a 
warm,  close  room,  and  if  he  doesn't  have  a  cold  in  the  morning  it  will  be 
a  wonder.  A  drink  of  whisky  or  a  glass  or  two  of  beer  before  supper  will 
facilitate  matters  very  much. 

People  swallow  more  colds  down  their  throats  than  they  inhale  or 
receive  from  contact  with  the  air,  no  matter  how  cold  or  chilly  it  may 
be.  Plain,  light  suppers  are  good  to  go  to  bed  on,  and  are  far  more  con- 
ducive to  refreshing  sleep  than  a  glass  of  beer  or  a  dose  of  chloral.  In 
the  estimation  of  a  great  many  this  statement  is  rank  heresy,  but 
in  the  light  of  science,  common  sense  and  experience,  it  is  gospel 
truth. 

Pure  air  is  strictly  essential  to  maintain  perfect  health.  If  a  person 
is  accustomed  to  sleeping  with  the  windows  open  there  is  but  little  dan- 
ger of  taking  cold  winter  or  summer.  Persons  who  shut  up  the  windows 
to  keep  out  the  "night  air,"  make  a  mistake,  for  at  night  the  only  air 
we  breath  is  "night  air,"  and  we  need  good  air  while  asleep  as  much  or 
even  more  than  at  any  other  time  of  day.  Ventilation  can  be  accomp- 
lished by  simply  opening  the  window  an  inch  at  the  bottom  and  also  at 
the  top,  thus  letting  the  pure  air  in,  the  bad  air  going  outward  at  the 
top.  Close,  foul  air  poisons  the  blood,  brings  on  disease  which  often 
results  in  death;  this  poisoning  of  the  blood  is  only  prevented  by  pure 
air,  which  enters  the  lungs,  becomes  charged  with  waste  particles,  then 
thrown  out,  and  which  are  poisonous  if  taken  back  again.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  a  grown  person  corrupts  one  gallon  of  pure  air  every  minute , 
or  twenty-five  barrels  full  in  a  single  night,  in  breathing  alone. 


CURB  OF  FELONS. 

Take  common  rock  salt,  as  used  for  salting  down  pork  or  beef, 
dry  in  an  oven,  then  pound  it  fine  and  mix  with  spirits  of  turpentine  in 
equal  parts;  put  it  in  a  rag  and  wrap  it  around  the  parts  affected;  as  it 


HEALTH,  HYGIENE  AND  PHYSIOLOGY.  405 

gets  dry  put  on  more,  and  in  twenty-four  hours  you  are  cured.  The  felon 
will  be  dead. 

Or  purchase  the  herb  of  stramonium  at  the  druggist's;  steep  it  and 
bind  it  on  the  felon;  as  soon  as  cold,  put  on  new,  warm  herbs.  It  will 
soon  kill  it,  in  a  few  hours  at  least. 

Or  saturate  a  bit  of  grated  wild  turnip,  the  size  of  a  bean,  with  spirits 
of  turpentine,  and  apply  it  to  the  affected  part.  It  relieves  the  pain  at 
once;  in  twelve  hours  there  will  be  a  hole  to  the  bone,  and  the  felon  de- 
stroyed; then  apply  healing  salve,  and  the  finger  is  well. 

Another  way  to  cure  a  felon:  Fill  a  tumbler  with  equal  parts  of  fine 
salt  and  ice;  mix  well.  Sink  the  finger  in  the  center,  allow  it  to  remain 
until  it  is  nearly  frozen  and  numb;  then  withdraw  it,  and  when  sensation 
is  restored,  renew  the  operation  four  or  five  times,  when  it  will  be  found 
the  disease  is  destroyed.  This  must  be  done  before  pus  is  formed. 

A  simple  remedy  for  felons,  relieving  pain  at  once,  no  poulticing,  no 
cutting,  no  "holes  to  the  bone,"  no  necessity  for  healing  salve,  but  sim- 
ple oil  of  cedar  applied  a  few  times  at  the  commencement  of  the  felon, 
and  the  work  is  done. 

PREVENTION  qF  CHOLERA. 

Much  may  undoubtedly  be  done  to  prevent  this  dreaded  disease  by 
attention  to  cleanliness,  and  by  disinfectants,  and  none  of  these  things 
should  be  omitted. 

There  is,  however,  in  nearly  all  cases,  a  premonitory  diarrhoea,  and 
if  this  be  effectually  treated  there  is  little  danger  of  the  full  development 
of  the  disease.  Prudent  and  intelligent  people  who  give  prompt  atten- 
tion to  any  occurrence  of  diarrhoea  during  the  prevalence  of  the  disease 
rarely  have  cholera. 

If  the  diarrhoea  occurs  in  a  young  child,  full  doses  of  paregoric 
should  be  given  every  time  the  bowels  move.  If  more  than  eight  years 
old,  full  doses  of  laudanum  should  be  given,  together  with  acetate  of  lead 
and  bismuth.  For  an  adult,  twenty-five  to  forty  drops  of  laudanum,  or, 
instead,  one-sixth  to  one-quarter  grain  of  morphine  after  every  move- 
ment of  the  bowels.  Small  doses  of  red  pepper,  in  addition  to  the 
opiates,  are  useful.  The  above  treatment,  taken  in  time,  will  prevent 
the  further  development  of  the  disease  in  almost  every  case. 

The  treatment  of  cholera,  when  fully  developed,  does  not  differ  during 
the  first  stages  from  that  recommended  during  the  premonitory  diar- 
rhoea, except  that  the  opiates  should  be  given  in  larger  doses.  After 
collapse  has  taken  place  there  is  little  that  can  be  done  with  any  hope  of 
success.  Sometimes  active  treatment  in  this  stage  does  harm;  it  rarely 
does  good.  The  body  should  be  kept  warm  by  the  application  of  dry 
heat.  The  nutrition  should  be  kept  up,  and  brandy  and  water  may  be 
given  frequently  in  small  quantities. 


A  FAMOUS  CHOLERA  MIXTURE. 

More  than  forty-years  ago,  when  it  was  found  that  prevention  for  the 
Asiatic  cholera  was  easier  than  cure,  the  learned  doctors  of  both  hemis- 
pheres drew  up  a  prescription,  which  was  published  (for  working  people) 
in  The  New  York  Sun,  and  took  the  name  of  "The  Sun  Cholera  Mix- 
ture." It  was  found  to  be  the  best  remedy  for  loosenesss  of  the  bowels 
ever  yet  devised.  It  is  to  be  commended  for  several  reasons.  It  is  not  to  be 
mixed  with  liquor,  and  therefore  will  not  be  used  as  an  alcoholic  bever- 


406  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

age.  Its  ingredients  are  well  known  among  all  the  common  people,  and 
it  will  have  no  prejudice  to  combat;  each  of  the  materials  is  in  equal  pro- 
portions to  the  others,  and  it  may  therefore  be  compounded  without  pro- 
fessional skill;  and  as  the  dose  is  so  very  small,  it  may  be  carried  in  a 
tiny  phial  in  the  waistcoat  pocket,  and  be  always  at  hand!  It  is: 

Take  equal  parts  of  tincture  of  cayenne,  tincture  of  opium,  tincture 
of  rhubarb,  essence  of  peppermint,  and  spirits  of  camphor.  Mix  well. 
Dose  fifteen  to  thirty  drops  in  a  wine  glass  of  water,  according  to  age  and 
violence  of  the  attack.  Repeat  every  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  until 
relief  is  obtained.  No  one  who  takes  it  in  time  will  ever  have  the  chol- 
era. Bven  when  no  cholera  is  anticipated,  it  is  a  valuable  remedy  for 
ordinary  summer  complaints,  and  should  always  be  kept  in  readiness. 

REMEDIES  FOR  CROUP. 

Croup,  it  is  said,  can  be  cured  in  one  minute,  and  the  remedy  is 
simply  alum  and  sugar.  Take  a  knife  or  grater,  and  shave  off  in  small 
particles  about  a  teaspoonful  of  alum;  then  mix  it  with  twice  its  amount 
of  sugar,  to  make  it  palatable,  and  administer  it  as  quickly  as  possible. 
Almost  instantaneous  relief  will  follow.  Turpentine  is  said  to  be  an  ex- 
cellent remedy  for  croup.  Saturate  a  piece  of  flannel,  and  apply  it  to 
the  chest  and  throat,  and  take  inwardly  three  or  four  drops  on  a  lump  of 
sugar. 

Another  remedy:  Give  a  teaspoonful  of  ipecacuanha  wine  every  few 
minutes,  until  free  vomiting  is  excited. 

Another  recipe  said  to  be  most  reliable:  Take  two  ounces  of  the 
wine  of  ipecac,  hive  syrup  four  ounces,  tincture  of  bloodroot  two  ounces. 
Mix  it  well.  ' 

Dose,  for  a  child  one  year  old,  five  to  ten  drops;  two  years,  eight  to 
twelve  drops;  three  years,  twelve  to  fifteen  drops;  four  years  old,  fifteen 
to  twenty  drops;  five  years  old,  twenty  to  twenty-five  drops,  and  older 
children  in  proportion  to  age.  Repeat  as  often  as  shall  be  necessary  to 
procure  relief.  If  it  is  thought  best  to  produce  vomiting,  repeat  the  dose 
every  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  for  a  few  doses. 


VALUE  OF  HOT  WATER. 

One  of  the  simplest  and  most  effectual  means  of  relieving  pain  is  by 
the  use  of  hot  water,  externally  and  internally,  the  temperature  varying 
according  to  the  feelings  of  the  patient.  For  bruises,  sprains,  and  similar 
accidental  hurts,  it  should  be  applied  immediately,  as  hot  as  can  be  borne, 
by  means  of  a  cloth  dipped  in  the  water  and  laid  on  the  wounded  part, 
or  by  immersion,  if  convenient,  and  the  treatment  kept  up  until  relief  is 
obtained.  If  applied  at  once,  the  use  of  hot  water  will  generally  prevent, 
nearly,  if  not  entirely,  the  bruised  flesh  from  turning  black.  For  pains 
resulting  from  indigestion,  and  known  as  wind  colic,  etc.,  a  cupful  of  hot 
water,  taken  in  sips,  will  often  relieve  at  once.  When  that  is  insufficient, 
a  flannel  folded  in  several  thicknesses,  large  enough  to  fully  cover  the 
painful  place,  should  be  wrung  out  of  hot  water  and  laid  over  the  seat  of 
the  pain.  It  should  be  as  hot  as  the  skin  can  bear  without  injury,  and 
be  renewed  every  ten  minutes  or  oftener,  if  it  feels  cool,  until  the  pain  is 
gone.  The  remedy  is  simple,  efficient,  harmless  and  within  the  reach  of 
every  one;  and  should  be  more  generally  used  than  it  is.  If  used  along 
with  common  sense,  it  might  save  many  a  doctor's  bill,  and  many  a 
course  of  drug  treatment  as  well. 


HEALTH,  HYGIENE  AND  PHYSIOLOGY.  407 

THE  CURE  OF  EARACHE. 

Take  a  bit  of  cotton  batting,  put  on  it  a  pinch  of  black  pepper, 
gather  it  up  and  tie  it,  dip  it  in  sweet  oil,  and  insert  it  in  the  ear;  put  a 
flannel  bandage  over  the  head  to  keep  it  warm;  it  often  gives  immediate 
relief 

Tobacco  smoke,  puffed  into  the  ear,  has  oftentimes  been  effectual. 

Another  remedy:  Take  equal  parts  of  tincture  of  opium  and  glycer- 
ine. Mix,  and  from  a  warm  teaspoon  drop  two  or  three  drops  into  the 
ear,  and  stop  the  ear  tight  with  cotton,  and  repeat  every  hour  or  two.  It 
matter  should  form  in  the  ear,  make  a  suds  with  castile  soap  and  warm 
water  about  100°  F.,  or  a  little  more  than  milk  warm,  and  have  some 
person  inject  it  into  the  ear  while  you  hold  that  side  of  the  head  the  low- 
est. If  it  does  not  heal  in  due  time,  inject  a  little  carbolic  acid  and 
water  in  the  proportion  of  one  drachm  of  the  acid  to  one  pint  of  warm 
water  each  time  after  using  the  suds 


NOTES  ON  FOOD  PRODUCTS. 

RELATIVE   VALUE   OF   FOOD  (BEEF    PAR). 

Oysters,  22;  milk,  24;  lobsters,  50;  cream,  56;  codfish,  68;  eggs,  72;  turbot,  84;  mutton, 
87;  venison,  89;  veal,  92;  fowl,  94;  herring,  100;  beef,  100;  duck,  104;  salmon,  108;  pork, 
116;  butter,  124;  cheese,  155. 

PBRCENTAGE  OF  CARBON  IN  FOOD. 

Cabbage,  3:  beer,  4;  carrots,  5;  milk  7;  parsnips,  8;  fish,  9;  potatoes,  12;  eggs,  16; 
beef,  27;  bread,  27;  cheese,  36;  peas,  36;  rice,  38;  corn,  38;  biscuit,  4/J;  oatmeal,  42 ;  sugar, 
42;  flour,  46;  bacon,  54;  cocoa,  69;  butter,  79. 

FOOT-TONS   OF  ENERGY   PER  OUNCE   OP  FOOD. 

Cabbage,  16;  carrots,  20;  milk,  24:  ale,  30;  potatoes,  38;  porter,  41;  beef,  55;  egg, 
57;  ham,  65;  bread.  83;  egg  (yolk).  127;  sugar,  130;  rice.  145;  flour,  147;  arrowroot,  151; 
oatmeal,  152;  cheese,  168;  butter,  281. 

LOSS  OF  MEAT    IN   COOKING. 

100  Ibs.  raw  beef  =  67  Ibs.    roast  |  100  Ibs.  raw  fowl  =  80   roast 

100    "          "  =74    "    boiled  |  100    "          "  =87  boiled 

400    "    raw  mutton  =75    "     roast  j  100    "    raw  fish        .  =94  boiled 

THE  PERCENTAGE  OF  STARCH. 

In  common  grains  is  as  follows,  according  to  Prof.  Yeomans:  Rice  flour,  84  to  85; 
Indian  meal.  77  to  80;  oatmeal,  70  to  80;  wheat  flour,  39  to  77 ;  barley  flour,  67  to  70;  rye 
flour,  -F0  to  61;  buckwheat.  52;  peas  and  beans.  42  to  43;  potatoes,  (75  per  cent  water), 
13  to  15. 

THE  DEGREES  OF  SUGAR. 

In  various  fruits  are:  Peach,  1.6;  raspberry,  4.0:  strawberry,  5.7.  currant,  P.I;  goose- 
berry, 7.2;  apple,  7.9;  mulberry,  9.2;  pear,  9.4;  cherry,  10.8;  grape,  14.9. 

EASY  OF  DIGESTION. — Arrowroot,  asparagus,  cauliflower,  baked  apples,  oranges, 
grapes,  strawberries,  peaches. 

MODERATELY  DIGESTIBLE. — Apples,  raspberries,  bread,  puddings,  rhubarb,  choco- 
late, coffee,  porter. 

HARD  TO  DIGEST. — Nuts,  pears,  plums,  cherries,  cucumbers,  onions,  carrots, 
parsnips.  

WONDERS  OF  THE  HUMAN  BODY. 

The  skin  contains  more  than  two  million  openings,  which  are  the 
outlets  of  an  equal  number  of  sweat-glands.  The  human  skeleton  con- 
sists of  more  than  two  hundred  distinct  bones.  An  amount  of  blood 
equal  to  the  whole  quantity  in  the  body  passes  through  the  heart  once 
every  minute.  The  full  capacity  of  the  lungs  is  about  three  hundred 
and  twenty  cubic  inches.  About  two-thirds  of  a  pint  of  air  is  inhaled 
and  exhaled  at  each  breath  in  ordinary  respiration.  The  stomach  daily 
produces  nine  pounds  of  gastric  juice  for  digestion  of  food;  its  capacity 
is  about  five  pints.  There  are  more  than  five  hundred  separate  muscles 
in  the  body, -with  an  equa1*  number  of  nerves  and  blood-vessels.  The 


408  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION, 

weight  of  the  heart  is  from  eight  to  twelve  ounces.  It  beats  one  hundred 
thousand  times  in  twenty-four  hours.  Each  perspiratory  duct  is  one- 
fourth  of  an  inch  in  length,  of  the  whole  about  nine  miles.  The  average 
man  takes  five  and  one-half  pounds  of  food  and  drink  each  day,  which 
amounts  to  one  ton  of  solid  and  liquid  nourishment  annually.  A  man 
breathes  eighteen  times  a  minute,  and  three  thousand  cubic  feet,  or 
about  three  hundred  and  seventy-five  hogsheads  of  air  every  hour  of  his 
existence.  

GYMNASTICS  AND  PHYSICAL  DEVELOPMENT. 

The  principal  methods  of  developing  the  physical  man  now  pre- 
scribed by  trainers  are  exercise  with  dumbbells,  the  bar  bell  and  the 
chest  weight.  The  rings  and  horizontal  and  parallel  bars  are  also  used, 
but  not  nearly  to  the  extent  that  they  formerly  were.  The  movement 
has  been  all  in  the  direction  of  the  simplification  of  apparatus;  in  fact, 
one  well-known  teacher  of  the  Boston  Gymnasium,  when  asked  his 
opinion,  said:  '  'Four  bare  walls  and  a  floor,  with  a  well -posted  instructor, 
is  all  that  is  really  required  for  a  gymnasium." 

Probably  the  most  important  as  well  as  the  simplest  appliance  foi 
gymnasium  work  is  the  wooden  dumbbell,  which  has  displaced  the  pon- 
derous iron  bell  of  former  days.  Its  weight  is  from  three-quarters  of  a 
pound  to  a  pound  and  a  half,  and  with  one  in  each  hand  a  variety  of 
motions  can  be  gone  through,  which  are  of  immense  benefit  in  building 
up  or  toning  down  every  muscle  and  all  vital  parts  of  the  body. 

The  first  object  of  an  instructor  in  taking  a  beginner  in  hand  is  to 
increase  the  circulation.  This  is  done  by  exercising  the  extremities,  the 
first  movement  being  one  of  the  hands,  after  which  come  the  wrists, 
then  the  arms,  and  next  the  head  and  feet.  As  the  circulation  is  in- 
creased, the  necessity  for  a  larger  supply  of  oxygen,  technically  called 
"oxygen-hunger,"  is  created,  which  is  only  satisfied  by  breathing  exer- 
cises, which  develop  the  lungs.  After  the  circulation  is  in  a  satisfactory 
condition,  the  dumbbell  instructor  turns  his  attention  to  exercising  the 
great  muscles  of  the  body,  beginning  with  those  of  the  back,  strength- 
ening which  holds  the  body  erect,  thus  increasing  the  chest  capacity, 
invigorating  the  digestive  organs,  and  in  fact  all  the  vital  functions. 
By  the  use  of  very  light  weights  an  equal  and  and  symmetrical  develop- 
ment of  all  part  of  the  body  is  obtained,  and  then  there  are  no  sudden 
demands  on  the  heart  and  lungs. 

After  the  dumbbell  comes  exercise  with  the  round,  or  bar  bell.  This 
is  like  the  dumbbell,  with  the  exception  that  the  bar  connecting  the 
balls  is  four  or  five  feet,  instead  of  a  few  inches  in  length.  Bar  bells 
weigh  from  one  to  two  pounds  each,  and  are  found  most  useful  in  build- 
ing up  the  respiratory  and  digestive  systems,  their  especial  province 
being  the  strengthening  of  the  erector  muscles  and  increasing  the  flex- 
ibility of  the  chest. 

Of  all  fixed  apparatus  in  use  the  pulley  weight  stands  easily  first  in 
importance.  These  weights  are  available  for  a  greater  variety  of  objects 
than  any  other  gymnastic  appliance,  and  can  be  used  either  for  general 
exercise  or  for  strengthening  such  muscles  as  most  require  it.  With 
them  a  greater  localization  is  possible  than  with  the  dumbbell,  and  for 
this  reason  they  are  recommended  as  a  kind  of  supplement  to  the  latter. 
As  chest  developers  and  correctors  of  round  shoulders  they  are  most  ef- 
fective. As  the  name  implies,  they  are  simply  weights  attached  to  ropes, 
which  pass  over  pulleys,  and  are  provided  with  handles.  The  common 


HEALTH,  HYGIENE  AND  PHYSIOLOGY.  409 

pulley  is  placed  at  about  the  height  of  the  shoulder  of  an  average  man, 
but  recently  those  which  can  be  adjusted  to  any  desired  height  have  been 
very  generally  introduced. 

When  more  special  localization  is  desired  than  can  be  obtained  by 
means  of  the  ordinary  apparatus,  what  is  known  as  the  double-action 
chest  weight  is  used.  This  differs  from  the  ordinary  kind  in  being  pro- 
vided with  several  pulleys,  so  that  the  strain  may  come  at  different 
angles.  Double-action  weights  may  be  divided  into  three  classes — high, 
low  and  side  pulleys — each  with  its  particular  use. 

The  highest  of  all,  known  as  the  giant  pulleys,  are  made  especially 
for  .developing  the  muscles  of  the  back  and  chest,  and  by  stretching  or 
elongating  movements  to  increase  the  interior  capacity  of  the  chest.  If 
the  front  of  the  chest  is  full  and  the  back  or  side  chest  deficient,  the 
pupil  is  set  to  work  on  the  giant  pulley.  To  build  up  the  side-walls  he 
stands  with  the  back  to  the  pulley-box  and  the  left  heel  resting  against 
it;  the  handle  is  grasped  in  the  right  hand  if  the  right  side  of  the  chest 
is  lacking  in  development,  and  then  drawn  straight  down  by  the  side;  a 
step  forward  with  the  right  foot,  as  long  as  possible,  is  taken,  the  line 
brought  as  far  to  the  front  and  near  the  floor  as  can  be  done,  and  then 
the  arm,  held  stiff,  allowed  to  be  drawn  slowly  up  by  the  weight.  To 
exercise  the  left  side  the  same  process  is  gone  through  with,  the  handle 
grasped  in  the  left  hand.  Another  kind  of  giant  pulley  is  that  which 
allows  the  operator  to  stand  directly  under  it,  and  is  used  for  increasing 
the  lateral  diameter  of  the  chest.  The  handles  are  drawn  straight  down 
by  the  sides,  the  arms  are  then  spread  and  drawn  back  by  the  weights. 
Generally  speaking,  high  pulleys  are  most  used  for  correcting  high, 
round  shoulders;  low  pulleys  for  low,  round  shoulders;  side  pulleys  for 
individual  high  or  low  shoulders,  and  giant  pulleys  for  the  develop- 
ment of  the  walls  of  the  chest  and  to  correct  spinal  curvature. 

The  traveling  rings,  a  line  of  iron  rings  covered  with  rubber  and 
attached  to  long  ropes  fastened  to  the  ceiling  some  ten  feet  apart,  are  also 
valuable  in  developing  the  muscles  of  the  back,  arms  and  sides.  The 
first  ring  is  grasped  in  one  hand  and  a  spring  taken  from  an  elevated  plat- 
form. The  momentum  carries  the  gymnast  to  the  next  ring,  which  is  seized 
with  the  free  hand,  and  so  the  entire  length  of  the  line  is  traversed. 
The  parallel  bars,  low  and  high,  the  flying  rings,  the  horizontal  bar, 
and  the  trapeze  all  have  their  uses,  but  of  late  years  they  have  been  rel- 
egated to  a  position  of  distinct  inferiority  to  that  now  occupied  by  the 
dumbbells  and  pulley-weights. 

SECRETS  OF  GOOD  HEALTH. 

Pure  atmospheric  air  is  composed  of  nitrogen,  oxygen  and  a  very 
small  proportion  of  carbonic  acid  gas.  Air  once  breathed  has  lost  the 
chief  part  of  its  oxygen,  and  acquired  a  proportionate  increase  of 
carbonic  acid  gas.  Therefore,  health  requires  that  we  breathe  the  same 
air  once  only. 

The  solid  part  of  our  bodies  is  continually  wasting,  and  requires  to 
be  repaired  by  fresh  substances.  Therefore,  food  which  is  to  repair  the 
loss  should  be  taken  with  due  regard  to  the  exercise  and  waste  of  the 
body. 

The  fluid  parts  of  our  bodies  also  wastes  constantly;  there  is  but 
one  fluid  in  animals,  which  is  water.  Therefore,  water  only  is  necessary, 
and  no  artifice  can  produce  a  better  drink. 

The  fluid  of  our  bodies  is  to  the  solid  in  proportion  as  nine  to  one. 


410  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

Therefore,  a  like  proportion  should  prevail  in  the  total  amount  of  food 
taken. 

Light  exercises  an  important  influence  upon  the  growth  and  vigor 
of  animals  and  plants.  Therefore,  our  dwellings  should  freely  admit 
the  solar  rays. 

Decomposing  animal  and  vegetable  substances  yield  various  noxious 
gases  which  enter  the  lungs  and  corrupt  the  blood.  Therefore,  all  im- 
purities should  be  kept  away  from  our  abodes,  and  every  precaution  be 
observed  to  secure  a  pure  atmosphere. 

Warmth  is  essential  to  all  the  bodily  functions.  Therefore,  an  equal 
bodily  temperature  should  be  maintained  by  exercise,  by  clothing  or 
by  fire. 

Exercise  warms,  invigorates  and  purifies  the  body;  clothing  pre- 
serves the  warmth  the  body  generates;  fire  imparts  warmth  externally. 
Therefore,  to  obtain  and  preserve  warmth,  exercise  and  clothing  are  pref- 
erable to  fire. 

Mental  and  bodily  exercise  are  equally  essential  to  the  general 
health  and  happiness.  Therefore,  labor  and  study  should  succeed  each 
other 

Man  will  live  most  healthfully  upon  simple  solids  and  fluids,  of 
which  a  sufficient  but  temperate  quantity  should  be  taken.  Therefore, 
an  excessive  use  in  strong  drinks,  tobacco,  snuff,  opium  and  all  mere  in- 
dulgences, should  be  avoided. 

Sudden  alternations  of  heat  and  cold  are  dangerous  (especially  to 
the  young  and  the  aged).  Therefore,  clothing  in  quality  and  quantity 
should  be  adapted  to  the  alternations  of  night  and  day  and  of  the  sea- 
sons; and  drinking  cold  water  when  the  body  is  hot,  and  hot  tea  and 
soups  when  cold,  are  productive  of  many  evils. 


SUNDRY  HEALTH  HINTS. 

To  EASE  SWOLLEN  FEET.  Policemen,  mail  carriers,  and  others  whose 
occupation  keeps  them  on  their  feet  a  great  deal,  often  are  troubled  with 
chafed,  sore  and  blistered  feet,  especially  in  extreme  hot  weather,  no 
matter  how  comfortably  their  shoes  may  fit.  A  powder  is  used  in  the 
German  army  for  sifting  into  the  shoes  and  stockings  of  the  foot  soldiers, 
called  "Fusstreupulver,"  and  consists  of  three  parts  salicylic  acid,  ten 
parts  starch  and  eighty-seven  parts  pulverized  soapstone. 

RULES  FOR  FAT  PEOPLE  AND  FOR  LEAN.  To  increase  the  weight: 
Eat  to  the  extent  of  satisfying  a  natural  appetite,  of  fat  meats,  butter, 
cream,  milk,  cocoa,  chocolate,  bread,  potatoes,  peas,  parsnips,  carrots, 
beets,  farinaceous  foods,  as  Indian  corn,  rice,  tapioca,  sago,  corn  starch, 
pastry,  custards,  oatmeal,  sugar,  sweet  wines,  and  ale.  Avoid  acids. 
Exercise  as  little  as  possible,  and  sleep  all  you  can. 

To  reduce  the  weight:  Eat  to  the  extent  of  satisfying  a  natural  appe- 
tite, of  lean  meat,  poultry,  game,  eggs,  milk  moderately,  green  vegetables, 
turnips,  succulent  fruits,  tea  or  coffee.  Drink  lime  juice,  lemonade  and 
acid  drinks.  Avoid  fat,  butter,  cream,  sugar,  pastry. 

WHEN  QUININE  WILL  BREAK  UP  A  COLD.  It  is  surprising,  says  a 
family  physician,  how  certainly  a  cold  may  be  broken  up  by  a  timely 
dose  of  quinine.  When  first  symptons  make  their  appearance,  when  a 
little  languor,  slight  hoarseness  and  ominous  tightening  of  the  nasal  mem- 
branes follow  exposure  to  draughts  or  sudden  chill  by  wet,  five  grains  of 
this  useful  alkaloid  are  sufficient  in  many  cases  to  end  the  trouble.  But 


HEALTH,  HYGIENE  AND  PHYSIOLOGY.  411 

it  must  be  done  promptly.  If  the  golden  moment  passes,  nothing  suffices 
to  stop  the  weary  sneezing,  handkerchief  using,  red  nose  and  woe-begone 
looking  periods  that  certainly  follow. 

A  MISTAKEN  IDEA.  The  old  adage,  "Feed  a  cold  and  starve  a  fever," 
is  characterized  by  the  Journal  of  Health  as  very  silly  advice.  If  any- 
thing, the  reverse  would  be  nearer  right.  When  a  person  has  a  severe 
cold  it  is  best  for  him  to  eat  very  lightly,  especially  during  the  first  few 
days  of  the  attack. 

BATHING.  There  has  been  a  great  deal  written  about  bathing.  The 
surface  of  the  skin  is  punctured  with  millions  of  little  holes  called  pores. 
The  duty  of  these  pores  is  to  carry  the  waste  matter  off.  For  instance, 
perspiration.  Now,  if  these  pores  are  stopped  up  they  are  of  no  use, 
and  the  body  has  to  find  some  other  way  to  get  rid  of  its  impurities. 
Then  the  liver  has  more  than  it  can  do.  Then  we  take  a  liver  pill 
when  we  ought  to  clean  out  the  pores  instead.  The  housewife  is  very 
particular  to  ke~p  her  sieve  in  good  order;  after  she  has  strained  a  sub- 
stance through  it  she  washes  it  out  carefully  with  water,  because  water 
is  the  best  thing  known.  That  is  the  reason  water  is  used  to  bathe 
in.  But  the  skin  is  a  little  different  from  a  sieve,  because  it  is  will- 
ing to  help  along  the  process  itself.  All  it  needs  is  a  little  encourage- 
ment and  it  will  accomplish  wonders.  What  the  skin  wants  is  rub- 
bing. If  you  should  quietly  sit  down  in  a  tub  of  water  and  as  quietly 
get  up  and  dry  off  without  rubbing,  your  skin  wouldn't  be  much  bene- 
fited. 

The  water  would  make  it  a  little  soft,  especially  if  it  was  warm.  But 
rubbing  is  the  great  thing.  Stand  where  the  sunlight  strikes  a  part  of 
your  body,  then  take  a  dry  brush  and  rub  it,  and  you  will  notice  that 
countless  little  flakes  of  cuticle  fly  off.  Every  time  one  of  these  flakes 
is  removed  from  the  skin  your  body  breathes  a  sigh  of  relief.  An  eminent 
German  authority  contends  that  too  much  bathing  is  a  bad  thing.  There 
is  much  truth  in  this.  Soap  and  water  are  good  things  to  soften  up  the 
skin,  but  rubbing  is  what  the  skin  wants.  Every  morning  or  every 
evening,  or  when  it  is  most  convenient,  wash  the  body  all  over  with 
water  and  a  little  ammonia,  or  anything  which  tends  to  make  the  water 
soft;  then  rub  dry  with  a  towel,  and  after  that  go  over  the  body  from  top 
to  toe  with  a  dry 'brush.  Try  this  for  two  or  three  weeks,  and  your  skin 
will  be  like  velvet. 

TEA  AND  COFFEE.  Tea  is  a  nerve  stimulant,  pure  and  simple,  act- 
ing like  alcohol  in  this  respect,  without  any  value  that  the  latter  may 
possess  as  a  retarder  of  waste.  It  has  a  special  influence  upon  those 
nerve  centers  that  supply  will  power,  exalting  their  sensibility  beyond 
normal  activity,  and  may  even  produce  hysterical  symptoms,  if  carried 
far  enough.  Its  active  principle,  theine,  is  an  exceedingly  powerful 
drug,  chiefly  employed  by  nerve  specialists  as  a  pain  destroyer,  possess- 
ing the  singular  quality  of  working  toward  the  surface.  That  is  to  say, 
when  a  dose  is  administered  hypodermically  for  sciatica,  for  example, 
the  narcotic  influence  proceeds  outward  from  the  point  of  injection,  in- 
stead of  inward  toward  the  centers,  as  does  that  of  morphia,  atropia,  etc. 
Tea  is  totally  devoid  of  nutritive  value,  and  the  habit  of  drinking  it  to 
excess,  which  so  many  American  women  indulge  in,  particularly  in  the 
country,  is  to  be  deplored  as  a  cause  of  our  American  nervousness. 

Coffee,  on  the  contrary,  is  a  nerve  food.  Like  other  concentrated 
foods  of  its  class,  it  operates  as  a  stimulant  also,  but  upon  a  different  set 
of  nerves  from  tea.  Taken  strong  in  the  morning,  it  often  produces  diz- 


412  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

ziness  and  that  peculiar  visual  symptom  of  overstimulus  which  is  called 
muscce  volitantes— dancing  flies.  But  this  is  an  improper  way  to  take  it, 
and  rightly  used  it  is  perhaps  the  most  valuable  liquid  addition  to  the 
morning  meal.  Its  active  principle,  caffeine,  differs  in  all  physiological 
respects  from  theine,  while  it  is  chemically  very  closely  allied,  and  its 
limited  consumption  makes  it  impotent  for  harm. 

To  STRAIGHTEN  ROUND  SHOULDERS.  A  stooping  figure  and  a  halt- 
ing gait,  accompanied  by  the  unavoidable  weakness  of  lungs  incidental 
to  a  narrow  chest,  may  be  entirely  cured  by  a  very  simple  and  easily- 
performed  exercise  of  raising  one's  self  upon  the  toes  leisurely  in  a  per- 
pendicular position  several  times  daily.  To  take  this  exercise  properly 
one  must  take  a  perfectly  upright  position,  with  the  heels  together  and 
the  toes  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees.  Then  drop  the  arms  lifelessly 
by  the  sides,  animating  and  raising  the  chest  to  its  full  capacity  muscu- 
larly,  the  chin  well  drawn  in,  and  the  crown  of  the  head  feeling  as  if  at- 
tached to  a  string  suspended  from  the  ceiling  above.  Slowly  rise  upon 
the  balls  of  both  feet  to  the  greatest  possible  height,  thereby  exercising 
all  the  muscles  of  the  legs  and  body;  come  again  into  standing  position 
without  swaying  the  body  backward  out  of  the  perfect  line.  Repeat  this 
same  exercise,  first  on  one  foot,  then  on  the  other.  It  is  wonderful  what 
a  straightening-out  power  this  exercise  has  upon  round  shoulders  and 
crooked  backs,  and  one  will  be  surprised  to  note  how  soon  the  lungs 
begin  to  show  the  effect  of  such  expansive  development. 

CARE  OF  THE  EYES.  In  consequence  of  the  increase  of  affections 
of  the  eye,  a  specialist  has  recently  formulated  the  following  rules  to  be 
observed  in  the  care  of  the  eyes  for  school  work:  A  comfortable  temp- 
erature, dry  and  warm  feet,  good  ventilation;  clothing  at  the  neck  and 
other  parts  of  the  body  loose;  posture  erect,  and  never  read  lying  down 
•or  stooping.  Little  study  before  breakfast  or  directly  after  a  heavy  meal; 
none  at  all  at  twilight  or  late  at  night;  use  great  caution  about  studying 
after  recovery  from  fevers;  have  light  abundant,  but  not  dazzling,  not 
allowing  the  sun  to  shine  on  desks  or  on  objects  in  front  of  the  scholars, 
and  letting  the  light  come  from  the  left  hand  or  left  and  rear;  hold  book 
at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  sight  or  nearly  so;  give  eyes  frequent  rest 
by  looking  up.  The  distance  of  the  book  from  the  eye  should  be  about 
fifteen  inches.  The  usual  indication  of  strain  is  redness  of  the  rim  of  the 
eyelid,  betokening  a  congested  state  of  the  inner  surface,  which  may  be 
accompanied  with  some  pain.  When  the  eye  tires  easily  rest  is  not  the 
proper  remedy,  but  the  use  of  glasses  of  sufficient  power  to  aid  in  accom- 
modating the  eye  to  vision. 

How  AND  WHEN  TO  DRINK  WATER.  According  to  Doctor  Leuf, 
when  water  is  taken  into  the  full  or  partly  full  stomach,  it  does  not 
mingle  with  the  food,  as  we  are  taught,  but  passes  along  quickly  between 
the  food  and  lesser  curvative  toward  the  pylorus,  through  which  it  passes 
into  the  intestines.  The  secretion  of  mucus  by  the  lining  membrane  is 
constant,  and  during  the  night  a  considerable  amount  accumulates 
in  the  stomach;  some  of  its  liquid  portion  is  absorbed,  and  that 
which  remains  is  thick  and  tenacious.  If  food  is  taken  into  the 
stomach  when  in  this  condition,  it  becomes  coated  with  this  mucus,  and 
the  secretion  of  the  gastric  juice  and  its  action  are  delayed.  These  facts 
show  the  value  of  a  goblet  of  water  before  breakfast.  This  washes  out 
the  tenacious  mucus,  and  stimulates  the  gastric  glands  to  secretion.  In 
old  and  feeble  persons  water  should  not  be  taken  cold,  but  it  may  be 
with  great  advantage  taken  warm  or  hot.  This  removal  of  the  accumu- 


HEALTH,  HYGIENE  AND  PHYSIOLOGY.  413 

lated  mucus  from  the  stomach  is  probably  one  of  the  reasons  why  taking 
soup  at  the  beginning  of  a  meal  has  been  found  so  beneficial. 

THE  HUMAN  PULSE. 

The  phenomenon  known  as  the  arterial  pulse  or  arterial  pulsation  is 
due  to  the  distension  of  the  arteries  consequent  upon  the  intermittent 
injection  of  blood  into  their  trunks,  and  the  subsequent  contraction 
which  results  from  the  elasticity  of  their  walls.  It  is  perceptible  to  the 
touch  in  all  excepting  very  minute  arteries,  and,  in  exposed  positions,  is 
visible  to  the  eye.  The  pulse  is  usually  examined  at  the  radial  artery  at 
the  wrist,  the  advantages  of  that  position  being  that  the  artery  is  very 
superficial,  and  that  it  is  easily  compressed  against  the  bone.  It  is  usual 
and  convenient,  though  not  quite  accurate,  to  include  under  the  term 
the  conditions  observed  between  the  beats,  as  well  as  those  produced  by 
them.  The  condition  of  the  pulse  depends  mainly  on  two  factors,  each 
of  which  may  vary  independently  of  the  other:  first,  the  contraction  of 
the.  heart,  which  propels  the  stream  of  blood  along  the  artery;  and  sec- 
ond, the  resistance  in  the  small  arteries  and  capillaries,  which  controls 
the  rate  at  which  it  leaves  the  artery.  The  first  determines  the  frequency 
and  rhythm  of  the  pulse  and  the  force  of  the  beats;  but  the  tension  of  the 
artery  between  them  and  their  apparent  duration  depend  mainly  upon 
the  peripheral  resistance.  "Feeling  the  pulse,"  therefore,  gives  impor- 
tant information  besides  the  rate  of  the  heart's  action,  and  implies  much 
more  than  the  mere  counting  of  pulsations.  Dr.  Broadbent  says,  '  'A 
complete  account  of  the  pulse  should  specify  (1)  the  frequency— i.e.  the 
number  of  beats  per  minute,  with  a  note  of  any  irregularity  or  intermis- 
sion or  instability  of  the  rhythm;  (2)  the  size  of  the  vessel;  (3)  the  degree 
of  distension  of  the  artery  between  the  beats;  (4)  the  character  of  the  pul- 
sation -  whether  its  access  is  sudden  or  gradual,  its  duration  short  or  long, 
its  subsidence  abrupt  or  slow,  note  being  taken  of  dicrotism  when  pres- 
ent; (5)  the  force  or  strength  of  both  the  constant  and  variable  pressure 
within  the  artery,  as  measured  by  its  compressibility;  (6)  the  state  of  the 
arterial  walls." 

The  frequency  of  the  pulse  varies  with  age,  from  130  to  140  per 
minute  at  birth  to  70  to  75  in  adult  males,  and  with  sex,  being  six  or 
eight  beats  more  in  adult  females.  In  some  individuals  it  deviates  con- 
siderably from  this  standard,  and  may  even  be  habitually  below  forty  or 
above  ninety  without  any  signs  of  disease.  It  is  increased  by  exertion  or 
excitement,  by  food  or  stimulants,  diminished  in  a  lying  posture  or  dur- 
ing sleep.  In  disease  (acute  hydrocephalus,  for  example)  the  pulse  may 
reach  15 )  or  even  200  beats;  or,  on  the  other  hand  (as  in  apoplexy  and  in 
certain  organic  affections  of  the  heart),  it  may  be  as  slow  as  between 
thirty  and  twenty. 

The  normal  regular  rhythm  of  the  pulse  may  be  interfered  with  either 
by  the  occasional  dropping  of  a  beat  (intermission),  or  by  variations  in 
the  force  of  successive  beats,  and  in  the  length  of  the  intervals  separating 
them  (irregularity).'  These  varieties  often  occur  in  the  same  person,  but 
they  may  exist  independently  of  each  other.  Irregularity  of  the  pulse  is 
natural  to  some  persons;  in  others  it  is  the  mere  result  of  debility;  but  it 
may  be  caused  by  the  most  serious  disorders,  as  by  disease  of  the  brain, 
or  by  organic  disease  of  the  heart. 

The  other  qualities  of  the  pulse  are  much  more  difficult  to  recognize 
though  of  no  less  importance.  The  degree  of  tension  or  resistance  to 


414  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

compression  by  the  fingers  varies  greatly:  in  a  soft  or  "low  tension" 
pulse  the  artery  may  be  almost  imperceptible  between  the  beats;  in  a 
hard  or*  'high  tension' '  pulse  it  may  be  almost  incompressible.  An  unduly 
soft  pulse  is  usually  an  indication  of  debility;  an  unduly  hard  one  is 
most  often  characteristic  of  disease  of  the  kidneys  and  gout.  But  the 
tension,  like  the  frequency  of  the  pulse,  undergoes  considerable  variations 
in  health  from  temporary  causes,  and  may  in  certain  individuals  be 
habitually  above  or  below  the  average  without  actual  disease. 

The  force  of  the  beats  is  a  measure  of  the  vigor  and  efficiency  of 
the  heart's  action.  A  strong  pulse  is  correctly  regarded  as  a  sign  of  a 
vigorous  state  of  the  system;  it  may,  however,  arise  from  hypertrophy  of 
the  left  ventricle  of  the  heart,  and  remain  as  a  persistent  symptom  even 
when  the  general  powers  are  failing.  As  strength  of  the  pulse  usually 
indicates  vigor,  so  weakness  of  the  pulse  indicates  debility.  Various  ex- 
pressive adjectives  have  been  attached  to  special  conditions  of  the  pulse, 
into  the  consideration  of  which  our  space  will  not  permit  us  to  enter. 
Thus,  we  read  of  the  jerking  pulse,  the  hobbling  pulse,  the  corded  pulse, 
the  wiry  pulse,  the  thrilling  pulse,  the  rebounding  pulse,  etc.  The  f4ull 
significance  of  changes  of  the  pulse  in  disease  can  only  be  appreciated  by 
considering  them  in  connection  with  the  other  signs  and  symptoms  of 
the  case. 

THE   PHILOSOPHY   OF   EATING. 

Food  consists  of  substances  taken  into  the  stomach  for  the  purpose 
of  digestion,  or  of  conversion  into  blood.  Food  is  rendered  necessary 
by  the  waste  of  the  system.  Food  is  the  primary  source  of  nervous  and 
muscular  power.  Food  which  supplies  calorific  power  is  termed  heat- 
forming,  respiratory,  carbonaceous,  or  fuel  food,  and  consists  of  starchy, 
saccharine,  or  oleaginous  bodies  which  contain  a  preponderance  of  car- 
bon, or  of  carbon  and  hydrogen.  Food  which  supplies  dynamical,  me- 
chanical and  mental  power,  is  termed  histogenetic  (tissue  forming),  nitro- 
genous, azotized,  proteinous  or  albuminous;  and  consists  of  substances 
which  are  comparatively  rich  in  nitrogen,  as  milk,  eggs,  flesh,  cheese, 
peas,  beans  and  other  bodies  containing  fibrin,  albumen,  caseine  or 
gluten.  A  small  portion  of  the  respiratory  food  also  probably  contrib- 
utes to  the  formation  of  the  tissues;  and  likewise  a  portion  of  histogenetic 
or  albuminous  food  to  the  development  of  the  animal  heat.  The  student 
and  the  hard-laboring  professional  man  require  even  more  tissue-forming 
food  than  the  ordinary  physical  laborer.  A  due  supply  of  animal  food 
is  necessary  to  the  development  of  a  high  civilization;  that  is  to  the  de- 
velopment of  races  who  are  capable  of  sustained  muscular  and  mental 
iabor.  Alcohol,  either  strong  or  dilute,  cannot  possess  any  histogenetic 
power  from  its  deficiency  of  nitrogen;  and,  as  far  as  the  results  of  mod- 
ern experiments  can  show,  is  neither  oxidized  nor  burnt  in  the  system, 
and  therefore  is  probably  neither  a  heat-former  nor  a  flesh-former.  It  is 
consequently  deficient  in  true  food  power,  or,  in  other  words,  can  neither 
nourish  the  body  nor  develop  heat.  A  due  mixture  of  heat-forming  and 
flesh-forming  food  is  most  beneficial,  economizing  both  food  and  digest- 
ive (vital  or  nervous)  power.  An  excess  of  animal  food  is  much  more  in- 
jurious than  a  corresponding  excess  of  vegetable  food.  Cooking  renders 
food  more  savory,  wholesome  and  digestible,  and  destroys  the  parasitic 
animals  which  might  otherwise  excite  serious  if  not  fatal  disease;  it  saves 
food,  and  enables  the  same  amount  of  digestive  (vital)  power  to  do  more 
effective  work,  and  diminishes  the  quantity  which  would  otherwise  pass 


HEALTH,  HYGIENE  AND  PHYSIOLOGY.  415 

away  undigested.  Any  system  of  instruction  in  cooking  which  does  not 
include  some  knowledge  of  the  chemistry  and  physiology  of  food  must  be 
defective. 

WHAT  IS  FOOD  ? 

How  is  it  converted  into  blood  ?  How  does  the  blood  circulate  ?  And 
how  is  the  body  nourished  and  kept  in  health  ?  Are  questions  of  the 
greatest  importance  in  their  relation  to  public  health  and  morality,  and 
should  be  generally  taught  in  our  schools.  The  following  may 
be  taken  as  correct  as  to  the  qualities  of  human  food  mentioned,  and 
their  characteristics  when  introduced  into  the  stomach.  Beef:  When 
it  is  the  flesh  of  a  bullock  of  middle  age,  it  affords  good  and  strong 
nourishment,  and  is  peculiarly  well  adapted  to  those  who  labor,  or  take 
much  exercise.  It  will  often  sit  easy  upon  stomachs  that  can  digest  no 
other  kind  of  food;  and  its  fat  is  almost  as  easily  digested  as  that  of  veal. 
Veal  is  a  proper  food  for  persons  recovering  from  indisposition,  and  may 
even  be  given  to  febrile  patients  in  a  very  weak  state,  but  it  affords  less 
nourishment  than  the  flesh  of  the  same  animal  in  a  state  of  maturity. 
The  fat  of  it  is  lighter  than  that  of  any  other  animal,  and  shows  the  least 
disposition  to  putrescency.  Veal  is  a  very  suitable  food  in  costive  habits; 
but  of  all  meats  it  is  least  calculated  for  removing  acidity  from  the 
stomach.  Mutton,  from  the  age  of  four  to  six  years,  and  fed  on  dry 
pasture,  is  an  excellent  meat.  It  is  of  a  middle  kind  between  the  firm- 
ness of  beef  and  the  tenderness  of  veal.  The  lean  part  of  mutton,  how- 
ever, is  the  most  nourishing  and  conducive  to  health,  the  fat  being  hard 
of  digestion.  The  head  of  the  sheep,  especially  when  divested  of  the 
skin,  is  very  tender;  and  the  feet,  on  account  of  the  jelly  they  contain, 
are  highly  nutritive.  Lamb  is  not  so  nourishing  as  mutton;  but  it  is  light 
and  extremely  suitable  to  delicate  stomachs.  House  lamb,  though  much 
esteemed  by  many,  possesses  the  bad  qualities  common  to  the  flesh  of 
all  animals  reared  in  an  unnatural  manner.  Pork  affords  rich  and  sub- 
stantial nourishment;  and  its  juices  are  wholesome  when  properly  fed, 
and  when  the  animal  enjoys  pure  air  and  exercise.  But  the  flesh  of 
hogs  reared  in  towns  is  both  hard  of  digestion  and  unwholesome.  Pork 
is  particularly  improper  for  those  who  are  liable  to  any  foulness  of  the  skin. 

DOES  AUX>HOI,   HEI,P? 

It  is  almost  proverbial,  that  a  dram  is  good  for  promoting  the  digest- 
ion; but  this  is  an  erroneous  notion,  for  though  a  dram  may  give  a 
momentary  stimulus  to  the  coats  of  the  stomach,  it  tends  to  harden  the 
flesh,  and  of  course  to  make  it  more  indigestible.  Smoked  hams  are  a 
strong  meat,  and  rather  fit  for  a  relish  than  a  diet.  It  is  the  quality  of 
all  salted  meats  that  the  fibers  become  rigid;  and  therefore  more  difficult 
of  digestion;  and  when  to  this  is  added  smoking,  the  heat  of  the  chimney 
occasions  the  salt  to  concentrate,  and  the  fat  between  the  muscles  some- 
times to  become  rancid.  Bacon  is  also  of  an  indigestible  quality,  and  is 
apt  to  turn  rancid  on  weak  stomachs;  but  for  those  in  health  it  is  an  ex- 
cellent food,  especially  when  used  with  fowl  or  veal,  and  even  eaten 
with  peas,  cabbage  or  cauliflowers.  Goat's  flesh  is  hard  and  indigestible, 
but  that  of  kids  is  tender  as  well  as  delicious,  and  affords  good  nourish- 
ment. Venison,  or  the  flesh  of  deer,  and  that  of  hares,  is  of  a  nourish- 
ing quality,  but  it  is  liable  to  the  inconvenience,  that,  though  much  dis- 
posed to  putrescency  ofitself,  it  must  be  kept  for  a  little  time  before  it 
becomes  tender.  The  blood  of  animals  is  used  as  an  aliment  by  the 
poorer  people,  but  they  could  not  long  subsist  upon  it  unless  mixed 


416  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

with  oatmeal,  etc.,  for  it  is  not  very  soluble,  alone,  by  the  digestive 
powers  of  the  human  stomach,  and  therefore  cannot  prove  nourishing. 

MIIyK. 

Milk  is  of  very  different  consistence  in  different  animals;  but  that  of 
cows  being  the  kind  used  in  diet,  is  at  present  the  object  of  our  atten- 
tion. Milk,  where  it  agrees  with  the  stomach,  affords  excellent  nourish- 
ment for  those  who  are  weak  and  cannot  digest  other  aliments.  It  does 
not  readily  become  putrid,  but  it  is  apt  to  become  sour  on  the  stomach, 
and  thence  to  produce  flatulence,  heart-burn  or  gripes,  and  in  some  con- 
stitutions a  looseness.  The  best  milk  is  from  a  cow  at  three  or  four  years 
of  age,  about  two  months  after  producing  a  calf.  It  is  lighter,  but  more 
watery  than  the  milk  of  sheep  and  goats;  .while,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  more 
thick  and  heavy  than  the  milk  of  asses  and  mares,  which  are  next  in 
consistence  to  human  milk.  On  account  of  the  acid  which  is  generated 
after  digestion,  milk  coagulates  in  all  stomachs;  but  the  caseous  or 
cheesy  part  is  again  dissolved  by  the  digestive  juices,  and  rendered  fit 
for  the  purpose  of  nutrition.  It  is  improper  to  eat  acid  substances  with 
milk,  as  these  would  tend  to  prevent  the  due  digestion  of  it.  Cream  is 
very  nourishing,  but,  on  account  of  its  fatness,  is  difficult  to  be  digested 
in  weak  stomachs.  Violent  exercise,  after  eating  it,  will,  in  a  little 
while,  convert  it  into  butter. 

BUTTER. 

Some  writers  inveigh  against  the  use  of  butter  as  universally  per- 
nicious; but  they  might  with  equal  reason  condemn  all  vegetable  oils, 
which  form  a  considerable  part  of  diet  in  the  southern  climates,  and 
Beem  to  have  been  beneficially  intended  by  nature  for  that  purpose.  But- 
ter, like  every  other  oily  substance,  has  doubtless  a  relaxing  quality, 
and  if  retained  long  in  the  stomach  is  liable  to  become  rancid;  but,  if 
eaten  in  moderation,  it  will  not  produce  those  effects.  It  is,  however, 
improper  in  bilious  constitutions.  The  worst  consequence  produced  by 
butter,  when  eaten  with  bread,  is  that  it  obstructs  the  discharge  of  saliva 
in  the  act  of  mastication  or  chewing,  by  wh.ich  means  the  food  is  not  so 
easily  digested.  To  obviate  this  effect,  it  would  be  a  commendable 
practice  at  breakfast,  first  to  eat  some  dry  bread,  and  chew  it  well,  till 
the  salivary  glands  were  exhausted,  and  afterwards  to  eat  it  with  butter. 
By  these  means  such  a  quantity  of  saliva  might  be  carried  into  the  stom- 
ach as  would  be  sufficient  for  the  purpose  of  digestion.  Cheese  is  like- 
wise reprobated  by  many  as  extremely  unwholesome.  It  is  doubtless 
not  easy  of  digestion;  and  when  eaten  in  a  great  quantity,  may  overload 
the  stomach;  but  if  eaten  sparingly,  its  tenacity  may  be  dissolved  by  the 
digestive  juices,  and  it  may  yield  a  wholesome,  though  not  very  nour- 
ishing, chyle.  Toasted  cheese  is  agreeable  to  most  palates,  but  it  is 
rendered  more  indigestible  by  that  process. 

GAME,  ETC. 

The  flesh  of  birds  differs  in  quality  according  to  the  food  on  which 
they  live.  Such  as  feed  upon  grain  and  berries,  afford,  in  general,  good 
nourishment;  if  we  except  geese  and  ducks,  which  are  hard  of  digestion, 
especially  the  former.  A  young  hen  or  chicken  is  a  tender,  delicate  food, 
and  extremely  well  adapted  wrhere  the  digestive  powers  are  weak.  But 
of  all  tame  fowls,  the  capon  is  the  most  nutritious.  Turkeys,  as  well  as 
guinea  or  India  fowls,  afford  a  substantial  nutriment,  but  are  not  so  easy 
of  digestion  as  the  common  domestic  fowls.  In*  all  birds  those  parts  are 
the  most  firm  which  are  most  exercised;  in  the  small  birds,  therefore,  the 
wings,  and  in  the  larger  kinds  the  legs  are  commonly  the  most  difficult  of 


HEALTH,  HYGIENE  AND  PHYSIOLOGY.  417 

digestion.  The  flesh  of  wild  birds,  in  general,  though  more  easily 
digested,  is  less  nourishing  than  that  of  quadrupeds,  as  being  more  dry 
on  account  of  their  almost  constant  exercise.  Those  birds  are  not  whole- 
some which  subsist  upon  worms,  insects  and  fishes. 

KGGS. 

The  eggs  of  birds  are  a  simple  and  wholesome  aliment.  Those  of  the 
turkey  are  superior  in  all  the  qualifications  of  food.  The  white  of  eggs 
is  dissolved  in  a  warm  temperature,  but  by  much  heat  is  rendered  tough 
and  hard.  The  yolk  contains  much  oil,  and  is  highly  nourishing,  but 
has  a  strong  tendency  to  putrefaction;  on  which  account,  eggs  are  im- 
proper for  people  of  weak  stomachs,  especially  when  they  are  not 
quite  fresh.  Eggs  boiled  hard  or  fried  are  difficult  of  digestion,  and  are 
rendered  still  more  indigestible  by  the  addition  of  butter.  All  eggs  re- 
quire a  sufficient  quantity  of  salt,  to  promote  their  solution  in  the 
stomach . 

FISH. 

Fish,  though  some  of  them  be  light  and  easy  of  digestion,  afford  less 
nourishment  than  vegetables,  or  the  flesh  of  quadrupeds,  and  are,  of  all 
the  animal  tribes,  the  most  disposed  to  putrefaction.  Salt  water  fish  are, 
in  general,  the  best;  but  when  salted,  though  less  disposed  to  putres- 
cency,  they  become  difficult  of  digestion.  Whitings  and  flounders 
are  the  most  easily  digested.  Acid  sauces,  and  pickles,  by  resisting 
putrefaction,  are  a  proper  addition  to  fish,  both  as  they  retard  putres- 
cency,  and  correct  the  relaxing  tendency  of  butter,  so  generally  used 
with  this  kind  of  aliment.  Oysters  and  cockles  are  eaten  both  raw 
and  dressed;  but  in  the  former  state  they  are  preferable,  because  heat  dis- 
sipates considerably  their  nutritious  parts  as  well  as  the  salt  water,  which 
promotes  their  digestion  in  the  stomach;  if  not  eaten  very  sparingly, 
they  generally  prove  laxative.  Muscles  and  periwinkles  are  far  inferior 
to  oysters,  both  in  point  of  digestion  and  nutriment.  Sea  muscles  are 
by  some  supposed  to  be  of  a  poisonous  nature;  but  though  this  opinion 
is  not  much  countenanced  by  experience,  the  safest  way  is  to  eat  them 
with  vinegar,  or  some  other  vegetable  acid. 

BREAD. 

At  the  head  of  the  vegetable  class  stands  bread,  that  article  of  diet 
which  from  general  use,  has  received  the  name  of  the  staff  of  life.  Wheat  is 
the  grain  chiefly  used  for  the  purpose  in  this  country,  and  is  among  the 
most  nutritive  of  all  the  farinaceous  kinds,  as  it  contains  a  great  deal  of 
starch.  Bread  is  very  properly  eaten  with  animal  food,  to  correct  the 
disposition  to  putrescency;  but  is  most  expedient  with  such  articles  of 
diet  as  contain  much  nourishment  in  a  small  bulk,  because  it  then  serves 
to  give  the  stomach  a  proper  degree  of  expansion.  But  as  it  produces  a 
slimy  chyle,  and  disposes  to  costiveness,  it  ought  not  to  be  eaten  in  a 
large  quantity.  To  render  bread  easy  of  digestion,  it  ought  to  be  well 
fermented  and  baked,  and  it  never  should  be  used  till  it  has  stood  twenty- 
four  hours  after  being  taken  out  of  the  oven,  otherwise  it  is  apt  to  occa- 
sion various  complaints  in  those  who  have  weak  stomachs;  such  as  flatu- 
lence, heartburn,  watchfulness,  and  the  like.  The  custom  of  eating 
butter  with  bread,  hot  from  the  oven,  is  compatible  only  with  very 
strong  digestive  powers.  Pastry,  especially  when  hot,  has  all  the  disad- 
vantages of  hot  bread  and  butter,  and  even  buttered  toast,  though  the 
bread  be  stale,  is  scarcely  inferior  in  its  effects  on  a  weak  stomach.  Dry 
toast,  with  butter,  is  by  far  the  wholesomest  breakfast.  Brown  wheaten 
bread,  in  which  there  is  a  good  deal  of  rye,  though  not  so  nourishing  as 
U.  I— 27 


418  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

that  made  of  fine  flour,  is  both  palatable  and  wholesome,  but  apt  to  be- 
come sour  on  weak  stomachs. 

OATS,  BARLEY  AND  RICE. 

Oats,  when  deprived  of  the  husk,  and  particularly  barley,  when  prop- 
erly prepared,  are  each  of  them  softening,  and  afford  wholesome  and 
cooling  nourishment.  Rice  likewise  contains  a  nutritious  mucilage,  and 
is  less  used  than  it  deserves,  both  on  account  of  its  wholesomeness  and 
economical  utility.  The  notion  of  its  being  hurtful  to  the  sight  is  a  vul- 
gar error.  In  some  constitutions  it  tends  to  induce  costiveness;  but  this 
seems  to  be  owing  chiefly  to  flatulence,  and  may  be  corrected  by  the  ad- 
dition of  some  spice,  such  as  caraways,  aniseed,  and  the  like. 

VEGETABLES. 

Potatoes  are  an  agreeable  and  wholesome  food,  and  yield  nearly  as 
much  nourishment  as  any  of  the  roots  used  in  diet.  The  farinaceous  or 
mealy  kind  is  in  general  the  most  easy  of  digestion,  and  they  are  much 
improved  by  being  roasted  or  baked.  They  ought  always  to  be  eaten 
with  meat,  and  never  without  salt.  The  salt  should  be  boiled  with  them. 
Green  peas  and  beans,  boiled  in  their  fresh  state,  are  both  agreeable  to 
the  taste  and  wholesome,  being  neither  so  flatulent,  nor  so  difficult  of 
digestion,  as  in  their  ripe  state;  in  which  they  resemble  the  other  legu- 
minous vegetables.  French  beans  possess  much  the  same  qualities;  but 
yield  a  more  watery  juice,  and  have  a  greater  disposition  to  produce 
flatulence.  They  ought  to  be  eaten  with  some  spice.  Salads,  being  eaten 
raw,  require  good  digestive  powers,  especially  those  of  the  cooling  kind, 
and  the  addition  of  oil  and  vinagar,  though  qualified  with  mustard, 
hardly  renders  the  free  use  of  them  consistent  with  a  weak  stomach. 
Spinach  affords  a  soft  lubricating  aliment,  but  contains  little  nourish- 
ment. In  weak  stomachs  it  is  apt  to  produce  acidity,  and  frequently  a 
looseness.  To  obviate  these  effects,  it  ought  always  to  be  well  beaten, 
and  but  little  butter  mixed  with  it.  Asparagus  is  a  nourishing  article  in 
diet,  and  promotes  the  secretion  of  urine;  but  in  common  with  the  veg- 
etable class,  disposes  a  little  to  flatulence.  Artichokes  resemble  aspar- 
agus in  their  qualities,  but  seem  to  be  more  nutritive,  and  less  diuretic. 
Cabbages  are  some  of  the  most  conspicuous  plants  in  the  garden.  They 
do  not  afford  much  nourishment,  but  are  an  agreeable  addition  to  animal 
food,  and  not  quiet  so  flatulent  as  the  common  greens.  They  are  like- 
wise diuretic,  and  somewhat  laxative.  Cabbage  has  a  stronger  tendency 
to  putrefaction  than  most  other  vegetable  substances;  and,  during  its 
putrefying  state,  sends  forth  an  offensive  smell,  much  resembling  that  of 
putrefying  animal  bodies.  So  far,  however,  from  promoting  a  putred  dis- 
position in  the  human  body,  it  is,  on  the  contrary,  a  wholesome  aliment 
in  the  true  putrid  scurvy.  Turnips  are  a  nutritious  article  of  vegetable 
food,  but  not  very  easy  of  digestion,  and  are  flatulent.  This  effect  is  in  a 
good  measure  obviated  by  pressing  the  water  out  of  them  before  they  are 
eaten.  Carrots  contain  a  similar  quantity  of  nutritious  juice,  but  are 
among  the  most  flatulent  of  vegetable  productions.  Parsnips  are  more 
nourishing  and  lesss  flatulent  than  carrots,  which  they  also  exceed  in  the 
sweetness  of  their  mucilage.  By  boiling  them  in  two  different  waters, 
they  are  rendered  less  flatulent,  but  their  other  qualities  are  thereby 
diminished  in  proportion.  Parsley  is  of  a  stimulating  and  aromatic 
nature,  well  calculated  to  make  agreeable  sauces.  It  is  also  a  gentle 
diuretic,  but  preferable  in  all  its  qualities  when  boiled.  Celery  affords  a 
root  both  wholesome  and  fragrant,  but  is  difficult  of  digestion  in  its  raw 
state.  It  gives  an  agreeable  taste  to  soups,  as  well  as  renders  them 


HEALTH,  HYGIENE  AND  PHYSIOLOGY.  419 

diuretic.  Onions,  garlic  and  shallots  are  all  of  a  stimulating  nature,  by 
which  they  assist  digestion,  dissolve  slimy  humors,  and  expel  flatulency. 
They  are,  however,  most  suitable  to  persons  of  a  cold  and  phlegmatic 
constitution.  Radishes  of  all  kinds,  particularly  the  horse  radish,  agree 
with  the  three  preceding  articles  in  powerfully  dissolving  slimy  humors. 
They  excite  the  discharge  of  air  lodged  in  the  intestines. 

FRUIT. 

Apples  are  a  wholesome  vegetable  aliment  and  in  many  cases  me- 
dicinal, particularly  in  diseases  of  the  breast  and  complaints  arising 
from  phlegm.  But,  in  general,  they  agree  best  with  the  stomach  when 
eaten  either  roasted  or  boiled.  The  more  aromatic  kinds  of  apples 
are  the  fittest  for  eating  raw.  Pears  resemble  much  in  their  effects  the 
sweet  kinds  of  apples,  but  have  more  of  a  laxative  quality,  and  a  greater 
tendency  to  flatulence.  Cherries  are  in  general  a  wholesome  fruit,  when 
they  agree  with  the  stomach,  and  they  are  beneficial  in  many  diseases, 
especially  those  of  the  putrid  kind.  Plums  are  nourishing  and  have  be- 
sides an  attenuating  as  well  as  a  laxative  quality,  but  are  apt  to  produce 
flatulence.  If  eaten  fresh,  and  before  they  are  ripe,  especially  in  large 
quantities,  they  occasion  colics,  and  other  complaints  of  the  bowels. 
Peaches  are  not  of  a  very  nourishing  quality,  but  they  abound  in  juice, 
and  are  serviceable  in  bilious  complaints.  Apricots  are  more  pulpy  than 
peaches,  but  are  apt  to  ferment,  and  produce  acidities  in  weak  stomachs. 
Where  they  do  not  disagree  they  are  cooling,  and  tend  likewise  to  cor- 
rect a  disposition  to  putrescency.  Gooseberries  and  currants,  when  ripe, 
are  similar  in  their  qualities  to  cherries,  and  when  used  in  a  green  state, 
they  are  agreeably  co'oling.  Strawberries  are  an  agreeable,  cooling  ali- 
ment, and  are  accounted  good  in  cases  of  gravel.  Cucumbers  are  cool- 
ing and  agreeable  to  the  palate  in  hot  weather;  but  to  prevent  them 
from  proving  hurtful  to  the  stomach,  the  juice  ought  to  be  squeezed  out 
after  they  are  sliced,  and  vinegar,  pepper,  and  salt  afterward  added. 
TEA,  COFFEE,  ETC. 

Tea  by  some  is  condemned  in  terms  the  most  vehement  and  un- 
qualified, while  others  have  either  asserted  its  innocence,  or  gone  so  far 
as  to  ascribe  to  it  salubrious,  and  even  extraordinary  virtues.  The  truth 
seems  to  lie  between  those  two  extremes;  there  is,  however,  an  essential 
difference  in  the  effects  of  green  tea  and  of  black,  or  of  bohea;  the  former 
of  which  is  much  more  apt  to  affect  the  nerves  of  the  stomach  than  the 
latter,  more  especially  when  drank  without  cream,  and  likewise  without 
bread  and  butter.  That,  taken  in  a  large  quantity,  or  at  a  later  hour 
than  usual,  tea  often  produces  watchfulness,  is  a  point  that  cannot  be 
denied;  but  if  used  in  moderation,  and  accompanied  with  the  additions 
just  now  mentioned,  it  does  not  sensibly  discover  any  hurtful  effects, 
but  greatly  relieves  an  oppression  of  the  stomach,  and  abates  a  pain  of  the 
head.  It  ought  always  to  be  made  of  a  moderate  degree  of  strength :  for  if 
too  weak  it  certainly  relaxes  the  stomach.  As  it  has  an  astringent  taste, 
which  seems  not  very  consistent  with  a  relaxing  power,  there  is  ground 
for  ascribing  this  effect  not  so  much  to  the  herb  itself  as  to  the  hot  water, 
which  not  being  impregnated  with  a  sufficient  quantity  of  tea,  to  correct 
its  own  emollient  tendency,  produces  a  relaxation,  unjustly  imputed  to 
some  noxious  quality  of  the  plant.  But  tea,  like  every  other  commodity, 
is  liable  to  damage,  and  when  this  happens,  it  may  produce  effects  not 
necessarily  connected  with  its  original  qualities.  It  is  allowed  that  cof- 
fee promotes  digestion,  and  exhilarates  the  animal  spirits;  besides  which, 
various  other  qualities  are  ascribed  to  it,  such  as  dispelling  flatulency, 


420  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

removing  dizziness  of  the  head,  attenuating  viscid  humors,  increasing 
the  circulation  of  the  blood,  and  consequently  perspiration;  but  if  drank 
too  strong,  it  affects  the  nerves,  occasions  watchfulness,  and  tremor  of 
the  hands;  though  in  some  phlegmatic  constitutions  it  is  apt  to  produce 
sleep.  Turkey  coffee  is  greatly  preferable  in  flavor  to  that  of  the  West 
Indies.  Drank,  only  in  the  quantity  of  one  dish,  after  dinner,  to  pro- 
mote digestion,  it  answers  best  without  either  sugar  or  milk;  but  if  taken 
at  other  times,  it  should  have  both;  or  in  place  of  the  latter,  rather  cream, 
which  not  only  improves  the  beverage,  but  tends  to  mitigate  the  effect 
of  coffee  upon  the  nerves.  Chocolate  is  a  nutritive  and  wholesome  com- 
position, if  taken  in  a  small  quantity  and  not  repeated  too  often;  but  is 
generally  hurtful  to  the  stomach  of  those  with  whom  a  vegetable  diet 
disagrees.  By  the  addition  of  vanilla  and  other  ingredients,  it  is  made 
too  heating,  and  so  much  affects  particular  constitutions  as  to  excite  ner- 
vous systems,  especially  complaints  of  the  head. 


THE  VITAL  FLUID. 

The  plasma  of  the  blood  is  replenished  in  its  nutritive  constituents 
by  the  food  taken  at  frequent  intervals.  Water  is  necessary  to  render 
the  blood  sufficiently  fluid,  and  to  hold  the  other  constituents  in  solu- 
tion. The  presence  of  certain  chemical  substances  is  also  essential.  Lime, 
iron,  and  certain  other  minerals,  must  also  find  a  place.  Besides  these 
conditions,  certain  constituents  manufactured  in  the  body  itself,  as  livei 
sugar  and  the  corpuscles  in  normal  quantity,  are  necessary  to  health. 
Water  is  niore  essential  than  food,  and  oxygen  more  than  water.  One 
deprived  of  food  dies  from  impoverishment  of  the  blood;  if  deprived 
of  water  death  takes  place  much  sooner,  but  if  deprived  of  oxygen, 
death  ensues  within  five  to  eight  minutes.  About  a  ton  and  a  half 
in  the  shape  of  food  and  drink  is  added  to  the  blood  of  an  ordinary 
man  during  the  year.  As  there  is  the  same  amount  of  waste,  a  ton  and 
a  half  of  material,  therefore,  must  be  carried  out  of  the  body  through  the 
blood  during  the  same  time.  Some  of  the  products  of  oxidation,  as  urea 
and  carbonic  acid  gas,  are  very  poisonous  to  the  nervous  system.  Certain 
organs,  as  the  kidneys,  skin  and  lungs,  are  designed  especially  to  remove 
these  poisons  from  the  current  of  the  blood,  and  carry  them  out  of  the 
body.  If,  through  disease  of  these  organs,  they  fail  to  perform  their 
functions,  the  blood  becomes  highly  charged  with  the  poison,  and,  unless 
speedily  relieved,  death  is  the  result.  If  the  lungs  fail  to  eliminate  the 
carbonic  acid,  death  results  within  a  few  minutes.  If  the  kidneys  fail  to 
remove  the  urea,  death  must  follow  in  a  short  time.  The  same  is  true  if 
the  skin  fails  in  its  office. 

From  the  above  it  may  readily  be  seen  that  the  disorders  of  the  blood 
are  many.  There  may  be  too  much  blood,  when  the  condition  is  called 
plethora;  or  too  little,  when  it  is  called  ancemia;  or  it  may  contain  too 
much  water,  or  too  little;  or  too  many  red  corpuscles  or  too  few;  or  the 
plasma  maybe  deficient  in  tissue-building  constituents;  or  the  blood  may 
be  poisoned  by  the  retention  of  carbonic  acid  and  urea. 

Treatment. — A  considerable  quantity  and  wide  variety  of  food  should 
be  taken  regularly.  A  sufficient  amount  of  water  and  fluids  should  also 
be  taken.  Frequent  baths  and  a  reasonable  amount  of  exercise  are  ad- 
vised. The  sleeping-room  should  be  well  ventilated,  and  plenty  of  fresh 
air  supplied.  Where  the  blood  disease  is  due  to  disease  of  some  particu- 
lar organ,  the  latter  requires  primary  attention. 


HEARTH  AND  HOME. 


Far  reaching  as  the  earth's  remotest  span, 

Widespread  as  ocean  foam, 
One  thought  is  sacred  in  the  breast  of  man, 

It  is  the  thought  of  home; 
That  little  word  his  human  fate  shall  bind 

With  destines  above, 
For  there  the  home  of  his  immortal  soul 

Is  in  God's  wider  love. 

—ANONYMOUS. 

CRYSTALS  THAT  FORM   GENTLEMEN. 

Never  betray  a  confidence. 

Do  not  give  a  present  in  hopes  of  a  return. 

Do  not  fail  to  return  a  friend's  call  in  due  time. 

A  compliment  that  is  palpably  insincere  is  no  compliment  at  all. 

Avoid  awkwardness  of  attitude  as  well  as  awkwardness  of  speech. 

Never  question  a  child  or  a  servant  about  the  private  affairs  of  others. 

Gentlemen  precede  a  lady  in  going  up  stairs,  but  follow  her  in  going 
down. 

The  man  or  woman  who  engrosses  the  conversation  is  unpardonably 
selfish. 

All  irritability  and  gloom  must  be  thrown  off  when  we  enter 
society. 

Never  fail  to  extend  every  kindly  courtesy  to  an  elderly  person  or  an 
invalid. 

When  offered  a  seat  in  the  street  car,  accept  the  same  with  audible 
thanks. 

Never  look  at  the  superscription  on  a  letter  that  you  may  be  requested 
to  mail. 

Do  not  be  quick  to  answer  questions,  in  general  company,  that  are 
put  to  others. 

In  walking  with  a  lady  through  a  crowd,  precede  her,  in  order  to 
clear  the  way. 

Never  indicate  an  object  by  pointing  at  it.  Move  the  head  or  wave 
the  whole  hand. 

In  walking  on  a  public  promenade,  if  you  meet  the  same  friends  and 
acquaintances  a  number  of  times,  it  is  only  necessary  to  salute  them  once 
in  passing. 

421 


422  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

When  entrusted  with  a  commission,  do  not  fail  to  perform  it.  It  is 
rude  to  "forget" 

Avoid  all  exhibition  of  excitement,  anger  or  impatience  when  an 
accident  happens. 

On  entering  a  room  filled  with  people,  do  not  fail  to  bow  slightly  to 
the  general  company. 

It  is  rude  to  examine  the  cards  in  a  card-basket  unless  you  have  an 
invitation  to  that  effect. 

Do  not  borrow  money  and  neglect  to  pay.  If  you  do,  you  will  soon 
find  that  your  credit  is  bad. 

Avoid  any  familiarity  with  a  new  acquaintance.  You  never  know 
when  you  may  give  offence. 

If  you  accept  favors  and  hospitalities,  do  not  fail  to  return  the  same 
when  the  opportunity  offers. 

In  conversation  the  face  must  be  pleasant,  wearing  something  that 
almost  approaches  to  a  smile. 

Never  allude  to  a  present  which  you  have  given;  do  not  even  appear 
to  see  it  if  you  are  where  it  is. 

Never  fail  to  answer  an  invitation,  either  personally  or  by  letter, 
within  a  week  after  its  receipt. 

No  man  or  woman  is  well  bred  who  is  continually  lolling,  gesticu- 
lating or  fidgeting  in  company. 

When  writing  to  ask  a  favor  or  to  obtain  information,  do  not  fail  to 
enclose  postage  stamp  for  reply. 

If  you  cannot  avoid  passing  between  two  persons  who  are  talking, 
never  fail  to  apologize  for  doing  so. 

You  should  not  lend  an  article  that  you  have  borrowed  without  first 
obtaining  permission  from  the  owner. 

Never  play  practical  jokes.  The  results  are  frequently  so  serious  as 
to  entail  life-long  regret  on  the  joker. 

Never  ridicule  the  lame,  the  halt  or  the  blind.  You  never  know 
when  misfortune  may  be  your  own  lot. 

Do  not  appear  to  notice  any  defect,  scar  or  peculiarity  of  any  one.  It 
is  the  height  of  rudeness  to  speak  of  them. 

Remember,  when  you  are  prone  to  give  in  charity  to  the  sick  or  the 
needy,  that  "  he  who  gives  quickly  gives  double." 

Never  speak  of  absent  persons  by  their  Christian  names  or  their  sur- 
names; always  refer  to  them  as  Mr.  —  or  Mrs.  —  . 

Always  tell  the  truth.  Veracity  is  the  very  foundation  of  character. 
Without  it  a  man  is  a  useless  and  unstable  structure. 

Gentlemen,  when  with  ladies,  are  expected  to  defray  all  such  expenses 
as  car  fares,  entrance  fee  to  theater,  refreshments,  etc. 

It  is  very  awkward  for  one  lady  to  rise  and  give  another  lady  a  seat 
in  a  street  car,  unless  the  lady  standing  be  very  old,  or  evidently  ill  and 
weak. 

When  an  apology  is  offered,  accept  it,  and  do  so  with  a  good  grace, 
not  in  a  manner  that  implies  you  do  not  intend  changing  your  opinion 
of  the  offence, 


HEARTH  AND  HOME.  423 

In  conversing  with  a  person,  do  not  repeat  the  name  frequently,  as  it 
implies  one  of  two  extremes,  that  of  familiarity  or  haughtiness. 

A  good  bit  of  advice  is  the  saying,  "  Think  twice  before  you  speak 
once,"  as  thus  only  can  you  learn  to  always  speak  to  the  point. 

Never  enter  a  room  noisily.  Never  enter  the  private  bed-room  of  a 
friend  without  knocking.  Never  fail  to  close  the  door  after  you,  and  do 
not  slam  it. 

Never  seal  a  letter  that  is  to  be  given  to  a  friend  for  delivery.  It 
looks  as  though  you  doubted  his  or  her  honor  in  refraining  from  examin- 
ing the  contents. 

Never  correct  any  slight  inaccuracy  in  statement  or  fact.  It  is  better 
to  let  it  pass  than  to  subject  another  to  the  mortification  of  being  cor- 
rected in  company. 

Always  adopt  a  pleasant  mode  of  address.  Whether  you  are  speak- 
ing to  inferiors  or  to  your  equals,  it  will  alike  give  them  a  kindly  and 
happy  impression  of  you. 

Do  not  quickly  follow  up  a  present  by  a  return.  It  looks  too  much 
like  payment.  Never,  however,  fail  to  make  an  immediate  acknowl- 
edgment of  the  receipt  of  a  gift. 

Never  presume  to  attract  the  attention  of  an  acquaintance  by  a  touch, 
unless  you  are  extremely  intimate.  Recognition  by  a  simple  nod  or  spoken 
word  is  all  that  can  be  allowed. 

The  most  contemptible  meanness  in  the  world  is  that  of  opening  a 
private  letter  addressed  to  another.  No  one  with  the  slightest  self-res- 
pect would  be  guilty  of  such  an  act. 

I/ong  hair  and  a  scrawling  signature  do  not  constitute  a  genius.  Be 
careful,  then,  how  you  draw  upon  yourself  the  ridicule  of  being  a  shallow 
pretender  by  adopting  either  or  both. 

Sneezing,  coughing  and  clearing  the  throat  must  be  done  quietly 
when  it  cannot  possibly  be  avoided;  but  sniffing  and  expectorating  must 
never  be  indulged  in  in  decent  society. 

Do  not  make  promises  that  you  have  no  intention  of  fulfilling.  A 
person  who  is  ever  ready  with  promises,  which  he  fails  to  execute,  is 
soon  known  as  a  very  unreliable  party. 

It  is  extremely  rude  to  look  over  the  shoulder  of  one  who  is  reading 
or  writing.  It  is  also  rude  to  persist  in  reading  aloud  passages  from  your 
own  book  or  paper  to  one  who  is  also  reading. 

If  you  are  talking  to  a  person  of  title,  do  not  keep  repeating  the 
title.  You  can  express  all  the  deference  you  desire  in  voice  and  manner; 
it  is  unnecessary  and  snobbish  to  put  it  in  words. 

Temper  has  much  more  to  do  with  good  breeding  than  is  generally 
supposed.  The  French  are  allowed  to  be  the  most  polite  people  in  the 
world,  when  they  are  really  only  the  most  amiable. 

People  must  remember  that  they  must  give  as  well  as  take  in  this 
life,  and  that  they  must  not  hesitate  to  go  to  a  little  trouble  in  those 
small  observances  which  it  is  so  pleasant  to  accept. 

Neither  a  gentleman  nor  a  lady  will  boast  of  the  conquests  he  or  she 
has  made.  Such  a  course  would  have  the  effect  of  exciting  the  most 
profound  contempt  for  the  boasters  in  the  breasts  of  all  who  heard 
them, 


424  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

Punctuality  is  a  most  admirable  quality.  The  man  or  woman  who 
possesses  it  is  a  blessing  to  his  or  her  friends.  The  one  who  lacks  it 
is  wanting  in  one  of  the  first  requisites  of  good-breeding. 

The  young  of  both  sexes  would  find  it  an  inestimable  advantage 
through  life  to  cultivate  from  the  outset  a  clear  intonation,  a  well-chosen 
phraseology,  a  logical  habit  of  thought,  and  a  correct  accent. 

A  rich  person  should  be  careful  how  he  gives  to  the  poor,  lest  he 
hurt  their  pride,  while  a  poor  person  can  only  give  to  those  of  greater 
wealth  something  that  has  cost  only  affection,  time  or  talent. 

We  should  not  neglect  very  young  people  in  our  homes.  If  we  wish 
our  children  to  have  polished  manners,  and  to  express  themselves  well, 
we  must  lead  them  to  enter  into  the  conversation  that  is  going  on. 

When  walking  with  a  lady,  it  is  etiquette  to  give  her  the  wall,  but  if 
she  have  your  arm  it  is  quite  unnecessary  to  be  changing  at  every  corner 
you  come  to.  After  one  or  two  changes  the  habit  becomes  ridiculous. 

The  art  of  giving  and  receiving  presents  is  not  always  an  intuition. 
A  generous  person  may  unwittingly  wound  where  he  intends  to  please, 
while  a  really  grateful  person  may,  by  want  of  tact,  appear  to  deprecate 
the  liberality  of  his  friends. 

If  a  person  of  greater  age  than  yourself  desire  you  to  step  into  a  car- 
riage or  through  a  door  first,  it  is  more  polite  to  bow  and  obey  than  to 
decline.  Compliance  with,  and  deference  to  the  wishes  of  others,  is 
always  the  finest  breeding. 

If  you  present  a  book  to  a  friend,  do  not  write  the  name  in  it  unless 
it  be  requested.  By  doing  so  you  are  taking  for  granted  that  your  present 
will  be  accepted,  and  also  that  a  specimen  of  your  penmanship  will  give 
additional  value  to  the  gift. 

Learn  to  make  small  sacrifices  with  a  good  grace;  to  accept  small 
disappointments  in  a  patient  spirit.  A  little  more  of  self-control,  a  little 
more  allowance  for  the  weaknesses  of  others,  will  oftentimes  change  the 
entire  spirit  of  a  household. 

A  well-educated  person  proclaims  himself  by  his  simple  and  terse 
language.  Good  and  clear  Saxon  is  much  to  be  preferred  to  high- 
sounding  phrases  and  long  words;  it  is  only  the  half-educated  who 
imagine  such  a  style  is  elegant. 

In  entering  an  exhibition  or  public  room  where  ladies  are  present, 
gentlemen  should  always  lift  their  hats.  In  France  a  gentleman  lifts  his 
hat  on  entering  a  public  omnibus,  but  that  is  not  necessary  according  to 
the  American  code  of  etiquette. 

Married  people  are  sometimes  guilty  of  the  vulgar  habit  of  speaking 
of  each  other  by  the  initial  letter  of  their  first  name,  or  the  wife  of  her 
husband  as  "Jones,"  omitting  the  "Mr."  This  denotes  very  ill  breeding, 
and  should  be  strenuously  avoided. 

We  are  not  to  be  polite  merely  because  we  wish  to  please,  but  be- 
cause we  wish  to  consider  the  feelings  and  spare  the  time  of  others — be- 
cause we  wish  to  carry  into  daily  practice  the  spirit  of  the  precept,  "Do 
unto  others  as  you  would  have  others  do  unto  you." 

To  yawn  in  the  presence  of  others,  to  put  your  feet  on  a  chair,  to 
stand  with  your  back  to  the  fire,  to  take  the  most  comfortable  seat  in  the 
room,  to  do  anything  in  fact  that  displays  selfishness  and  a  lack  of  re- 
spect for  those  about  you,  is  unequivocally  vulgar  and  ill-bred. 


HEARTH  AND  HOME.  425 

Never  employ  "  extravagance  in  conversation."  Always  employ 
the  word  that  will  express  your  precise  meaning  and  no  more.  It  is 
absurd  to  say  it  is  "  immensely  jolly,"  or  "disgustingly  mean."  Such 
expressions  show  neither  wit  nor  wisdom,  but  merest  flippancy 

It  is  a  duty  to  always  look  pleased.  It  is  likewise  a  duty  to  appear 
interested  in  a  story  that  you  may  have  heard  a  dozen  times  before,  to 
smile  on  the  most  inveterate  proser ;  in  short,  to  make  such  minor 
sacrifices  of  sincerity  as  one's  good  manners  and  good  feelings  may 
dictate. 

It  is  in  bad  taste  to  undervalue  a  gift  which  you  have  yourself  offered. 
If  it  is  valueless,  it  is  not  good  enough  to  give  to  your  friend;  and  if  you 
say  you  do  not  want  it  yourself,  or  that  you  would  only  throw  it  away 
if  they  did  not  take  it,  you  are  insulting  the  person  whom  you  mean  to 
benefit. 

When  in  general  conversation  you  cannot  agree  with  the  proposition 
advanced,  it  is  best  to  observe  silence,  unless  particularly  asked  for  your 
opinion,  in  which  case  you  will  give  it  modestly,  but  decidedly.  Never 
be  betrayed  into  too  much  warmth  in  argument;  if  others  remain  uncon- 
vinced, drop  the  subject. 

Never  indulge  in  egotism  in  the  drawing-room.  The  person  who 
makes  his  family,  his  wealth,  his  affairs  or  his  hobby  the  topic  of  conversa- 
tion is  not  only  a  bore  but  a  violator  of  good  taste.  We  do  not  meet  in 
society  to  display  ourselves,  but  to  give  and  take  as  much  rational  enter- 
tainment as  our  own  accomplishments  and  those  of  others  will  afford. 

A  gift  should  always  be  valuable  for  something  besides  its  price.  It 
may  have  been  brought  by  the  giver  from  some  famous  place;  it  may  have 
a  valuable  association  with  genius,  or  it  may  be  unique  in  its  workman- 
ship. An  author  may  offer  his  book  or  an  artist  his  sketch,  and  any  one 
may  offer  flowers,  which  are  always  a  delicate  and  unexceptional  gift. 

Boasting  is  one  of  the  most  ill-bred  habits  a  person  can  indulge  in. 
Travelling  is  so  universal  a  custom  now  that  to  mention  the  fact  that  you 
have  been  to  Europe  is  to  state  nothing  exceptional.  Anybody  with 
wealth,  health  and  leisure  can  travel;  but  it  is  only  those  of  real  intelli- 
gence that  derive  any  benefit  from  the  art  treasures  of  the  Old  World. 

Never  refuse  a  gift  unless  you  have  a  very  good  reason  for  so  doing. 
However  poor  the  gift,  you  should  show  your  appreciation  of  the  kind- 
ness of  heart  which  prompted  it.  All  such  deprecatory  phrases  as  "I 
fear  I  rob  you,"  or  "  I  am  really  ashamed  to  take  it,"  etc.,  are  in  bad 
taste,  as  they  seem  to  imply  that  you  think  the  giver  cannot  afford  it. 

Always  look  at  the  person  who  is  conversing  with  you,  and  listen 
respectfully.  In  answering  try  to  express  your  thoughts  in  the  best 
manner.  A  loose  manner  of  expression  injures  ourselves  much  more 
than  our  hearers,  since  it  is  a  habit  which,  once  acquired,  is  not  easily 
thrown  off,  and  when  we  wish  to  express  ourselves  well  it  is  not  easy  to 
do  so. 

A  good  memory  for  names  and  faces,  and  a  self-possessed  manner, 
are  necessary  to  every  one  who  would  make  a  good  impression  in  society. 
Nothing  is  more  delicately  flattering  to  another  than  to  find  you  can 
readily  call  his  or  her  name,  after  a  very  slight  acquaintance.  The  most 
popular  of  great  men  have  gained  their  popularity  principally  through 
the  possession  of  this  faculty. 


426  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

No  lady  of  good  breeding  will  sit  sideways  on  her  chair,  or  with  her 
feet  crossed  or  stretched  apart,  or  hold  her  chin  in  her  hands,  or  twirl 
her  watch  chain,  while  she  is  talking;  nor  does  a  well-bred  gentleman 
sit  astride  of  his  chair,  or  bite  his  nails,  or  nurse  his  leg.  A  man  is 
always  allowed  more  freedom  than  a  woman,  but  both  should  be  graceful 
and  decorous  in  their  deportment. 

Shyness  is  very  ungraceful,  and  a  positive  injury  to  any  one  afflicted 
with  it.  It  is  only  allowable  in  very  young  people.  A  person  who 
blushes,  stammers  and  fidgets  in  the  presence  of  strangers  will  not  create 
a  very  good  impression  upon  their  minds  as  to  his  personal  worth  and 
educational  advantages.  Shyness  may  be  overcome  by  determined  mix- 
ing in  society.  Nothing  else  will  have  an  effect  upon  it. 

A  foreigner  should  always  be  addressed  by  his  full  name;  as  Monsieur 
de  Montmorenci,  never  as  Monsieur  only.  In  speaking  of  him,  give  him 
his  title,  if  he  have  one.  For  example,  in  speaking  to  a  nobleman  you 
would  say,  Monsieur  le  Marquis;  in  speaking  of  him  in  his  absence,  you 
would  say,  Monsieur  le  Marquis  de  Montmorenci.  Converse  with  a 
foreigner  in  his  own  language.  If  you  are  not  sufficiently  at  home  in  the 
language  to  do  so,  apologize  to  him,  and  beg  permission  to  speak 
English. 

No  one  can  be  polite  who  does  not  cultivate  a  "good  memory." 
There  is  a  class  of  absent-minded  people  who  are  to  be  dreaded  on  account 
of  the  mischief  they  are  sure  to  create  with  their  unlucky  tongues.  They 
always  recall  unlucky  topics,  speak  of  the  dead  as  though  they  were  liv- 
ing, talk  of  people  in  their  hearing,  and  do  a  hundred  and  one  things 
which,  in  slang  parlance,  is  "treading  on  somebody's  toes."  Careless- 
ness can  be  carried  to  such  a  pitch  as  to  almost  amount  to  a  crime.  Cul- 
tivate a  good  memory,  therefore,  if  you  wish  to  say  pleasant  things  and 
to  avoid  disagreeable  ones. 

USES   OF  AMMONIA. 

All  housekeepers  should  keep  a  bottle  of  liquid  ammonia,  as  it  is 
the  most  powerful  and  useful  agent  for  cleaning  silks,  stuffs  and  hats,  in 
fact,  cleans  everything  it  touches.  A  few  drops  of  ammonia  in  water 
will  take  off  grease  from  dishes,  pans,  etc  ,  does  not  injure  the  hands  as 
much  as  the  use  of  soda  and  strong  chemical  soaps.  A  spoonful  in  a 
quart  of  warm  water  for  cleaning  paint,  makes  it  look  like  new,  and  so 
with  everything  that  needs  cleaning. 

Spots  on  towels  and  hosiery  will  disappear  with  little  trouble  if  a 
little  ammonia  is  put  into  enough  water  to  soak  the  articles,  and  they 
are  left  in  it  an  hour  or  two  before  washing;  and  if  a  cupful  is  put  into 
the  water  in  which  clothes  are  soaked  the  night  before  washing,  the 
ease  with  which  the  articles  can  be  washed,  and  their  great  whiteness 
and  clearness  when  dried,  will  be  very  gratifying.  Remembering  the 
small  sum  paid  for  three  quarts  ammonia  of  common  strength,  one  can 
easily  see  that  no  bleaching  preparation  can  be  more  cheaply  obtained. 

No  articles  in  kitchen  use  are  so  likely  to  be  neglected .  and  abused 
as  the  dish-cloths  and  dish-towels;  and  in  washing  these,  ammonia,  if 
properly  used,  is  a  greater  comfort  than  anywhere  else.  Put  a  teaspoon- 
ful  into  the  water  in  which  these  clothes  are,  or  should  be  washed  every 
day  ;  rub  soap  on  the  towels.  Put  them  in  the  water,  let  them  stand 
half  an  hour  or  so;  then  rub  them  out  thoroughly,  rinse  faithfully,  and  dry 


HEARTH  AND  HOME.  427 

out-doors  in  clear  air  and  sun,  and  dish-cloths  and  towels  need  never 
look  grey  and  dingy — a  perpetual  discomfort  to  all  housekeepers. 

A  dark  carpet  often  looks  dusty  soon  after  it  has  been  swept,  and 
you  know  it  does  not  need  sweeping  again;  so  wet  a  cloth  or  a  sponge, 
wring  it  almost  dry,  and  wipe  off  the  dust.  A  few  drops  of  ammonia  in 
the  water  will  brighten  the  colors. 

For  cleaning  hair-brushes  it  is  excellent;  put  a  tablespoonful  into 
the  water,  having  it  only  tepid,  and  dip  up  and  down  until  clean;  then 
dry  with  the  brushes  down,  and  they  will  be  like  new  ones. 

When  employed  in  washing  anything  that  is  not  especially  soiled, 
use  the  waste  water  afterward  for  the  house  plants  that  are  taken  down 
from  their  usual  position  and  immersed  in  the  tub  of  water.  Ammonia 
is  a  fertilizer,  and  helps  to  keep  healthy  the  plants  it  nourishes.  In 
every  way,  in  fact,  ammonia  is  the  housekeeper's  friend. 

Ammonia  is  not  only  useful  for  cleaning,  but  as  a  household  medicine 
Half  a  teaspoonful  taken  in  half  a  tumbler  of  water  is  far  better  for  faint- 
ness  than  alcoholic  stimulants.  In  the  Temperance  Hospital,  in  London, 
it  is  used  with  the  best  results.  It  was  used  freely  by  Lieutenant  Greely's 
Arctic  party  for  keeping  up  circulation.  It  is  a  relief  in  nervousness, 
headache,  and  heart  disturbances. 


MANAGEMENT  OF  STOVES. 

If  the  fire  in  a  stove  has  plenty  of  fresh  coals  on  top  not  yet  burned 
through  it  will  need  only  a  little  shaking  to  start  it  up;  but  if  the  fire 
looks  dying  and  the  coals  look  white,  don't  shake  it.  When  it  has 
drawn  till  it  is  red  again,  if  there  is  much  ash  and  little  fire,  put  coals  on 
very  carefully,  A  mere  handful  of  fire  can  be  coaxed  back  to  life  by 
adding  another  handful  or  so  of  new  coals  on  the  red  spot,  and  giving 
plenty  of  draught,  but  don't  shake  a  dying  fire,  or  you  lose  it.  This 
management  is  often  necessary  after  a  warm  spell,  when  the  stove  has 
been  kept  dormant  for  days,  though  I  hope  you  will  not  be  so  unfortunate 
as  to  have  a  fire  to  coax  up  on  a  cold  winter  morning.  They  should  be 
arranged  over  night,  so  that  all  that  is  required  is  to  open  the  draughts 
in  order  to  have  a  cheery  glow  in  a  few  minutes. 


TO   DESTROY  INSECTS  AND   VERMIN. 

Dissolve  two  pounds  of  alum  in  three  or  four  quarts  of  water.  Let 
it  remain  over  night,  till  all  the  alum  is  dissolved.  Then,  with  a  brush, 
apply,  boiling  hot,  to  every  joint  or  crevice  in  the  closet  or  shelves  where 
croton  bugs,  ants,  cockroaches,  etc.,  intrude;  also  to  the  joints  and  crevices 
of  bedsteads,  as  bed  bugs  dislike  it  as  much  as  croton  bugs,  roaches  or 
ants.  Brush  all  the  cracks  in  the  floor  and  mopboards.  Keep  it  boiling 
hot  while  using. 

To  keep  woolens  and  furs  from  moths,  be  sure  that  none  are  in  the 
articles  when  they  are  put  away;  then  take  a  piece  of  strong  brown 
paper,  with  not  a  hole  through  which  even  a  pin  can  enter.  Put  the  article 
in  it,  with  several  lumps  of  gum  camphor  between  the  folds.  Place  this 
in  a  close  box  or  trunk.  Cover  every  joint  with  paper.  A  piece  of  cot- 
ton cloth,  if  thick  and  firm,  will  answer.  Wherever  a  knitting-needle 
can  pass,  the  parent  moth  can  enter. 

Place  pieces  of  camphor,  cedar- wood,  Russia  leather,  tobacco  leaves, 
whole  cloves,  or  anything  strongly  aromatic,  in  the  drawers  or  boxes 
where  furs  and  other  things  to  be  preserved  from  moths  are  kept,  and 


428  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

they  will  never  be  harmed.     Mice  never  get  into  drawers  or  trunks  where 
gum  camphor  is  placed. 

Another  Recipe.  Mix  half  a  pint  of  alcohol,  the  same  quantity  of 
turpentine,  and  two  ounces  of  camphor.  Keep  in  a  stone  bottle,  and  shake 
well  before  using.  The  clothes  or  furs  are  to  be  wrapped  in  linen,  and 
crumbled-up  pieces  of  blotting  paper  dipped  in  the  liquid  to  be  placed 
in  the  box  with  them,  so  that  it  smells  strong.  This  requires  renewing 
but  once  a  year.  

TO   REMOVE   INK  FROM  CARPETS. 

When  freshly  spilled,  ink  can  be  removed  from  carpets  by  wetting 
in  milk.  Take  cotton  batting  and  soak  up  all  of  the  ink  that  it  will 
receive,  being  careful  not  to  let  it  spread.  Then  take  fresh  cotton,  wet 
in  milk,  and  sop  it  up  carefully.  Repeat  this  operation,  changing  cot- 
ton and  milk  each  time.  After  most  of  the  ink  has  been  taken  up  in 
this  way,  with  fresh  cotton  and  clean,  rub  the  spot.  Continue  till  all 
disappears;  then  wash  the  spot  in  clean  warm  water  and  a  little  soap; 
rinse  in  clear  water  and  rub  till  nearly  dry.  If  the  ink  is  dried  in,  we 
know  of  no  way  that  will  not  take  the  color  from  the  carpet  as  well  as 
the  ink,  unless  the  ink  is  on  a  white  spot.  In  that  case,  salts  of  lemon, 
or  soft  soap,  starch  and  lemon  juice  will  remove  the  ink  as  easily  as  if  on 
cotton. 

INCOMBUSTIBLE  DRESSES. 

By  putting  an  ounce  of  alum  or  sal  amoniac  in  the  last  water  in 
which  muslin  or  cottons  are  rinsed,  or  a  similar  quantity  in  the  starch 
in  which  they  are  stiffened,  they  will  be  rendered  almost  uninflammable; 
or,  at  least,  will  with  difficulty  take  the  fire,  and  if  they  do,  will  burn 
without  flame.  It  is  astonishing  that  this  simple  precaution  is  so  rarely 
adopted.  Remember  this  and  save  the  lives  of  your  children. 


HOW  TO  FRESHEN  UP  FURS. 

Furs  when  taken  out  in  the  fall  are  often  found  to  have  a  mussed, 
crushed-out  appearance.  They  can  be  made  to  look  like  new,  by  follow- 
ing these  simple  directions.  Wet  the  fur  with  a  hair-brush,  brushing  up 
the  wrong  way  of  the  fur.  Leave  it  to  dry  in  the  air  for  about  half  an 
hour,  and  then  give  it  a  good  beating  on  the  right  side  with  a  rattan. 
After  beating  it,  comb  it  with  a  coarse  comb,  combing  up  the  right  way 
of  the  fur.  

TO  WASH  FEATHERS. 

Wash  in  warm  soap-suds  and  rinse  in  water  a  very  little  blued;  if 
the  feather  is  white,  then  let  the  wind  dry  it.  When  the  curl  has  come 
out  by  washing  the  feather  or  getting  it  damp,  place  a  hot  flat-iron  so 
that  you  can  hold  the  feather  just  above  it  while  curling.  Take  a  bone  or 
silver  knife,  and  draw  the  fibres  of  the  feather  between  the  thumb  and 
the  dull  edge  of  the  knife,  taking  not  more  than  three  fibers  at  a 
time,  beginning  at  the  point  of  the  feather  and  curling  one-half  the 
other  way.  The  hot  iron  makes  the  curl  more  durable.  After  a  little 
practice  one  can  make  them  look  as  well  as  new  feathers.  Or  they  can 
be  curled  by  holding  them  over  the  stove  or  range,  not  near  enough  to 
burn;  withdraw  and  shake  out;  then  hold  them  over  again,  until  they 
curl,  When  swansdown  becomes  soiled,  it  can  be  washed  and  look  as 


HEARTH  AND  HOME.  429 

well  as  new.  Tack  strips  on  a  piece  of  muslin  and  wash  in  warm  water 
with  white  soap,  then  rinse  and  hang  in  the  wind  to  dry.  Rip  from  the 
muslin,  and  rub  carefully  between  the  fingers  to  soften  the  leather. 


THE  ART  OF  CONVERSATION. 

The  art  of  expressing  one's  thoughts  in  clear,  simple,  elegant  English 
is  one  of  the  first  to  be  attained  by  those  who  would  mix  in  good  society. 
You  must  talk,  and  talk  fairly  well,  if  you  would  not  altogether  fail  of 
producing  some  kind  of  impression  upon  society.  To  have  something 
good  to  say,  and  to  say  it  in  the  best  possible  manner,  is  to  ensure  success 
and  admiration.  The  first  thing  necessary  for  the  attainment  of  this 
valuable  accomplishment  is  a  good  education.  An  acquaintance  with 
the  current  literature  of  the  day  is  absolutely  essential  to  a  good  talker. 
A  perfect  familiarity  with  the  English  language,  its  grammer,  pronun- 
ciation, etc.,  is  indispensable.  Those  who  have  to  contend  with  a  lack 
of  early  advantages  in  this  respect  can  supply  the  deficiency  by  private 
study,  and  close  observance  wherever  good  English  is  spoken.  Above 
all  should  they  avoid  associating  with  those  who  express  themselves  in- 
correctly and  vulgarly. 

Nothing  is  so  infectious  as  a  bad  accent  or  incorrect  form  of  speech. 

All  affectations  of  foreign  accent,  mannerisms,  exaggerations  and 
slang  are  detestable. 

Equally  to  be  avoided  are  inaccuracies  of  expression,  hesitation,  and 
undue  use  of  French,  or  other  foreign  words,  and  anything  approaching 
to  flippancy,  coarseness,  triviality  or  prevarication. 

The  voice  should  never  be  loud,  no  gesticulation  should  accompany 
the  speech,  and  the  features  should  be  under  strict  control.  Nothing  is 
more  ill-bred  than  a  half-opened  mouth,  a  vacant  stare,  a  wandering  eye 
or  a  smile  ready  to  break  into  a  laugh  at  any  moment.  Absolute  sup- 
pression of  emotion,  whether  of  anger,  laughter,  mortification  or  disap- 
pointment, is  one  of  the  most  certain  marks  of  good-breeding. 

Next  to  unexceptionable  grammar,  correct  elocution  and  a  frank, 
easy  bearing,  it  is  necessary  to  be  genial.  If  you  cannot  be  animated, 
sympathetic  and  cheerful,  do  not  go  into  society.  Dull  and  stupid  people 
are  but  so  many  clogs  to  the  machinery  of  social  life. 

The  matter  of  conversation  is  as  important  as  the  manner.  Tact  and 
good  feeling  will,  in  people  of  sound  sense,  indicate  the  shoals  and  quick- 
sands to  be  avoided  in  conversation,  but  for  safety's  sake  it  will  be  best 
to  enumerate  a  few  of  them : 

Complimentary  speeches  should  be  avoided,  unless,  indeed,  so  deli- 
cately put  as  to  be  scarcely  discernible.  Flattery  is  suggestive  of  snob- 
bery, particularly  if  it  be  paid  to  people  of  great  wealth  and  high  posi- 
tion. It  induces  disgust  on  the  part  of  the  receiver,  and  insincerity  on 
that  of  the  giver. 

The  habit  of  "fishing"  for  compliments  is  notably  vulgar,  and  it  is 
one  in  which  a  certain  class  of  vain  young  people  are  very  apt  to  in- 
dulge, especially  among  themselves  in  private.  It  indicates  vanity  in 
the  angler  and  begets  contempt  on  the  part  of  the  one  who  from  in- 
terested motives  nibbles  gently  at  the  bait. 

All  "slang"  is  vulgar.  This  fact  cannot  be  too  forcibly  impressed 
upon  the  minds  of  the  young  people  of  this  day,  as  the  alarming  prev- 
alence of  slangy  conversational  phrases  is  enough  to  cause  our  decor- 
ous forefathers  and  mothers  to  rise  in  their  graves. 


430  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

Many  of  the  daughters  of  our  most  wealthy  and  influential  citi- 
zens have  an  idea  that  their  position  will  excuse  or  gloss  the  vulgarity 
of  a  "cant"  phrase  now  and  then.  Nothing  was  ever  more  erroneous. 
No  position,  however  high,  can  excuse  the  vulgarity  of  this  practice, 
and  it  is  a  grand  mistake  also  to  imagine  slang  to  be  a  substitute  for 
wit.  We  refer  particularly  to  this  habit  among  young  ladies,  as  it  is 
more  reprehensible  in  them  than  in  the  opposite  sex,  although  it  in- 
dicates bad  breeding  on  their  part  as  well. 

Scandal  should  be  avoided  above  all  things.  It  is  a  sin  against 
morality  as  well  as  good  taste. 

Punning  is  a  most  objectionable  habit  in  society.  An  -inveterate 
punster  is  an  intolerable  bore,  and  unless  a  pun  amounts  to  a  positive 
witticism  it  should  never  be  propounded  in  company. 

Long  arguments  should  be  avoided  in  general  company.  They 
become  tiresome  to  the  hearers.  Always  endeavor  to  change  the  sub- 
ject after  it  has  continued  a  reasonable  length  of  time. 

Religion  and  politics  are  two  subjects  to  be  avoided  in  general  conver- 
sation. People  usually  have  strong  prejudices  on  both  these  points,  and 
it  is  a  rule  of  good  breeding  to  respect  the  prejudices  of  those  about  you. 

Never  interrupt  the  speech  of  another.  This  is  an  unpardonable  sin 
against  good  breeding. 

A  good  listener  is  more  to  be  desired  than  a  good  conversalionalist. 
In  order  to  be  a  good  listener  you  must  appear  to  be  interested,  answer 
appropriately,  briefly  and  to  the  point,  and  give  your  companion  gene- 
rally the  impression  that  you  are  in  perfect  sympathy  with,  and  highly 
entertained  by  what  he  is  saying. 

Avoid  pedantic  displays  of  learning. 

All  topics  specially  interesting  to  gentlemen,  such  as  the  farm  and 
business  matters  generally,  should  be  excluded  in  general  society. 

The  expression  of  immature  opinions  is  always  in  bad  taste.  Persons, 
young  or  old,  should  not  attempt  to  criticise  books  or  art  unless  posi- 
tively certain  that  their  knowledge  of  the  subject  is  sufficient  to  justify 
the  criticism. 

Be  very  careful  of  introducing  long-winded  anecdote  into  the  con- 
versation. Nothing  is  more  awkward  than  to  find  an  array  of  bored 
faces  when  one  is  not  more  than  half  through  a  long  story. 

Repartee  should  be  indulged  in  only  moderately.  Otherwise  it  may 
degenerate  into  flippancy,  a  habit  much  to  be  condemned  in  a  certain 
class  of  young  persons  who  think  themselves  unusually  clever,  or  as  our 
American  word  goes,  "smart." 

In  using  titles,  such  as  "General,"  "Doctor,"  etc.,  you  must  always 
append  the  surname  if  you  are  a  stranger  or  any  other  than  a  most  inti- 
mate friend.  For  example,  you  should  say,  "What  did  you  observe, 
Doctor  Gray?"  not,  "What  did  you  observe,  Doctor?"  Names  should  be 
used  as  little  as  possible,  and  never  familiarly.  Few  solecisms  give 
greater  offense  than  a  liberty  taken  with  a  name. 

In  addressing  a  person  of  title  in  England,  "My  Lord"  and  "My 
Lady"  are  seldom  used  except  by  servants.  The  Prince  of  Wales  may  be 
addressed  as  "Sir,"  and  the  Queen  as  -'Madame."  A  Frenchman,  how- 
ever, whatever  his  rank,  is  addressed  as  "Monsieur,"  and  a  French- 
woman, whether  duchess  or  dressmaker,  as  "Madame."  It  would  be  as 
ill-bred  to  omit  to  say  Monsieur,  Mein  Herr,  and  Signer,  in  France,  Ger- 
many and  Italy,  respectively,  as  it  would  to  say,  Sir,  Ma'am  and  Miss, 
as  the  servants  do  in  this  country. 


HEAR  TH  AND  HOME.  431 

The  great  secret  of  talking  well  is  to  adapt  your  conversation  to  your 
company  as  skillfully  as  may  be. 

People  take  more  interest  in  their  own  affairs  than  in  anything  else 
which  you  can  name.  A  wise  host  or  hostess  will  then  lead  a  mother  to 
talk  of  her  children,  an  author  of  his  book,  an  artist  of  his  picture,  etc. 
Having  furnished  the  topic,  you  have  but  to  listen,  and  acquire  a  reputa- 
tion for  being  amiable,  agreeable,  intelligent  and  well-bred. 

If  you  would  not  be  unpopular,  do  not  always  be  witty,  no  matter 
what  your  natural  abilities  may  be  in  that  line.  People  do  not  like  to  be 
always  outshone. 

Do  not  too  officiously  supply  a  word  or  phrase  if  a  speaker  hesitate 
for  a  moment;  he  will  think  of  the  one  he  wants  or  supply  another  in 
good  time. 

Never  correct  a  fault  in  pronunciation  or  in  facts,  in  company  or  in 
private,  if  you  wish  to  retain  a  friend. 

Avoid  such  colloquialisms  as  "says  I,"  "you  know,"  and  other  sense- 
less repetitions  that  might  be  mentioned.  Never  speak  of  a  person  as 
"a  party,"  nor  refer  to  absent  persons  as  "he"  or  "she."  Give  the  name 
of  the  lady  or  gentleman  referred  to. 

In  telling  a  joke,  do  not  laugh  yourself  before  the  point  is  reached. 
If  the  joke  be  original,  do  not  laugh  at  all. 

In  tete-a-tete  conversation  it  is  ill-bred  to  drop  the  voice  to  a  whisper. 

Egotism  is  always  in  bad  taste.  Allow  others  the  privilege  of  pro- 
claiming your  merits. 

Never  speak  of  personal  or  private  matters  in  general  company. 

Avoid  as  much  as  possible  beginning  a  conversation  with  stale  com- 
monplaces, such  as,  "It  is  a  fine  day,"  "The  weather  is  charming,"  etc. 

Do  not  speak  slightingly  of  the  city  or  neighborhood  in  which  you 
may  be  visiting.  By  offending  the  prejudices  of  those  about  you,  you 
render  yourself  extremely  disagreeable. 

Avoid  all  excitability  and  dogmatism  in  conversation.  Nothing  is 
more  annoying  than  to  converse  with  an  arrogant,  loud-speaking  per- 
son. 

Always  yield  the  point  in  conversation  if  you  find  the  argument  is 
likely  to  become  violent. 

Avoid  lavishing  praise  on  the  members  of  your  own  family.  It  is 
almost  as  bad  as  praising  yourself. 

It  is  exceedingly  bad  taste  to  parade  the  fact  that  you  have  travelled 
in  foreign  countries,  or  that  you  are  acquainted  with  distinguished  or 
wealthy  people,  that  you  have  been  to  college  or  that  your  family  is 
distinguished  for  gentility  and  blue  blood. 

In  speaking  of  husband  or  wife,  do  not  use  the  surname  alone.  To 
say  "I  was  telling  Brown,"  is  extremely  vulgar.  Always  prefix  the  Mr. 

Always  endeavor  to  contribute  your  quota  to  the  general  conversa- 
tion. It  is  as  much  your  duty  to  entertain  as  to  be  entertained.  Bash- 
fulness  is  as  much  to  be  avoided  as  too  much  assurance. 

Never  ask  questions  of  a  personal  nature,  such  as  what  a  certain  ar- 
ticle cost,  or  why  so-and-so  did  not  go  to  the  opera.  They  are  decidedly 
impertinent. 

Look  at  the  person  with  whom  you  are  conversing,  but  do  not  stare. 

Avoid  loud  laughter  in  society. 

If  you  carry  on  the  thread  of  a  conversation  after  the  entrance  of  a 
visitor,  you  should  always  recapitulate  what  has  been  said  before  his  or 
her  arrival. 


432  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

Remember  that  "an  excellent  thing  in  woman  is  a  voice  low  but 
sweet,"  and  cultivate  a  distinct  but  subdued  tone. 

Emerson  says:  '  'You  cannot  have  one  well-bred  man  without  a  whole 
society  of  such."  Elsewhere  he  says:  "It  makes  no  difference,  in  look- 
ing back  five  years,  how  we  have  dieted  or  dressed;  but  it  counts  much 
whether  we  have  had  good  companions  in  that  time— almost  as  much  as 
what  we  have  been  doing. ' ' 

THE   HOUSEHOLD    AND    TOILET. 

TOOTHACHE  CURE.— Compound  tincture  benzoin  is  said  to  be  one  of 
the  most  certain  and  speedy  cures  for  toothache;  pour  a  few  drops  on 
cotton,  and  press  at  once  into  the  diseased  cavity,  when  the  pain  will 
almost  inctantly  cease. 

TOOTHACHE  TINCTURE. — Mix  tannin,  1  scruple;  mastic,  3  grains; 
ether,  2  drams.  Apply  on  cotton  wool,  to  the  tooth,  previously  dried. 

CHARCOAL  TOOTH  PASTE.— Chlorate  of  potash,  l/2  dram;  mint  water, 
1  ounce.  Dissolve  and  add  powdered  charcoal,  2  ounces;  honey,  1 
ounce. 

EXCELLENT  MOUTH  WASH.— Powdered  white  Castile  soap,  2  drams; 
alcohol,  3  ounces;  honey,  1  ounce;  essence  or  extract  jasmine,  2  drams. 
Dissolve  the  soap  in  alcohol  and  add  honey  and  extract. 

REMOVING  TARTAR  FROM  THE  TEETH. — This  preparation  is  used 
by  dentists.  Pure  muriatic  acid,  1  ounce;  water,  1  ounce;  honey,  2 
ounces;  mix  thoroughly.  Take  a  toothbrush,  and  wet  it  freely  with 
this  preparation,  and  briskly  rub  the  black  teeth,  and  in  a  moment's 
time  they  will  be  perfectly  white;  then  immediataly  wash  out  the  mouth 
well  with  water,  that  the  acid  may  not  act  on  the  enamel  of  the  teeth. 
This  should  be  done  only  occasionally. 

BAD  BREATH. — Bad  breath  from  catarrh,  foul  stomach  or  bad  teeth, 
may  be  temporarily  relieved  by  diluting  a  little  bromo  chloralum  with 
eight  or  ten  parts  of  water,  and  using  it  as  a  gargle,  and  swallowing  a 
few  drops  before  going  out.  A  pint  of  bromo  chloralum  costs  fifty  cents, 
but  a  small  vial  will  last  a  long  time. 

GOOD  TOOTH  POWDER.— Procure,  at  a  druggist's,  half  an  ounce  of 
powdered  orris  root,  half  an  ounce  of  prepared  chalk  finely  pulverized, 
and  two  or  three  small  lumps  of  Dutch  pink.  Let  them  all  be  mixed  in 
a  mortar,  and  pounded  together.  The  Dutch  pink  is  to  impart  a  pale 
reddish  color.  Keep  it  in  a  close  box. 

ANOTHER  TOOTH  POWDER. — Mix  together,  in  a  mortar,  half  an 
ounce  of  red  Peruvian  bark,  finely  powdered;  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  of 
powdered  myrrh;  and  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  prepared  chalk. 

A  SAFE  DEPILATORY. — Take  a  strong  solution  of  sulphuret  of 
barium,  and  add  enough  finely  powdered  starch  to  make  a  paste.  Apply 
to  the  roots  of  the  hair,  and  allow  it  to  remain  on  a  few  minutes,  then 
scrape  off  with  the  back  edge  of  a  knife  blade,  and  rub  with  sweet  oil. 

QUICK  -DEPILATORY  FOR  REMOVING  HAIR.— Best  slack  lime,  6 
ounces;  orpiment,  fine  powder,  1  ounce.  Mix  with  a  covered  sieve  and 
preserve  in  a  dry  place  in  closely  stoppered  bottles.  In  using  mix  the 
powder  with  enough  water  to  form  a  paste,  and  apply  to  the  hair  to  be 
removed.  In  about  five  minutes,  or  as  soon  as  its  caustic  action  is  felt 
on  the  skin,  remove,  as  in  shaving,  with  an  ivory  or  bone  paper  knife, 
wash  with  cold  water  freely,  and  apply  cold  cream. 

TRICOPHEROUS  FOR  THE  HAIR. — Castor  oil,  alcohol,  each  1  pint; 
tincture  cantharides,  1  ounce;  oil  bergamot,  y2  ounce;  alkanet  coloring, 


HEARTH  AND  HOME.  433 

to  color  as  wished.     Mix  and  let  it  stand  forty-eight  hours,  with  occa- 
sional shaking,  and  then  filter. 

LIQUID  SHAMPOO.  — Take  bay  rum,  2^  pints;  water,  j£  pint;  glycer- 
ine, 1  ounce;  tincture  cantharides,  2  drams;  carbonate  of  ammonia,  2 
drams;  borax,  %  ounce;  or  take  of  New  England  rum,  \l/2  pints;  bay  rum, 
Ipint;  water,  yz  pint;  glycerine,  1  ounce;  tincture  cantharides,  2  drams; 
ammon.  carbonate,  2  drams;  borax,  %  ounce;  the  salts  to  be  dissolved  in 
water,  and  the  other  ingredients  to  be  added  gradually. 

CLEANING  HAIR  BRUSHES.— Put  teaspoonful  or  dessertspoonful  of 
aqua  ammonia  into  a  basin  half  full  of  water,  comb  the  loose  hairs  out  of 
the  brush,  then  agitate  the  water  briskly  with  the  brush,  and  rinse  it 
well  with  clear  water. 

HAIR  INVIGORATOR.— Bay  rum,  2  pints;  alcohol,  1  pint;  castor  oil, 
1  ounce;  carbonate  ammonia,  half  an  ounce,-  tincture  of  cantharides,  1 
ounce.  Mix  them  well.  This  compound  will  promote  the  growth  of 
the  hair  and  prevent  it  from  falling  out. 

FOR  DANDRUFF. — Take  glycerine,  4  ounces;  tincture  of  canthar- 
ides, 5  ounces;  bay  rum,  4  ounces;  water,.  2  ounces.  Mix,  and  apply 
once  a  day,  and  rub  well  down  the  scalp. 

RAZOR-STROP  PASTE.— Wet  the  strop  with  a  little  sweet  oil,  and 
apply  a  little  flour  of  emery  evenly  over  the  surface. 

SHAVING  COMPOUND. — Half  a  pound  of  plain  white  soap,  dissolved 
in  a  small  quantity  of  alcohol,  as  little  as  can  be  used;  add  a  tablespoon- 
ful  of  pulverized  borax.  Shave  the  soap  and  put  it  in  a  small  tin  basin 
or  cup;  place  it  on  the  fire  in  a  dish  of  boiling  water;  when  melted,  add 
the  alcohol,  and  remove  from  the  fire;  stir  in  oil  of  bergamot  sufficientto 
perfume  it. 

CURE  FOR  PRICKLY  HEAT.— Mix  a  large  portion  of  wheat  bran 
with  either  cold  or  lukewarm  water,  and  use  it  as  a  bath  twice  or  thrice 
a  day.  Children  who  are  covered  with  prickly  heat  in  warm  weather 
will  be  thus  effectually  relieved  from  that  tormenting  eruption.  As  soon 
as  it  begins  to  appear  on  the  neck,  face,  or  arms,  commence  using  the 
bran  water  on  these  parts  repeatedly  through  the  day,  and  it  may  prob- 
ably spread  no  farther.  If  it  does,  the  bran  water  bath  will  certainly 
cure  it,  if  persisted  in 

To  REMOVE  CORNS  FROM  BETWEEN  THE  TOES.— These  corns  are 
generally  more  painful  than  any  others,  and  are  frequently  so  situated  as 
to  be  almost  inaccessible  to  usual  remedies  Wetting  them  several 
times  a  day  with  hartshorn  will  in  most  cases  cure  them.  Try  it. 

SUPERIOR  COLOGNE  WATER.— Oil  of  lavender,  2  drams;  oil  of 
rosemary,  1  dram  and  a  half;  orange,  lemon  and  bergamot,  1  dram 
each  of  the  oil;  also  2  drams  of  the  essence  of  musk,  attar  of  rose  10 
drops,  and  a  pint  of  proof  spirit.  Shake  all  together  thoroughly  three 
times  a  day  fora  week. 

INEXHAUSTIBLE  SMELLING  SALTS.  —  Sal  tartar,  3  drams;  mur- 
iate ammonia,  granulated,  6  drams;  oil  neroli,  5  minims;  oil  lavender 
flowers,  5  minims;  oil  rose,  3  minims;  spirits  ammonia,  15  minims.  Put 
into  the  pungent  a  small  piece  of  sponge  filling  about  one-fourth  the 
space,  and  pour  on  it  a  due  proportion  of  the  oils,  then  put  in  the  mixed 
salts  until  the  bottle  is  three-fourths  full,  and  pour  on  the  spirits  of  am- 
monia in  proper  proportion  and  close  the  bottle. 

VOLATILE  SALTS  FOR  PUNGENTS.—  Liquor  ammon.,  fort.,  1  pint,  oil 
lavender  flowers,  1  dram,  oil  rosemary,  fine,  1  dram,  oil  bergamot,  ^ 
dram,  oil  peppermint,  10  minims.      Mix  thoroughly  and  fill  pungents  or 
U.  I.— 28 


434  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

keep  in  well  stoppered  bottle.  Another  formula  is,  sesqui-carbonate  of 
ammonia,  small  pieces,  10  ounces;  concentrated  liq.  ammonia,  5  ounces. 
Put  the  sesqui-carb.  in  a  wide  mouth  jar  with  air-tight  stopper,  perfume 
the  liquor  ammonia  to  suit  and  pour  over  the  carbonate,  close  tightly  the 
lid  and  place  in  a  cool  place,  stir  with  a  stiff  spatula  every  other  day  for 
a  week,  and  then  keep  it  closed  for  two  weeks,  or  until  it  becomes  hard, 
when  it  is  ready  for  use. 

PASTS  FOR  PAPERING  BOXES.— Boil  water  and  stir  in  batter  of 
wheat  or  rye  flour.  Let  it  boil  one  minute,  take  off  and  strain  through 
a  colander.  Add,  while  boiling,  a  little  glue  or  powdered  alum.  Do 
plenty  of  stirring  while  the  paste  is  cooking,  and  make  of  consistency 
that  will  spread  nicely. 

AROMATIC  SPIRIT  OF  VINEGAR. — Acetic  acid,  No.  8,  pure,  8  ounces; 
camphor,  ^  ounce.  Dissolve  and  add  oil  lemon,  oil  lavender  flowers, 
each  2  drams;  oil  cassia,  oil  cloves,  y2  dram  each.  Thoroughly  mix 
and  keep  in  well  stoppered  bottle. 

ROSE-WATER. — Preferable  to  the  distilled  for  a  perfume,  or  for 
culinary  purposes:  Attar  of  rose,  12  drops;  rub  it  up  with  a  half 
ounce  of  white  sugar  and  2  drams  carbonate  magnesia,  then  add 
gradually  1  quart  of  water  and  2  ounces  of  proof  spirit,  and  filter 
through  paper. 

BAY  RUM. — French  proof  spirit,  1  gallon;  extract  bay,  6  ounces. 
Mix  and  color  with  caramel;  needs  no  filtering. 

FINE  LAVENDER  WATER. — Mix  together,  in  a  clean  bottle,  a  pint  of 
inodorous  spirit  of  wine,  an  ounce  of  oil  of  lavender,  a  teaspoonful  of  oil 
of  bergamot,  and  a  tablespoonful  of  oil  of  ambergris. 

THE  VIRTUES  OF  TURPENTINE. — After  a  housekeeper  fully  realizes 
the  worth  of  turpentine  in  the  household,  she  is  never  willing  to  be  with- 
out a  supply  of  it.  It  gives  quick  relief  to  burns,  it  is  an  excellent  appli- 
cation for  corns,  it  is  good  for  rheumatism  and  sore  throats,  and  it  is 
the  quickest  remedy  for  convulsions  or  fits.  Then  it  is  a  sure  prevent- 
ive against  moths;  by  just  dropping  a  trifle  in  the  bottom  of  drawers, 
chests  and  cupboards,  it  will  keep  the  garments  from  injury  during 
the  summer.  It  will  keep  ants  and  bugs  from  closets  and  store-rooms 
by  putting  a  few  drops  in  the  corners  and  upon  the  shelves;  it  is  sure 
destruction  to  bedbugs,  and  will  effectually  drive  them  away  from  their 
haunts  if  thoroughly  applied  to  all  -the  joints  of  the  bedstead  in  the 
spring  cleaning  time,  and  injures  neither  furniture  nor  clothing.  A 
spoonful  of  it  added  to  a  pail  of  warm  water  is  excellent  for  cleaning 
paint.  A  little  in  suds  washing  days  lightens  laundry  labor. 

PASTE  FOR  SCRAP  BOOKS.— Take  half  a  teaspoonful  of  starch,  same 
of  flour,  pour  on  a  little  boiling  water,  let  it  stand  a  minute,  add  more 
water,  stir  and  cook  it  until  it  is  thick  enough  to  starch  a  shirt  bosom. 
It  spreads  smooth,  sticks  well  and  will  not  mold  nor  discolor  paper. 
Starch  alone  will  make  a  very  good  paste. 

A  STRONG  PASTE. — A  paste  that  will  neither  decay  nor  become 
moldy.  Mix  good  clean  flour  with  cold  water  into  a  thick  paste  well 
blended  together,  then  add  boiling  water,  stirring  well  up  until  it  is  of  a 
consistency  that  can  be  easily  and  smoothly  spread  with  a  brush;  add  to 
this  a  spoonful  or  two  of  brown  sugar,  a  little  corrosive  sublimate,  and 
about  half  a  dozen  drops  of  oil  of  lavender,  and  you  will  have  a  paste 
that  will  hold  with  wonderful  tenacity. 

A  BRIUJANT  PASTE. — A  brilliant  and  adhesive  paste,  adapted  to 
fancy  articles,  may  be  made  by  dissolving  caseine  precipitated  from  milk 


HEARTH  AND  HOME.  435 

by  acetic  acid  and  washed  with  pure  water  in  a  saturated  solution  of 
borax. 

A  SUGAR  PASTE. — In  order  to  prevent  the  gum  from  cracking,  to 
10  parts  by  weight  of  gum  arabic  and  3  parts  of  sugar,  add  water  until 
the  desired  consistency  is  obtained.  If  a  very  strong  paste  is  required, 
add  a  quantity  of  flour  equal  in  weight  to  the  gum,  without  boiling  the 
mixture.  The  paste  improves  in  strength  .when  it  begins  to  ferment. 

TIN  Box  CEMENT. — To  fix  labels  to  tin  boxes  either  of  the  following 
will  answer:  1.  Soften  good  glue  in  water,  then  boil  it  in  strong  vinegar, 
and  thicken  the  liquid  while  boiling  with  fine  wheat  flour,  so  that  a 
paste  results.  2.  Starch  paste,  with  which  a  little  Venice  turpentine  has 
been  incorporated  while  warm. 

PAPER  AND  LEATHER  PASTE.— Cover  4  parts,  by  weight,  of  glue, 
with  15  parts  of  cold  water,  and  allow  it  to  soak  for  several  hours, 
then  warm  moderately  till  the  solution  is  perfectly  clear,  and  dilute  with 
60  parts  of  boiling  water,  intimately  stirred  in.  Next  prepare  a  solution 
of  30  parts  of  starch  in  200  parts  of  cold  water,  so  as  to  form  a  thin  homo- 
geneous liquid,  free  from  lumps,  and  pour  the  boiling  glue  solution  into 
it  with  thorough  stirring,  and  at  the  same  time  keepthe  mass  boiling. 

COMMERCIAI,  MUCILAGE. — The  best  quality  of  mucilage  in  the  mar- 
ket is  made  by  dissolving  clear  glue  in  equal  volumes  of  water  and  strong 
vinegar,  and  adding  one-fourth  of  an  equal  volume  of  alcohol  and  a 
small  quantity  of  a  solution  of  alum  in  water.  Some  of  the  cheaper  prep- 
arations offered  for  sale  are  merely  boiled  starch  or  flour,  mixed  with 
nitric  acid  to  prevent  their  gelatinizing. 

ACID-PROOF  PASTE. — A  paste  formed  by  mixing  powdered  glass  with 
a  concentrated  solution  of  silicate  of  soda  makes  an  excellent  acid-proof 
cement. 

PASTE  To  FASTEN  CLOTH  To  WOOD. — Take  a  plump  pound  of  wheat 
flour,  one  tablespoonful  of  powdered  resin,  one  tablespoonful  of  finely 
powdered  alum,  and  rub  the  mixture  in  a  suitable  vessel,  with  water, 
to  a  uniform,  smooth  paste;  transfer  this  to  a  small  kettle  over  a  fire, 
and  stir  until  the  paste  is  perfectly  homogeneous  without  lumps.  As  soon 
as  the  mass  has  become  so  stiff  that  the  stirrer  remains  upright  in  it, 
transfer  it  to  another  vessel  and  cover  it  up  so  that  no  skin  may  form 
on  its  surface. 

This  paste  is  applied  in  a  very  thin  layer  to  the  surface  of  the  table; 
the  cloth,  or  leather,  is  then  laid  and  pressed  upon  it,  and  smoothed 
with  a  roller.  The  ends  are  cut  off  after  drying.  If  leather  is  to  be  fast- 
ened on,  this  must  first  be, moistened  with  water.  The  paste  is  then  ap- 
plied, and  the  leather  rubbed  smooth  with  a  cloth. 

PASTE  FOR  PRINTING  OFFICE.— Take  2  gallons  of  cold  water  and 
1  quart  of  wheat  flour,  rub  out  all  the  lumps,  then  add  one-fourth 
pound  of  finely  pulverized  alum  and  boil  the  mixture  for  10  minutes, 
or  until  a  thick  consistency  is  reached.  Now  add  1  quart  of  hot  water 
and  boil  again  until  the  paste  becomes  a  pale  brown  color,  and  thick. 
The  paste  should  be  well  stirred  during  both  processes  of  cooking.  Paste 
thus  made  will  keep  sweet  for  two  weeks  and  prove  very  adhesive. 

To  TAKE  SMOKE  STAINS  FROM  WALLS. — An  easy  and  sure  way  to 
remove  smoke  stains  from  common  plain  ceilings  is  to  mix  wood  ashes 
with  the  whitewash  just  before  applying,  A  pint  of  ashes  to  a  small 
pail  of  whitewash  is  sufficient,  but  a  little  more  or  less  will  do  no  harm. 

To  REMOVE  STAINS  FROM  BROADCLOTH. — Take  an  ounce  of  pipe- 
clay, which  has  been  ground  fine,  mix  it  with  twelve  drops  of  alcohol 


436  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

and  the  same  quantity  of  spirits  of  turpentine.  Whenever  you  wisn.  to 
remove  any  stains  from  cloth,  moisten  a  little  of  this  mixture  with  alco- 
hol and  rub  it  on  the  spots.  Let  it  remain  till  dry,  then  rub  it  off  with  a 
woolen  cloth,  and  the  spots  will  disappear. 

To  REMOVE  RED  STAINS  OF  FRUIT  FROM  LINEN.— Moisten  the  cloth 
and  hold  it  over  a  piece  of  sulphur,  then  wash  thoroughly,  or  else  the 
spots  may  reappear. 

To  REMOVE  Oil,  STAINS. — Take  3  ounces  of  spirits  of  turpen- 
tine, and  1  ounce  of  essence  of  lemon,  mix  well,  and  apply  it  as  you 
would  any  other  scouring  drops.  It  will  take  out  all  the  grease. 

IRON  STAINS  may  be  removed  by  the  salt  of  lemons.  Many  stains 
may  be  removed  by  dipping  the  linen  in  sour  buttermilk,  and  then 
drying  it  in  a  hot  sun;  wash  it  in  cold  water,  repeat  this  three  or  four 
times. 

To  REMOVE  Oil,  STAINS  FROM  WOOD. — Mix  together  fuller's  earth 
and  soap  lees,  and  rub  it  into  the  boards.  Let  it  dry  and  then  scour  it 
off  with  some  strong  soft  soap  and  sand,  or  use  lees  to  scour  it  with.  It 
should  be  put  on  hot,  which  may  easily  be  done  by  heating  the  lees. 

To  REMOVE  TEA  STAINS. — Mix  thoroughly  soft  soap  and  salt — say 
a  tablespoonful  of  salt  to  a  teacupful  of  soap,  rub  on  the  spots  and  spread 
the  cloth  on  the  grass  where  the  sun  will  shine  on  it.  Let  it  lie  two  or 
three  days,  then  wash.  If  the  spots  are  wet  occasionally  while  lying  on 
the  grass,  it  will  hasten  the  bleaching. 

To  REMOVE  STAINS  FROM  MUSUN.— If  you  have  stained  your  mus- 
lin or  gingham  dress,  or  your  white  pants  with  berries,  before  wetting 
with  anything  else,  pour  boiling  water  through  the  stains  and  they  will 
disappear.  Before  fruit  juice  dries  it  can  often  be  removed  by  cold  water, 
using  a  sponge  and  towel  if  necessary. 

To  REMOVE  ACID  STAINS.— Stains  caused  by  acids  may  be  removed 
by  tying  some  pearlash  up  in  the  stained  part;  scrape  some  soap  in  cold, 
soft  water,  and  boil  the  linen  until  the  stain  is  gone. 

To  DISINFECT  SINKS  AND  DRAINS.— Copperas  dissolved  in  water, 
one- fourth  of  a  pound  to  a  gallon,  and  poured  into  a  sink  and  water 
drain. occasionally,  will  keep  such  places  sweet  and  wholesome.  A  little 
chloride  of  lime,  say  half  a  pound  to  a  gallon  of  water,  will  have  the 
same  effect,  and  either  of  these  costs  but  a  trifle. 

A  preparation  may  be  made  at  home  which  will  answer  about  as 
well  as  the  chloride  of  lime.  Dissolve  a  bushel  of  salt  in  a  barrel  of 
water,  and  with  the  salt  water  slack  a  barrel  of  lime,  which  should  be 
made  wet  enough  to  form  a  thin  paste  or  wash. 

To  DISINFECT  A  CEW,AR. — A  damp,  musty  cellar  may  be  sweetened 
by  sprinkling  upon  the  floor  pulverized  copperas,  chloride  of  lime,  or 
even  common  lime.  The  most  effective  means  we  have  ever  used  to  dis- 
infect decaying  vegetable  matter  is  chloride  of  lime  in  solution.  One 
pound  may  be  dissolved  in  two  gallons  of  water.  Plaster  of  Paris  has 
also  been  found  an  excellent  absorbent  of  noxious  odors.  If  used  one 
part  with  three  parts  of  charcoal,  it  will  be  found  still  better. 

How  TO  THAW  OUT  A  WATER  PIPE. — Water  pipes  usually  freeze  up 
when  exposed,  for  inside  the  walls,  where  they  cannot  be  reached,  they 
are  or  should  be  packed  to  prevent  freezing.  To  thaw  out  a  frozen  pipe 
bundle  a  newspaper  into  a  torch,  light  it,  and  pass  it  along  the  pipe 
slowly.  The  ice  will  yield  to  this  much  quicker  than  to  hot  water  or 
wrappings  of  hot  cloths,  as  is  the  common  practice. 

To  PREVENT  Mowx—  A  small  quantity  of  carbolic  acid  added  to 


HEARTH  AND  HOME.  437 

paste,  mucilage  and  ink,  will  prevent  mold.  An  ounce  of  the  acid  to  a 
gallon  of  whitewash  will  keep  cellars  and  dairies  from  the  disagreeable 
odor  which  often  taints  milk  and  meat  kept  in  such  places. 

ECONOMICAL  FIRE  KINDLER.— One  may  be  made  by  dipping  corn 
cobs  into  a  mixture  of  melted  resin  and  tar,  and  drying. 

How  To  KEEP  EGGS  FRESH.— The  great  secret  in  keeping  eggs  con- 
sists in  entirely  excluding  the  air  from  the  interior.  The  lining  next  to 
the  shell  is,  in  its  natural  state,  impervious  to  air,  and  the  albumen 
is  calculated  to  sustain  it,  but  dampness  and  heat  will  cause  decay,  and, 
if  the  egg  is  allowed  to  lie  in  one  position,  especially  upon  one  side,  the 
yolk  sinks  through  the  albumen  and  settles  upon  the  lining,  and,  not 
possessing  proper  qualities  for  preserving  the  skin  in  a  healthy  condi- 
tion, it  dries,  and  air  penetrates,  and  begins  the  work  of  destruction. 
Where  eggs  are  set  upon  their  small  ends,  the  yolk  is  much  less  liable  to 
reach  the  lining  of  the  shell.  Where  eggs  are  packed  in  a  barrel,  keg  or 
bucket,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  turn  the  whole  quantity  on  to  a  different 
side  once  in  a  while 

INDELIBLE  INK. — An  indelible  ink  that  cannot  be  erased,  even  with 
acids,  can  be  obtained  from  the  following  recipe:  To  good  gall  ink  add 
a  strong  solution  of  Prussian  blue  dissolved  in  distilled  water.  This  will 
form  a  writing  fluid  which  cannot  be  erased  without  destruction  of  the 
paper.  The  ink  will  write  greenish  blue,  but  afterward  will  turn  black. 

To  GET  A  BROKEN  CORK  OUT  OF  A  BOTTLE.— If  in  drawing  a 
cork,  it  breaks,  and  the  lower  part  falls  down  into  the  liquid,  tie  a  long 
loop  in  a  bit  of  twine,  or  small  cord,  and  put  it  in,  holding  the  bottle  so 
as  to  bring  the  piece  of  cork  near  to  the  lower  part  of  the  neck.  Catch 
it  in  the  loop,  so  as  to  hold  it  stationary.  You  can  easily  extract  it  with 
a  corkscrew. 

A  WASH  FOR  CLEANING  SILVER.— Mix  together  half  an  ounce  of 
fine  salt,  half  an  ounce  of  powdered  alum,  and  half  an  ounce  of  cream 
of  tartar.  Put  them  into  a  large  white-ware  pitcher,  and  pour  on  two 
quarts  of  water,  and  stir  them  frequently,  till  entirely  dissolved.  Then 
transfer  the  mixture  to  clean  bottles,  and  cork  them  closely.  Before 
using  it,  shake  the  bottles  well.  Pour  some  of  the  liquid  into  a  bowl, 
and  wash  the  silver  all  over  with  it,  using  an  old,  soft,  fine  linen  cloth. 
Let  it  stand  about  ten  minutes,  and  then  rub  it  dry,  with  a  buckskin.  It 
will  make  the  silver  like  new. 

To  REMOVE  THE  ODOR  FROM  A  VIAL. — The  odor  of  its  last  con- 
tents may  be  removed  from  a  vial  by  filling  it  with  cold  water,  and  let- 
ting it  stand  in  any  airy  place  uncorked  for  three  days,  changing  the 
water  every  day. 

To  L/OOSEN  A  GLASS  STOPPER. — The  manner  in  which  apotheca- 
ries loosen  glass  stoppers  when  there  is  difficulty  in  getting  them  out,  is 
to  press  the  thumb  of  the  right  hand  very  hard  against  the  lower  part  of 
the  stopper,  and  then  give  the  stopper  a  twist  the  other  way,  with  the 
thumb  and  forefinger  of  the  left  hand,  keeping  the  bottle  stiff  in  a  steady 
position. 

To  MAKE  SHOES  OR  BOOTS  WATER-PROOF.  — Melt  together,  in  a 
pipkin,  equal  quantities  of  beeswax  and  mutton  suet.  While  liquid  rub 
it  over  the  leather,  including  the  soles 

To  SOFTEN  BOOTS  AND  SHOES. — Kerosene  will  soften  boots  and  shoes 
which  have  been  hardened  by  water,  and  render  them  as  pliable  as  new. 

To  REMOVE  STAINS,  SPOTS,  AND  MILDEW  FROM  FURNITURE. — 
Take  half  a  pint  of  ninety-eight  per  cent,  alcohol,  a  quarter  of  an  ounce 


438  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

each  of  pulverized  resin  and  gum  shellac,  add  half  a  pint  of  linseed  oil, 
shake  well  and  apply  with  a  brush  or  sponge.  Sweet  oil  will  remove 
finger  marks  from  varnished  furniture,  and  kerosene  from  oiled  furniture. 

To  FRESHEN  GILT  FRAMES.— Gilt  frames  may  be  revived  by  care- 
fully dusting  them,  and  then  washing  with  one  ounce  of  soda  beaten  up 
with  the  whites  of  three  eggs.  Scraped  patches  should  be  touched  up 
with  gold  paint.  Castile  soap  and  water,  with  proper  care,  may  be  used 
to  clean  oil  paintings.  Other  methods  should  not  be  employed  without 
some  skill. 

To  FILL  CRACKS  IN  PIASTER.— Use  vinegar  instead  of  water  to  mix 
your  plaster  of  Pads.  The  resultant  mass  will  be  like  putty,  and  will 
not  "set''  for  twenty  or  thirty  minutes,  whereas  if  you  use  water  the 
plaster  will  become  hard  almost  immediately,  before  you  have  time  to 
use  it.  Push  it  into  the  cracks  and  smooth  it  off  nicely  with  a  tableknife 

To  TOUGHEN  LAMP  CHIMNEYS  AND  GLASSWARE. — Immerse  the 
article  in  a  pot  filled  with  cold  water,  to  which  some  common  salt  has 
been  added.  Boil  the  water  well,  th£n  cool  slowly.  Glass  treated  in 
this  way  will  resist  any  sudden  change  of  temperature. 

To  REMOVE  PAINT  FROM  WINDOW-GLASS.— Rub  it  well  with  hot, 
sharp  vinegar. 

To  CLEAN  STOVEPIPE. — A  piece  of  zinc  put  on  the  live  coals  in  the 
stove  will  clean  out  the  stovepipe. 

To  BRIGHTEN  CARPETS.— Carpets,  after  the  dust  has  been  beaten 
out,  may  be  brightened  by  scattering  upon  them  cornmeal  mixed  with 
salt  and  then  sweeping  it  off.  Mix  salt  and  meal  in  equal  proportions. 
Carpets  should  be  thoroughly  beaten  on  the  wrong  side  first  and  then  on 
the  right  side,  after  which  spots  may  be  removed  by  the  use  of  ox-gall 
or  ammonia  and  water. 

KEROSENE  STAINS  IN  CARPETS  may  be  removed  by  sprinkling 
buckwheat  flour  over  the  spot.  If  one  sprinkling  is  not  enough,  repeat. 

To  KEEP  FLOWERS  FRESH  exclude  them  from  the  air.  To  do  this 
wet  them  thoroughly,  put  them  in  a  damp  box,  and  cover  with  wet  raw 
cotton,  or  wet  newspaper,  then  place  in  a  cool  spot.  To  preserve 
bouquets,  put  a  little  saltpetre  in  the  water  you  use  for  your  bouquets, 
and  the  flowers  will  live  for  a  fortnight. 

To  PRESERVE  BROOMS.— Dip  them  for  a  minute  or  two  in  a  kettle 
of  boiling  suds  once  a  week  and  they  will  last  much  longer,  making  them 
tough  and  pliable.  A  carpet  wears  much  longer  swept  with  a  broom 
cared  for  in  this  manner. 

To  CLEAN  BRASSWARE.—  Mix  1  ounce  of  oxalic  acid,  6  ounces 
of  rotten  stone,  all  in  powder,  1  ounce  of  sweet  oil,  and  sufficient 
water  to  make  a  paste.  Apply  a  small  proportion  and  rub  dry  with  a 
flannel  or  leather.  The  liquid  dip  most  generally  used  consists  of  nitric 
and  sulphuric  acids,  but  this  is  more  corrosive. 

POLISH  OR  ENAMEL  FOR  SHIRT  BOSOMS  is  made  by  melting  together 
1  ounce  of  white  wax  and  2  ounces  of  spermaceti;  heat  gently  and  turn 
into  a  very  shallow  pan;  when  cold  cut  or  break  in  pieces.  When  mak- 
ing boiled  starch  the  usual  way,  enough  for  a  dozen  bosoms,  add  to  it  a 
piece  of  the  polish  the  size  of  a  hazel  nut. 

To  KEEP  OUT  MOSQUITOES.— If  a  bottle  of  the  oil  of  pennyroyal  is 
left  uncorked  in  a  room  at  night,  not  a  mosquito,  nor  any  other  blood- 
sucker, will  be  found  there  in  the  morning. 

DESTRUCTION  OF  RATS. — The  following  recipe  for  the  destruction 
originated  with  Dr.  Ure,  and  is  highly  recommended  as  the  best-known 


HEARTH  AND  HOME.  439 

means  of  getting  rid  of  these  most  obnoxious  and  destructive  vermin. 
Melt  hog's  lard  in  a  bottle  plunged  in  water,  heated  to  about  150  de- 
grees of  Fahrenheit,  mix  with  it  half  an  ounce  of  phosphorus  for  every 
pound  of  lard,  then  add  a  pint  of  proof  spirit,  or  whisky,  cork  the  bottle 
firmly  after  its  contents  have  been  heated  to  150  degrees,  taking  it  at  the 
same  time  out  of  the  water,  and  agitate  smartly  until  the  phosphorus 
becomes  uniformly  diffused,  forming  a  milky- looking  liquid.  This 
liquid,  being  cooled,  will  afford  a  white  compound  of  phosphorus  and 
lard,  from  which  the  spirit  spontaneously  separates,  and  may  be  poured 
off  to  be  used  again  for  the  same  purpose,  but  not  for  drinking,  for  none 
of  it  enters  into  the  combination,  but  it  merely  serves  to  comminute  the 
phosphorus,  and  diffuse  it  in  very  small  particles  through  the  lard.  This 
compound,  on  being  warmed  very  gently,  may  be  poured  out  into  a 
mixture  of  wheat  flour  and  sugar,  incorporated  therewith,  and  then 
flavored  with  oil  of  rhodium,  or  not,  at  pleasure.  The  flavor  may  be 
varied  with  oil  of  aniseed,  etc.  This  dough  being  made  into  pellets,  is 
to  be  laid  into  rat  holes.  By  its  luminousness  in  the  dark,  it  attracts 
their  notice,  and,  being  agreeable  to  their  palates  and  noses,  it  is  readily 
eaten,  and  proves  certainly  fatal. 

To  Km,  COCKROACHES. — A  teacupful  of  well -bruised  plaster  of 
Paris,  mixed  with  double  the  quantity  of  oatmeal,  to  which  a  little  sugar 
may  be  added,  although  this  last-named  ingredient  is  not  essential. 
Strew  it  on  the  floor  or  into  the  chinks  where  they  frequent. 

EARWIGS  are  very  destructive  insects,  their  favorite  food  being  the 
petals  of  roses,  pinks,  dahlias  and  other  flowers.  They  may  be  caught  by 
driving  stakes  into  the  ground,  and  placing  on  each  an  inverted  flower- 
pot, for  the  earwigs  will  climb  up  and  take  refuge  under  the  pot,  when 
they  may  be  taken  out  and  killed.  Clean  bowls  of  tobacco  pipes,  placed 
in  like  manner  on  the  tops  of  smaller  sticks,  are  very  good  traps,  or  very 
deep  holes  may  be  made  in  the  ground  with  a  crowbar,  into  which  they 
will  fall,  and  may  be  destroyed  by  boiling  water. 

To  DESTROY  ANTS. — Drop  some  quicklime  on  the  mouth  of  their  nest, 
and  wash  it  in  with  boiling  water,  or  dissolve  some  camphor  in  spirits 
of  wine,  then  mix  with  water,  and  pour  into  their  haunts,  or  tobacco 
water,  which  has  been  found  effectual.  They  are  averse  to  strong  scents. 
Camphor,  or  a  sponge  saturated  with  creosote,  will  prevent  their  infest- 
ing a  cupboard.  To  prevent  their  climbing  up  trees,  place  a  ring  of  tar 
about  the  trunk,  or  a  circle  of  rag  moistened  occasionally  with  creo- 
sote. 

To  PREVENT  MOTHS.— In  the  month  of  April  or  May,  beat  your  fur 
garments  well  with  a  small  cane  or  elastic  stick,  then  wrap  them  up  in 
linen  without  pressing  them  too  hard,  and  put  betwixt  the  folds  some 
camphor  in  small  lumps;  then  put  your  furs  in  this  state  in  boxes  well 
closed.  When  the  furs  are  wanted  for  use,  beat  them  well  as  before,  and 
expose  them  for  twenty-four  hours  to  the  air,  which  will  .take  away  the 
smell  of  the  camphor.  If  the  fur  has  long  hair,  as  bear  or  fox,  add  to 
the  camphor  an  equal  quantity  of  black  pepper  in  powder. 

To  GET  RID  OF  MOTHS.  1.  Procure  shavings  of  cedar  wood,  and 
inclose  in  muslin  bags,  which  can  be  distributed  freely  among  the 
clothes. 

2.  Procure  shavings  of  camphor  wood,  and  inclose  in  bags. 

3.  Sprinkle  pimento  (allspice)  berries  among  the  clothes. 

4.  Sprinkle  the  clothes  with  the  seeds  of  the  musk  plant. 

5.  To  destroy  the  eggs,  when  deposited  in  woolen  cloths,  etc.,  use  a 


440  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

solution  of  acetate  of  potash  in  spirits  of  rosemary,  fifteen  grains  to  the 
pint. 

BED  BUGS. — Spirits  of  naphtha  rubbed  with  a  small  painter's  brush 
into  every  part  of  the  bedstead  is  a  certain  way  of  getting  rid  of  bugs. 
The  mattress  and  binding  of  the  bed  should  be  examined,  and  the  same 
process  attended  to,  as  they  generally  harbor  more  in  these  parts  than 
in  the  bedstead.  Ten  cents'  worth  of  naphtha  is  sufficient  for  one  bed. 

BUG  POISON. — Proof  spirit,  1  pint;  camphor,  2  ounces;  oil  of 
turpentine,  4  ounces;  corrosive  sublimate,  1  ounce.  Mix.  A  corre- 
spondent says,  ' '  I  have  been  for  a  long  time  troubled  with  bugs,  and 
never  could  get  rid  of  them  by  any  clean  and  expeditious  method  until 
a  friend  told  me  to  suspend  a  small  bag  of  camphor  to  the  bed,  just  in 
the  center,  overhead.  I  did  so,  and  the  enemy  was  most  effectually  re- 
pulsed and  has  not  made  his  appearance  since-  not  even  for  a  reconnois- 
sance!"  This  is  a  simple  method  of  getting  rid  of  these  pests,  and  is 
worth  a  trial  to  see  if  it  be  effectual  in  other  cases. 

MIXTURE  FOR  DESTROYING  FLIES.— Infusion  of  quassia,  1  pint; 
brown  sugar,  4  ounces;  ground  pepper,  2  ounces.  To  be  well  mixed 
together,  and  put  in  small,  shallow  dishes  when  required. 

To  DESTROY  FiyiES  in  a  room,  take  half  a  teaspoonful  of  black  pepper 
in  powder,  one  teaspoonful  of  brown  sugar,  and  1  tablespoonful  of 
cream,  mix  them  well  together,  and  place  them  in  the  room  on  a  plate, 
where  the  flies  are  troublesome,  and  they  will  soon  disappear. 

How  To  DESTROY  INSECTS.— The  Bureau  of  Entomology,  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  Washington,  sends  out  the  following,  for  use  as  in- 
secticides on  or  about  plants,  etc. :  London  purple — To  twenty  pounds 
flour  from  one-quarter  to  one-half  pound  is  added  and  well  mixed.  This 
is  applied  with  a  sifter  or  blower.  With  forty  gallons  of  water  one- 
quarter  to  one-half  pound  is  mixed  for  spraying.  Paris  green — With 
twenty  pounds  of  flour  from  three-quarters  to  one  pound  is  mixed  and 
applied  by  sifting  or  by  a  blower.  The  same  amount  of  the  insecticide 
to  forty  gallons  of  water  is  used  as  a  spray.  Bisulphate  of  Carbon — For 
use  in  the  ground  a  quantity  is  poured  or  injected  among  the  roots  that 
are  being  infected.  Against  insects  damaging  stored  grain  or  museum 
material  a  small  quantity  is  used  in  an  air-tight  vessel.  Carbolic  acid — 
A  solution  of  1  part  in  100  of  water  is  used  against  parasites  on  domestic 
animals  and  their  barns  and  sheds;  also  on  the  surface  of  plants  and 
among  the  roots  in  the  ground.  Hellebore — The  powder  is  sifted  on  alone 
or  mixed  one  part  to  twenty  of  flour.  With  one  gallon  of  water  one- 
quarter  pound  is  mixed  for  spraying.  Kerosene-Milk  Emulsion — To 
one  part  milk  add  two  parts  kerosene,  and  churn  by  force-pump  or  other 
agitator.  The  butter-like  emulsion  is  diluted  ad  libitum  with  water.  An 
easier  method  is  to  simply  mix  1  part  kerosene  with  8  of  milk.  Soap 
Emulsion — In  one  gallon  hot  water  one-half  pound  whale  oil  soap  is  dis- 
solved. This,  instead  of  milk,  is  mixed  to  an  emulsion  with  kerosene  in 
the  same  manner  and  proportion  as  above.  Pyrethrum,  Persian  Insect 
powder— Is  blown  or  sifted  on  dry,  also  applied  in  water  one  gallon  to 
a  tablespoonful  of  the  powder,  well  stirred  and  then  sprayed.  Tobacco 
Decoction — This  is  made  as  strong  as  possible  as  a  wash  or  spray  to  kill 
insect  pests  on  animals  and  plants. 


HEARTH  AND  HOME.  441 

ACCIDENTS  AND  INJURIES. 

PRICELESS  GENERAL  RULES. — If  an  artery  is  cut,  red  blood  spurts. 
Compress  it  above  the  wound.  If  a  vein  is  cut,  dark  blood  flows  Com- 
press it  below  and  above. 

If  choked,  go  upon  all  fours  and  cough. 

For  slight  burns,  dip  the  part  in  cold  water;  if  the  skin  is  destroyed, 
cover  with  varnish  or  linseed  oil. 

For  apoplexy,  raise  the  head  and  body;  for  fainting,  lay  the  person 
flat. 

Send  for  a  physician  when  a  serious  accident  of  any  kind  occurs,  but 
treat'  as  directed  until  he  arrives. 

SCALDS  AND  BURNS. — The  following  facts  cannot  be  too  firmly  im- 
pressed on  the  mind  of  the  reader,  that  in  either  of  these  accidents  the 
first,  best  and  often  the  only  remedies  required,  are  sheets  of  wadding, 
fine  wool,  or  carded  cotton,  and  in  the  default  of  these,  violet  powder, 
flour,  magnesia,  or  chalk.  The  object  for  which  these  several  articles  are 
employed  is  the  same  in  each  instance;  namely,  to  exclude  the  air  from 
the  injured  part;  for  if  the.  air  can  be  effectually  shut  out  from  the  raw 
surface,  and  care  is  taken  not  to  expose  the  tender  part  till  the  new  cuti- 
cle is  formed,  the  cure  may  be  safely  left  to  nature.  The  moment  a  per- 
son is  called  to  a  case  of  scald  or  burn,  he  should  cover  the  part  with  a 
sheet,  or  a  portion  of  a  sheet,  of  wadding,  taking  care  not  to  break  any 
blister  that  may  have  formed,  or  stay  to  remove  any  burnt  clothes  that 
may  adhere  to  the  surface,  but  as  quickly  as  possible  envelop  every  part 
of  the  injury  from  all  access  of  the  air,  laying  one  or  two  more  pieces  of 
wadding  on  the  first,  so  as  effectually  to  guard  the  burn  or  scald  from  the 
irritation  of  the  atmosphere;  and  if  the  article  used  is  wool  or  cotton,  the 
same  precaution,  of  adding  more  material  where  the  surface  is  thinly 
covered,  must  be  adopted;  a  light  bandage  finally  securing  all  in  their 
places.  Any  of  the  popular  remedies  recommended  below  may  be  em- 
ployed when  neither  wool,  cotton  nor  wadding  are  to  be  procured,  it 
being  always  remembered  that  that  article  which  will  best  exclude  the 
air  from  a  burn  or  scald  is  the  best,  quickest,  and  least  painful  mode  of 
treatment.  And  in  this  respect  nothing  has  surpassed  cotton  loose  or 
attached  to  paper  as  in  wadding. 

If  the  skin  is  much  injured  in  burns,  spread  some  linen  pretty 
thickly  with  chalk  ointment,  and  lay  over  the  part,  and  give  the  patient 
some  brandy  and  water  if  much  exhausted;  then  send  fora  medical  man. 
If  not  much  injured,  and  very  painful,  use  the  same  ointment,  or  apply 
carded  cotton  dipped  in  lime  water  and  linseed  oil.  If  you  please,  you 
may  lay  cloths  dipped  in  either  over  the  parts,  or  cold  lotions.  Treat 
scalds  in  same  manner,  or  cover  with  scraped  raw  potato;  but  the  chalk 
ointment  is  the  best.  In  the  absence  of  all  these,  cover  the  injured  part 
with  treacle,  and  dust  over  it  plenty  of  flour. 

BODY  IN  FLAMES. — I^ay  the  person  down  on  the  floor  of  the  room, 
and  throw  the  table  cloth,  rug,  or  other  large  cloth  over  him,  and  roll 
him  on  the  floor. 

DIRT  IN  THE  EYE. — Place  your  forefinger  upon  the  cheek-bone, 
having  the  patient  before  you;  then  slightly  bend  the  finger;  this  will 
draw  down  the  lower  lid  of  the  eye,  and  you  will  probably  be  able  to 
remove  the  dirt;  but  if  this  will  not  enable  you  to  get  at  it,  repeat  this 
operation  while  you  have  a  netting-needle  or  bodkin  placed  over  the  eye- 
lid; this  will  turn  it  inside  out,  and  enable  you  to  remove  the  sand  or 


442  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

eyelash,  etc.,  with  the  corner  of  a  fine  silk  handkerchief.  As  soon  as  the 
substance  is  removed,  bathe  the  eye  with  cold  water,  and  exclude  the 
light  for  a  day.  If  the  inflammation  is  severe,  let  the  patient  use  a  refrig- 
erant lotion. 

LIME  IN  THE  EYE. — Syringe  it  well  with  warm  vinegar  and  water 
in  the  proportion  of  one  ounce  of  vinegar  to  eight  ounces  of  water;  ex- 
clude light. 

IRON  OR  STEEL  SPICUI,^  IN  THE  EYE. — These  occur  while  turning 
iron  or  steel  in  a  lathe,  and  are  best  remedied  by  doubling  back  the 
upper  or  lower  eyelid,  according  to  the  situation  of  the  substance,  and 
with  the  flat  edge  of  a  silver  probe,  taking  up  the  metallic  particle,  using 
a  lotion  made  by  dissolving  six  grains  of  sugar  of  lead  and  the  same  of 
white  vitriol,  in  six  ounces  of  water,  and  bathing  the  eye  three  times  a 
day  till  the  inflammation  subsides.  Another  plan  is — Drop  a  solution  of 
sulphate  of  copper  (from  one  to  three  grains  of  the  salt  to  one  ounce  of 
water)  into  the  eye,  or  keep  the  eye  open  in  a  wineglassful  of  the  solu- 
tion. Bathe  with  cold  lotion,  and  exclude  light  to  keep  down  inflam- 
mation. 

DISLOCATED. THUMB.—  This  is  frequently  produced  by  a  fall.  Make 
a  clove  hitch,  by  passing  two  loops  of  cord  over  the  thumb,  placing  a 
piece  of  rag  under  the  cord  to  prevent  it  cutting  the  thumb;  then  pull  in 
the  same  line  as  the  thumb.  Afterwards  apply  a  cold  lotion. 

CUTS  AND  WOUNDS. — Clean  cut  wounds,  whether  deep  or  superficial, 
and  likely  to  heal  by  the  first  intention,  should  always  be  washed  or 
cleaned,  and  at  once  evenly  and  smoothly  closed  by  bringing  both  edges 
close  together,  and  securing  them  in  that  position  by  adhesive  plaster. 
Cut  thin  strips  of  sticking  plaster,  and  bring  the  parts  together;  or  if 
large  and  deep,  cut  two  broad  pieces,  so  as  to  look  like  the  teeth  of  a 
comb,  and  place  one  on  each  side  of  the  wound,  which  must  be  cleaned 
previously.  These  pieces  must  be  arranged  so  that  they  shall  interlace 
one  another;  then,  by  laying  hold  of  the  pieces  on  the  right  side  with 
one  hand,  and  those  on  the  other  side  with  the  other  hand,  and  pulling 
them  from  one  another,  the  edges  of  the  wound  are  brought  together 
without  any  difficulty. 

Ordinary  cuts  are  dressed  by  thin  strips,  applied  by  pressing  down 
the  plaster  on  one  side  of  the  woun  J,  and  keeping  it  there  and  pulling 
in  the  opposite  direction;  then  suddenly  depressing  the  hand  when  the 
edges  of  the  wound  are  brought  together. 

CONTUSIONS  are  best  healed  by  laying  a  piece  of  folded  lint,  well 
wetted  with  extract  of  lead,  or  boracic  acid,  on  the  part,  and,  if  there  is 
much  pain,  placing  a  hot  bran  poultice  over  the  dressing,  repeating  both 
if  necessary,  every  two  hours.  When  the  injuries  are  very  severe,  lay 
a  cloth  over  the  part,  and  suspend  a  basin  over  it  filled  with  cold  lotion. 
Put  a  piece  of  cotton  into  the  basin,  so  that  it  shall  allow  the  lotion  to 
drop  on  the  cloth,  and  thus  keep  it  always  wet. 

HEMORRHAGE,  when  caused  by  an  artery  being  divided  or  torn,  may 
be  known  by  the  blood  issuing  out  of  the  wound  in  leaps  or  jerks,  and 
being  of  bright  scarlet  color.  If  a  vein  is  injured,  the  blood  is  darker 
and  flows  continuously.  To  arrest  the  latter,  apply  pressure  by  means 
of  a  compress  and  bandage.  To  arrest  arterial  bleeding,  get  a  piece  of 
wood  (part  of  a  broom  handle  will  do),  and  tie  a  piece  of  tape  to  one  end 
of  it;  then  tie  a  piece  of  tape  loosely  over  the  arm,  and  pass  the  other  end 
of  the  wood  under  it;  twist  the  stick  round  and  round  until  the  tape 
compresses  the  arm  sufficiently  to  arrest  the  bleeding,  and  then  confine 


HEAR  TH  AND  HOME.  443 

the  other  end  by  tying  the  string  around  the  arm.  A  compress  made  by 
enfolding  a  penny  piece  in  several  folds  of  lint  or  linen  should,  however, 
be  first  placed  under  the  tape  and  over  the  artery.  If  the  bleeding  is 
very  obstinate,  and  it  occurs  in  the  arm,  place  a  cork  underneath  the 
string,  on  the  inside  of  the  fleshy  part,  where  the  artery  may  be  felt 
beating  by  any  one;  if  in  the  leg,  place  a  cork  in  the  direction  of  a  line 
drawn  from  the  inner  part  of  the  knee  towards  the  outer  part  of  the  groin. 
It  is  an  excellent  thing  to  accustom  yourself  to  find  out  the  position  of 
these  arteries,  or,  indeed,  any  that  are  superficial,  and  to  explain  to 
every  person  in  your  house  where  they  are,  and  how  to  stop  bleeding. 
If  a  stick  cannot  be  got,  take  a  handkerchief,  make  a  cord  bandage  of 
it,  and  tie  a  knot  in  the  middle;  the  knot  acts  as  a  compress,  and  should 
be  placed  over  the  artery,  while  the  two  ends  are  to  be  tied  around  the 
thumb.  Observe  always  to  place  the  ligature  between  the  wound  and 
the  heart.  Putting  your  finger  into  a  bleeding  wound,  and  making  pres- 
sure until  a  surgeon  arrives,  will  generally  stop  violent  bleeding. 

BREEDING  FROM  THE  NOSE,  from  whatever  cause,  may  generally  be 
stopped  by  putting  a  plug  of  lint  into  the  nostrils;  if  this  does  not  do, 
apply  a  cold  lotion  to  the  forehead;  raise  the  head,  and  place  over  it  both 
arms,  so  that  it  will  rest  on  the  hands;  dip  the  lint  plug,  slightly  moist- 
ened, into  some  powdered  gum  arabic,  and  plug  the  nostrils  again;  or 
dip  the  plug  into  equal  parts  of  powdered  gum  arabic  and  alum  and 
plug  the  nose.  Or  the  plug  may  be  dipped  in  Friar's  balsam,  or  tinc- 
ture of  kino.  Heat  should  be  applied  to  the  feet;  and,  in  obstinate  cases, 
the  sudden  shock  of  a  cold  key,  or  cold  water  poured  down  the  spine, 
will  often  instantly  stop  the  bleeding.  If  the  bowels  are  confined,  take 
a  purgative.  Injections  of  alum  solution  from  a  small  syringe  into  the 
nose  will  often  stop  hemorrhage. 

VIOLENT  SHOCKS  will  sometimes  stun  a  person,  and  he  will  remain  un- 
conscious. Untie  strings,  collars,  etc. ;  loosen  anything  that  is  tight,  and 
interferes  with  the  breathing;  raise  the  head;  see  if  there  is  bleeding  from 
any  part;  apply  smelling-salts  to  the  nose,  and  hot  bottles  to  the  feet. 

IN  CONCUSSION,  the  surface  of  the  body  is  cold  and  pale,  and  the 
pulse  weak  and  small,  the  breathing  slow  and  gentle,  and  the  pupil  of 
the  eye  generally  contracted  or  small.  You  can  get  an  answer  by  speak- 
ing loud,  so  as  to  arouse  the  patient.  Give  a  little  brandy  and  water, 
keep  the  place  quiet,  apply  warmth,  and  do  not  raise  the  head  too  high. 
If  you  tickle  the  feet  the  patient  feels  it. 

IN  COMPRESSION  OF  THE  BRAIN  from  any  cause,  such  as  apoplexy, 
or  a  piece  of  fractured  bone  pressing  it,  there  is  loss  of  sensation.  If 
you  tickle  the  feet  of  the  injured  person  he  does  not  feel  it.  You  cannot 
arouse  him  so  as  to  get  an  answer.  The  pulse  is  slow  and  labored;  the 
breathing  deep,  labored,  and  snorting;  the  pupil  enlarged.  Raise  the 
head,  loosen  strings  or  tight  things,  and  send  for  a  surgeon.  If  one  can- 
not be  got  at  once,  apply  mustard  poultices  to  the  feet  and  thighs,  leeches 
to  the  temples,  and  hot  water  to  the  feet. 

CHOKING. — When  a  person  has  a  fish  bone  in  the  throat,  insert  the 
forefinger,  press  upon  the  root  of  the  tongue,  so  as  to  induce  vomiting; 
if  this  does  not  do^  let  him  swallow  a  large  piece  of  potato  or  soft  bread; 
and  if  these  fail,  give  a  mustard  emetic. 

FAINTING,  HYSTERICS,  ETC.—  Loosen  the  garments,  bathe  the  temp- 
les with  water,  or  eau-de-Cologne;  open  the  window,  admit  plenty  of 
fresh  air,  dash  cold  water  on  the  face,  apply  hot  bricks  to  the  feet,  and 
avoid  bustle  and  excessive  sympathy. 


444  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

DROWNING. — Attend  to  the  following  essential  rules'. — 1.  Lose  no 
time.  2.  Handle  the  body  gently.  3.  Carry  the  body  face  downwards, 
with  the  heacf  gently  raised,  and  never  hold  it  up  by  the  feet.  4.  Send 
for  medical  assistance  immediately,  and  in  the  meantime  act  as  follows: 
5.  Strip  the  body;  rub  it  dry,  then  wrap  it  in  hot  blankets,  and  place  it 
in  a  warm  bed  in  a  warm  room.  6.  Cleanse  away  the  froth  and  mucus 
from  the  nose  and  mouth.  7.  Apply  warm  bricks,  bottles,  bags  of  sand, 
etc.,  to  the  armpits,  between  the  thighs,  and  to  the  soles  of  the  feet.  8. 
Rub  the  surface  of  the  body  with  the  hands  inclosed  in  warm,  dry 
worsted  socks.  9.  If  possible,  put  the  body  into  a  warm  bath.  10.  To 
restore  breathing,  put  the  pipe  of  a  common  bellows  into  one  nostril, 
carefully  closing  the  other,  and  the  mouth;  at  the  same  time  drawing 
downwards,  and  pushing  gently  backwards,  the  upper  part  of  the  wind- 
pipe, to  allow  a  more  free  admission  of  air;  blow  the  bellows  gently,  in 
order  to  inflate  the  lungs,  till  the  breast  be  raised  a  little;  then  set  the 
mouth  and  nostrils  free,  and  press  gently  on  the  chest;  repeat  this  until 
signs  of  life  appear.  The  body  should  be  covered  the  moment  it  is  placed 
on  the  table,  except  the  face,  and  all  the  rubbing  carried  on  under  the 
sheet  or  blanket.  When  they  can  be  obtained,  a  number  of  tiles  or 
bricks  should  be  made  tolerably  hot  in  the  fire,  laid  in  a  row  on  the 
table,  covered  with  a  blanket,  and  the  body  placed  in  such  a  manner 
on  them  that  their  heat  may  enter  the  spine.  When  the  patient  revives, 
apply  smelling-salts  to  the  nose,  give  warm  wine  or  brandy  and  water. 
Cautions: — 1.  Never  rub  the  body  with  salt  or  spirits.  2.  Never  roll  the 
body  on  casks.  3.  Continue  the  remedies  for  twelve  hours  without  ceas- 
ing. 

HANGING. — Loosen  the  cord,  or  whatever  it  may  be  by  which  the 
person  has  been  suspended.  Open  the  temporal  artery  or  jugular  vein, 
or  bleed  from  the  arm;  employ  electricity,  if  at  hand,  and  proceed  as  for 
drowning,  taking  the  additional  precaution  to  apply  eight  or  ten  leeches 
to  the  temples. 

APPARENT  DEATH  FROM  DRUNKENNESS  —  Raise  the  head;  loosen 
the  clothes,  maintain  warmth  of  surface,  and  give  a  mustard  emetic  as 
soon  as  the  person  can  swallow. 

APOPLEXY  AND  FITS  GENERALITY.— Raise  the  head;  loosen  all  tight 
clothes,  strings,  etc. ;  apply  cold  lotions  to  the  head,  which  should  be 
shaved;  apply  leeches  to  the  temples,  bleed  and  send  for  a  surgeon. 

SUFFOCATION  FROM  Noxious  GASES,  ETC.— Remove  to  the  fresh 
air;  dash  cold  vinegar  and  water  in  the  face,  neck  and  breast;  keep  up 
the  warmth  of  the  body;  if  necessary,  apply  mustard  poultices  to  the 
soles  of  the  feet  and  to  the  spine,  and  try  artificial  respirations  as  in 
drowning,  with  electricity. 

LIGHTNING  AND  SUNSTROKE. — Treat  the  same  as  apoplexy 

ANTIDOTES  FOR  POISONS. 

Always  send  immediately  for  a  medical  men.  Save  all  fluids  vomited, 
and  articles  of  food,  cups,  glasses,  etc. ,  used  by  the  patient  before  taken 
ill,  and  lock  them  up.  This  precaution  frequently  leads  to  the  detection 
of  crime. 

As  a  rule,  give  emetics  after  poisons  that  cause  sleepiness  and- ravings: 
chalk,  milk,  eggs,  butter,  and  warm  water,  or  oil,  after  poisons  that 
cause  vomiting  and  pain  in  the  stomach  and  bowels,  with  purging;  and 
when  there  is  no  inflammation  about  the  throat,  tickle  it  with  a  feather 
to  excite  vomiting. 


HEARTH  AND  HOME.  445 

Vomiting  may  be  caused  by  giving  warm  water,  with  a  teaspoonful 
of  mustard  to  the  tumblerful,  well  stirred  up.  Sulphate  of  zinc  (with 
vitriol)  may  be  used  in  place  of  the  mustard,  or  powdered  alum.  Powder 
of  ipecacuanha,  a  teaspoonful  rubbed  up  with  molasses,  may  be  em- 
ployed for  children.  Tartar  emetic  should  never  be  given,  as  it  is  ex- 
cessively depressing,  and  uncontrollable  in  its  effects.  The  stomach  pump 
can  only  be  used  by  skillful  hands,  and  even  then  with  caution. 

In  opium  and  other  narcotic^,  after  vomiting  has  occurred,  cold  water  should  be 
dashed  over  the  face  and  head.  The  patient  must  be  kept  awake,  walked  about  be- 
tween two  strong  persons,  made  to  grasp  the  handles  of  a  galvanic  battery,  dosed  with 
strong  coffee,  and  vigorously  slapped.  Belladonna  is  an  antidote  for  opium  and  for 
morphia,  etc.,  its  active  principle;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  latter  counteract  the 
effects  of  belladonna.  But  a  knowledge  of  medicines  is  necessary  for  dealing  with 
these  articles. 

In  the  case  of  strychnia,  after  emetics  have  been  freely  and  successfully  given,  the 
patient  should  be  allowed  to  breathe  the  vapor  of  sulphuric  ether,  poured  on  a  hand- 
erchief  and  held  to  the  face,  in  such  quantities  as  to  keep  down  the  tendency  to  con- 
vulsions. Bromide  of  potassium,  twenty  grains  to  a  dose,  dissolved  in  syrup,  may  be 
given  every  hour. 

Alcoholic  poisoning  should  be  combated  by  emetics,  of  which  the  sulphate  of  zinc, 
given  as  above  directed,  is  the  best.  After  that,  strong  coffee  internally,  and  stimula- 
tion by  heat  externally,  should  be  used. 

Acids  are  sometimes  swallowed  by  mistake.  Alkalies,  lime  water,  magnesia,  or 
common  chalk  mixed  with  water,  may  be  freely  given,  and  afterward  mucilaginous 
.rinks,  such  as  thick  gum  water  or  flaxseed  tea. 

Alkalies  are  less  frequently  taken  in  injurious  strength  or  quantity,  but  sometimes 
children  swallow  lye  by  mistake.  Common  vinegar  may  be  given  freely,  and  then 
castor  or  sweet  oil  in  full  doses— a  tablespoonful  at  a  time,  repeated  every  half  hour  or 
two. 

Nitrate  of  silver  when  swallowed  is  neutraitzed  by  common  table  salt  freely  given 
in  solution  in  water. 

HOW  TO  CARVE  AT  TABLE. 

We  propose  to  give  here  a  few  rules  upon  the  practice  of  carving, 
which  may  be  of  benefit  to  the  tyro,  and  help  him  to  acquire  that  ease 
and  dexterity  which  is  so  conducive  to  peace  and  comfort  around  the 
family  board: 

In  carving  a  sirloin  of  beef,  the  upper  cuts  should  be  made  length- 
wise of  the  beef,  while  the  under  cuts  are  crosswise  — the  under  cuts  being 
also  much  thicker  than  the  upper  cuts.  As  there  is  much  difference  of 
opinion  as  to  which  is  the  choicest  piece,  it  is  best  for  the  carver  to  ask 
his  guests  which  cut  they  prefer. 

Rib  roasts,  rolled,  and  a  round  of  beef  are  always  cut  in  very  thin 
horizontal  slices  across  the  whole  surface  of  the  meat.  It  is  essential, 
though,  that  these  slices  be  quite  thin. 

The  leg,  the  loin,  the  shoulder  and  the  saddle  are  the  four  pieces  of 
mutton  usually  brought  to  the  table  to  be  carved.  First,  as  to  the  leg: 
This  must  be  placed  on  the  table  with  the  knuckle  to  the  left  hand.  Then 
cut  into  the  side  farthest  from  you  toward  the  bone,  helping  thin  slices 
from  the  right  and  thick  slices  toward  the  knuckle.  Always  divide  the 
little  bunch  of  fat  near  the  thick  end  among  your  guests,  as  it  is  a  great 
delicacy. 

A  saddle  of  mutton  is  often  ordered  for  a  small  dinner  party.  It  is 
cut  in  very  thin  slices,  close  to  the  back -bone,  and  then  downward. 

Place  a  "shoulder"  with  the  knuckle  toward  the  right  hand,  the 
blade  bone  toward  the  left.  Place  your  fork  firmly  in  the  middle  of  the 
edge  farthest  from  you,  and  cut  dexterously  from  the  edge  to  the  bone. 
This  causes  the  meat  to  fly  open,  when  you  can  cut  slices  on  each  side  of 
the  opening,  until  there  is  no  more  to  cut,  when  the  meat  should  be 


446  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

turned  over  and  slices  cut  from  the  under  side.      Another  method  of 
carving  this  joint  is  to  cut  slices  lengthwise  from  the  end  to  the  knuckle. 

The  loin  of  mutton,  which  is  a  piece  intended  specially  for  family 
use,  should  be  carved  either  through  the  joints  or  may  be  cut  lengthwise 
in  a  parallel  line  with  the  joints. 

A  fillet  of  veal  is,  in  shape  and  appearance,  very  similar  to  a  round 
of  beef,  and  is  carved  in  the  same  way  by  cutting  horizontal  slices  over 
the  whole  surface  of  the  meat.  The  slices,  however,  should  not  be  nearly 
so  thin  as  beef.  A  fillet  of  veal  is  cut  from  the  leg,  the  bone  is  removed 
by  the  butcher,  and  the  pocket  thus  made  is  filled  with  dressing,  which 
is  taken  out  and  helped  with  a  spoon  by  the  carver. 

A  breast  of  veal  may  be  either  roasted  or  stewed.  If  used  as  a  roast- 
ing piece,  you  will  have  the  butcher  make  an  opening  or  hole  in  it  for 
the  reception  of  the  dressing.  In  carving  it,  the  ribs  may  be  separated 
from  the  brisket,  and  sent  round. 

A  fore-quarter  of  lamb  consists  of  shoulder,  breast  and  ribs.  The 
knife  must  be  first  placed  upon  the  shoulder, drawn  through  horizontally, 
and  the  joint  removed  and  placed  upon  another  dish.  The  ribs  can  then 
be  separated,  and  the  breast  sliced  and  sent  around. 

A  calf's  head,  which  is  by  some  considered  a  delicacy,  must  be  cut 
down  the  center  in  thin  slices  on  each  side.  A  small  piece  of  the  palate, 
of  the  sweet-bread,  and  of  the  meat  around  the  eye,  must  be  put  on 
each  plate  and  sent  round. 

In  carving  a  haunch  of  venison,  make  a  cut  across  close  to  knuckle, 
after  which  cut  slices  by  making  straight  incisions  lengthwise. 

There  are  three  methods  allowed  in  carving  a  ham:  The  most  com- 
mon one  probably  is  to  cut  it  like  a  leg  of  mutton,beginning  in  the  mid- 
dle, and  cutting  either  way.  You  may,  however,  begin  at  the  knuckle, 
cutting  slices  in  a  slanting  direction,  or  you  may  begin  at  the  thick  end. 
The  slices  must  always  be  as  thin  and  delicate  as  possible,  and  are  the 
usual  accompaniment  to  fowl  or  veal. 

Tongue  must  always  be  cut  in  thin,  regular  slices.  Make  the  first 
a  short  distance  from  the  tip,  where  a  slice  of  some  size  may  be  attained. 
The  tip  is  considered  quite  a  tid-bit  by  some  people. 

In  carving  a  chicken,  first  cut  off  the  wings.  This  is  easily  done  by 
learning  where  to  strike  the  joint.  Then  slice  the  breast,  and  cut  off 
the  merry-thought  and  side  bones.  The  breast  should  always  be  helped 
first,  then  the  wings — the  liver  wing  being  the  better  of  the  two.  It  is 
better  to  always  reserve  a  small  slice  of  the  white  meat  to  be  served  with 
the  dark. 

Pigeon,  snipe  and  quail  are  cut  in  half,  and  a  piece  sent  to  each 
guest.  When  the  birds  are  small,  you  send  a  whole  one. 

Goose  and  turkey  are  helped  by  cutting  slices  off  the  breast,  and 
then  the  wings  and  legs  are  removed.  The  breast  is  considered  the  best 
meat,  and  after  that  the  wings. 

Boiled  rabbit  is  carved  thus:  First  cut  off  the  legs;  then  take  out 
the  shoulders  with  a  sharp-pointed  knife,  then  break  the  back  into  three 
or  four  pieces  at  the  joint.  .  The  back  is  the  choice  help,  especially  the 
piece  in  the  center.  The  shoulder  is  next  in  order  after  the  back,  and 
the  leg  comes  last.  The  kidney  is  a  delicate  bit. 

For  cutting  fish  a  regular  silver  fish-slice  is  provided.  Salmon  and 
all  fish  of  that  order  are  cut  in  slices  down  the  middle  of  the  upper  side, 
and  then  in  slices  across  on  the  under  side.  A  piece  of  each  should  be 
helped  to  all. 


HEAR  TH  AND  HOME.  447 

Mackerel  divides  among  four  people.  Pass  fish-knife  between  the 
upper  and  under  half  from  head  to  tail,  then  halve  each  side,  and  help 
to  a  quarter. 

Cut  cod  crosswise  like  salmon,  then  downward,  and  send  a  small 
piece  round  on  each  plate  as  well. 

Large  flat  fish,  as  turbot,  flounders,  John  Dorey,  etc.,  are  first  cut 
down  the  middle  from  head  to  tail,  then  across  to  the  fin,  in  slices.  The 
fin,  being  considered  a  delicacy  by  some,  should  be  helped,  too. 

Small  fish,  like  smelts,  whiting,  etc.,  are  sent  whole  to  each  guest. 


CONDUCT  AT  TABLE. 

Seat  yourself  in  an  upright  position — not  too  close  to  nor  yet  too 
far  from  the  table. 

Take  your  napkin,  partially  unfold  it  and  lay  it  across  your  lap.  It 
is  not  the  correct  thing  to  fasten  it  to  your  button-hole  or  spread  it  over 
your  breast. 

Do  not  trifle  with  your  knife  or  fork,  or  drum  on  the  table,  or  fidget 
in  any  way,  while  waiting  to  be  served. 

Keep  your  hands  quietly  in  your  lap,  your  mind  composed  and  pleas- 
antly fixed  upon  the  conversation.  Let  all  your  movements  be  easy  and 
deliberate.  Undue  haste  indicates  a  nervous  lack  of  ease. 

Should  grace  be  said,  you  will  give  the  most  reverent  attention  in 
respectful  silence  during  the  ceremony. 

Exhibit  no  impatience  to  be  served.  During  the  intervals  between 
the  courses  is  your  opportunity  for  displaying  your  conversational  abilities 
to  those  sitting  near  you.  Pleasant  chat  and  witty  remarks  compose  the 
best  possible  sauce  to  a  good  dinner. 

Eat  slowly;  it  will  contribute  to  your  good  health  as  well  as  your 
good  manners.  Thorough  mastication  of  your  food  is  necessary  to  di- 
gestion. An  ordinary  meal  should  occupy  from  thirty  minutes  to  an 
hour. 

You  may  not  desire  the  soup,  which  is  usually  the  first  course,  but 
you  should  not  refuse  to  take  it.  You  can  eat  as  much  or  as  little  as  you 
please,  but  you  would  look  awkward  sitting  with  nothing  before  you 
while  the  others  are  eating. 

When  eating  soup,  take  it  from  the  side  of  the  spoon,  and  avoid  mak- 
ing any  noise  in  so  doing. 

Should  you  be  asked  by  the  host  what  part  of  the  fowl  you  prefer, 
always  have  a  choice,  and  mention  promptly  which  you  prefer.  Nothing 
is  more  annoying  than  to  have  to  serve  two  or  three  people  who  have  no 
preferences  and  will  take  "anything." 

Never  place  waste  matter  on  the  table-cloth.  The  side  of  your  plate 
or  side-dishes  that  have  contained  sauces  or  vegetables,  will  answer  as  a 
receptacle  for  bones,  potato  skins,  etc. 

You  will  use  your  fork  to  convey  all  your  food  to  your  mouth,  except 
it  may  be  certain  sauces  that  would  be  more  conveniently  eaten  with  a 
spoon.  For  instance,  you  should  not  attempt  to  eat  peas  with  a  fork.  If 
you  are  not  provided  with  a  spoon,  ask  for  one. 

The  knife  is  used  only  for  cutting  meat  and  other  articles  of  food,  for 
spreading  butter  upon  the  bread,  etc. 

Here  is  the  summary  of  blunders  to  avoid: 

Do  not  eat  fast. 

Do  not  make  noise  with  mouth  or  throat. 


448  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

Do  not  fill  the  mouth  too  full. 

Do  not  open  the  mouth  in  masticating 

Do  not  leave  the  table  with  food  in  your  mouth. 

Be  careful  to  avoid  soiling  the  cloth. 

Never  carry  anything  like  food  with  you  from  the  table. 

Never  apologize  to  the  waiters  for  making  them  trouble;  it  is  their 
business  to  serve  you.  It  is  proper,  however,  to  treat  them  with  courtesy, 
and  say  "No,  I  thank  you,"  or  "If  you  please"  in  answer  to  their  in- 
quiries. 

Do  not  introduce  disgusting  or  unpleasant  topics  of  conversation. 

Do  not  pick  your  teeth  or  put  your  finger  in  your  mouth  at  the  table. 

Do  not  come  to  table  in  your  shirt  sleeves,  or  with  soiled  hands  or 
tousled  hair. 

Do  not  cut  your  bread;  break  it. 

Do  not  refuse  to  take  the  last  piece  of  bread  or  cake;  it  looks  as  though 
you  imagined  there  might  be  no  more. 

Do  not  express  a  preference  for  any  part  of  a  dish  unless  asked  to  do 


GEORGE    WASHINGTON'S    RULES    OF    CONDUCT. 

Let  your  discourse  with  men  of  business  be  short  and  comprehen- 
sive. 

In  visiting  the  sick  do  not  presently  play  the  physician. 

In  the  presence  of  others  sing  not  to  yourself  with  a  humming  noise, 
nor  drum  with  your  fingers  or  feet. 

Read  no  letters,  books  or  papers  in  company. 

Come  not  near  the  book  or  writings  of  any  one  so  as  to  read  them, 
unless  desired. 

Let  your  countenance  be  pleasant,  but  in  serious  matters  somewhat 
grave. 

Show  not  yourself  glad  at  the  misfortune  of  another,  even  though 
he  were  your  enemy. 

Strive  not  with  your  superiors  in  argument,  but  always  submit  your 
judgment  to  others  with  modesty. 

When  a  man  does  all  he  can,  though  it  succeeds  not  well,  blame  not 
him  that  did  it. 

Mock  not,  nor  jest  at  anything  of  importance;  break  no  jests  that  are 
sharp-biting,  and  if  you  deliver  anything  witty  and  pleasant,  abstain  from 
laughing  thereat  yourself. 

Use  no  reproachful  language  against  any  one,  neither  curse  nor 
revile. 

Associate  yourself  with  men  of  good  quality,  if  you  esteem  your  own 
reputation. 

Be  not  immodest  in  urging  your  friend  to  discover  a  secret. 

Speak  not  of  doleful  things  in  time  of  mirth,  nor  at  the  table. 

Break  not  a  jest  where  none  takes  pleasure  in  mirth. 

Laugh  not  loud,  nor  at  all  without  occasion. 

Treat  with  men  at  fit  times  about  business. 

Whisper  not  in  the  company  of  others. 

Make  no  comparisons,  and  if  any  of  the  company  be  commended 
for  any  brave  act,  commend  not  another  for  the  same. 

Be  not  curious  to  know  the  affairs  of  others,  neither  approach  to 
those  that  speak  in  private. 


HEARTH  AND  HOME.  449 

Undertake  not  what  you  cannot  perform,  but  be  careful  to  keep  your 
promise. 

Be  not  tedious  in  discourse. 

Speak  not  evil  of  the  absent,  for  it  is  unjust. 

Let  your  recreations  be  manful,  npt  sinful. 


CARE    OF    THE    PERSON. 

Cleanliness  is  the  outward  sign  of  inward  purity.  Cleanliness  is 
health,  and  health  is  beauty. 

The  first  business  of  the  dressing-room  is  the  bath,  and  this  should 
be  a  complete  bath,  and  not  simply  a  hasty  washing  of  the  face.  It  is 
not  to  be  supposed  that  a  lady  washes  to  become  clean,  but  simply  to 
remain  clean.  A  bathing  of  the  entire  body  at  least  once  a  day  is  essen- 
tial to  health.  It  is  not  necessary  to  have  a  bath  tub  for  this  purpose, 
but  merely  an  ordinary  basin  of  tepid  water,  with  soap,  sponge  and 
clean  towels. 

The  whole  body  may  be  quickly  sponged  off,  or  the  sponge  may  be 
dispensed  with,  and  the  hands  alone  used  to  convey  the  water  to  the 
body,  after  which  dry  the  body  thoroughly  with  a  soft  towel,  and  then 
use  a  coarse  Turkish  towel  vigorously  until  the  skin  is  red  from  the  fric- 
tion. In  lieu  of  the  coarse  towel,  a  liberal  use  of  the  flesh-brush  may  be 
made,  but  either  one  or  both  must  be  regularly  used,  as  nothing  tends 
to  keep  the  complexion  in  good  condition  so  much  as  the  daily  use  of 
the  flesh-brush. 

Persons  living  in  cities  where  Turkish  baths  are  established  will  find 
a  bath  of  this  kind  once  a  week  very  beneficial  to  their  health.  Oftener 
than  this  the  baths  would  be  apt  to  have  an  enervating  effect.  But  an 
occasional  Turkish  bath  is  the  most  effectual  cleanser  in  the  world. 

Early  rising  contributes  not  only  to  the  preservation  of  health, but  the 
proper  condition  of  the  mental  faculties.  Too  much  sleep  induces  minor 
ailments  both  of  the  body  and  mind.  Fresh  air,  moderate  exercise  and 
good  ventilation,  together  with  the  daily  bath,  are  the  great  health- 
preservers. 

THE  TEETH. — Scrupulous  care  is  necessary  to  the  preservation  of  the 
teeth.  The  teeth  should  be  carefully  brushed,  not  only  every  night  and 
morning,  but  after  every  meal. 

The  best  and  only  needful  tooth  powder  is  a  simple  preparation  of 
chalk.  The  numerous  dentifrices  advertised  are  most  of  them  worthless, 
and  many  of  them  positively  injurious. 

A  good  tooth-brush,  not  too  stiff,  is  necessary.  Very  hot  and  very 
cold  things,  and  a  great  deal  of  sweets  are  injurious  to  the  teeth. 

Upon  the  first  indication  of  decay,  a  good  dentist  should  be  consulted; 
cheap  dentistry  is  bad  economy. 

THE  BREATH. — It  goes  without  saying  that  a  sweet  breath  is  one  of 
the  essentials  of  happiness,  and  should  therefore  be  carefully  looked  to. 
The  principal  causes  of  a  bad  breath  are  a  disordered  stomach,  decaying 
teeth  and  catarrhal  affections.  In  the  latter  case  a  good  specialist  should 
be  consulted.  When  it  arises  from  digestive  difficulty,  the  diet  should 
be  changed  to  one  better  suited  to  the  system. 

The  eating  of  anything  that  will  give  an  unpleasant  odor  to  the  breath 
is  to  be  avoided. 

THE  NAiivS. — Much  care  and  attention  is  given  to  the  nails  by  those 
who  are  particular  in  matters  of  the  toilet.     Of  late  years  the  care  of  the 
U.  I.— 29 


450  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

nails  has  been  elevated  to  a  profession,  and  persons  calling  themselves 
"manicures"  make  it  their  business  to  dress  the  nails  of  ladies  of 
fashion. 

It  is  sufficient,  however,  if  you  keep  the  nails  carefully  and  evenly 
trimmed — great  care,  however,  being  required  to  preserve  the  correct 
shape,  and  keep  all  superfluous  skin  entirely  removed.  Plenty  of  warm 
water,  Windsor  soap  and  a  nail  brush  are  all  that  is  required  to  keep  the 
hands  in  good  condition. 

THE  HAIR. — The  hair  should  be  regularly  brushed,  morning  and 
evening,  with  a  clean  Hair  brush.  It  is  important  that  the  brushing  be 
frequent;  it  is  also  important  that  the  brush  be  quite  clean. 

The  brush  should  be  washed  every  day  with  hot  water  and  soda,  in 
order  to  preserve  a  glossy  appearance  to  the  hair.  Occasionally  the  hair 
may  be  cleaned  with  a  mixture  of  glycerine  and  lime  juice.  Pomades  and 
oil  should  be  carefully  avoided. 

Never  attempt  to  change  the  color  of  your  hair  by  means  of  dyes  and 
fluids.  Your  own  hair,  as  nature  colored  it,  is  apt  to  be  the  only  shade 
that  will  correspond  with  your  eyes,  eyebrows  and  complexion.  Practices 
of  this  kind  are  much  to  be  condemned.  They  indicate  a  senseless  de- 
sire for  fashion,  and  an  equally  unladylike  desire  to  attract  attention. 
The  use  of  hair  dyes,  false  hair,  etc.,  is  almost  as  much  to  be  condemned 
as  painted  cheeks  and  penciled  brows. 

THE  COMPLEXION. — As  to  the  art  of  obtaining  a  good  complexion, 
all  the  recipes  in  the  world  can  have  but  little  effect  compared  with  the 
effects  of  early  rising,  regular  habits,  careful  diet  and  absolute  cleanli- 
ness. The  various  lotions  recommended  by  Madame and  others 

of  her  ilk,  the  milk  bath,  pearl  powders  and  washes  of  every  kind,  would 
never  be  needed  if  ladies  were  always  careful  to  take  plenty  of  exercise 
in  the  open  air,  wear  broad  brimmed  hats  in  the  sun,  and  veils  in 
the  wind. 

The  face  should  never  be  washed  when  heated  from  exercise.  Wipe 
the  perspiration  from  the  skin,  and  wait  until  it  is  sufficiently  cool 
before  you  bathe  even  in  warm  water.  Rain  water  is  the  best  for 
bathing  purposes.  If  an  eruption  break  out  on  the  skin,  consult  a 
physician. 

ETIQUETTE  OF   THE   STREET. 

A  lady  will  bow  first  if  she  meets  a  gentleman  acquaintance  on  the 
street. 

A  lady  will  not  stop  on  the  street  to  converse  with  a  gentleman.  If 
he  wishes  to  chat  with  her  he  will  turn  and  walk  by  her  side  until  he 
has  finished  his  conversation,  then  raise  his  hat  and  leave  her. 

It  is  not  etiquette  for  a  lady  to  take  the  arm  of  a  gentleman  on  the 
street  in  the  day  time,  unless  he  be  a  lover  or  a  husband,  and  even  then 
it  is  seldom  done  in  America. 

In  England  it  is  permissible  for  a  lady  to  accept  the  arm  of  even  an 
ordinary  acquaintance  on  the  street.  In  foreign  cities  it  is  not  comme 
ilfaut  for  ladies  to  appear  on  the  street  at  all  without  a  gentleman. 

A  gentleman  escorting  two  ladies  may  offer  each  an  arm,  but  a  lady 
should  never  under  any  circumstances  walk  between  two  gentlemen  hold- 
ing an  arm  of  each. 

On  meeting  friends  or  acquaintances  on  the  street  or  in  public  places, 
you  should  be  careful  not  .to  call  their  names  so  loudly  as  to  attract  the 
attention  of  those  around. 


HEARTH  AND  HOME.  451 

Never  call  across  the  street,  and  never  carry  on  a  conversation  in  a  pub- 
lic vehicle  unless  you  are  seated  side  by  side. 

Gentlemen  should  never  stare  at  ladies  on  the  street. 

In  walking  with  a  lady  a  gentleman  should  take  charge  of  any 
small  parcel,  book,  etc.,  with  which  she  may  be  burdened. 

Never  recognize  a  gentleman  unless  you  are  perfectly  sure  of  his 
identity.  Nothing  is  more  awkward  than  a  mistake  of  this  kind. 

A  well-bred  man  must  entertain  no  respect  for  the  brim  of  his  hat. 
True  politeness  demands  that  the  hat  be  removed  entirely  from  the  head. 
Merely  to  nod  or  to  touch  the  brim  of  your  hat  is  a  lack  of  courtesy.  The 
body  should  not  be  bent  at  all  in  bowing. 

A  gentleman  will  always  give  a  lady  the  inside  of  the  walk  on  the 
street. 

Ladies  should  avoid  walking  rapidly  on  the  street,  as  it  is  un- 
graceful. 

A  gentleman  walking  with  a  lady  should  accommodate  his  step  to 
hers.  It  looks  exceedingly  awkward  to  see  a  gentleman  two  or  three 
paces  ahead  of  a  lady  with  whom  he  is  supposed  to  be  walking. 

Staring  at  people,  expectorating,  looking  back  on  the  street,  calling 
in  a  loud  voice,  laughing,  etc.,  are  very  bad  manners  on  the  street. 

A  gentleman  attending  a  lady  will  hold  the  door  open  for  her  to 
pass.  He  will  also  perform  the  same  service  for  any  lady  passing  in  or 
out  unattended. 

A  gentleman  may  assist  a  lady  from  an  omnibus,  or  over  a  bad  cross- 
ing, without  the  formality  of  an  introduction.  Having  performed  the 
service,  he  will  bow  and  retire. 

No  gentleman  will  smoke  when  standing  or  walking  with  a  lady 
on  the  street. 

A  quiet  and  unobtrusive  demeanor  upon  the  street  is  the  sign  of  a 
true  lady,  who  goes  about  her  own  affairs  in  a  business-like  way,  and  has 
always  a  pleasant  nod  and  smile  for  friends  and  acquaintances. 


HINTS  ON  TRAVELING. 

Consider  what  route  you  intend  taking  when  you  are  contemplating 
a  journey,  and  decide  definitely  upon  it.  Go  to  the  ticket  office  of  the 
road  and  procure  a  time-table,  where  you  will  find  the  hour  for  leaving, 
together  with  names  of  stations  on  the  road,  etc. 

When  you  intend  taking  a  sleeping-berth,  secure  your  ticket  for 
same  a  day  or  two  before  you  intend  starting,  so  as  to  obtain  a  desirable 
location.  A  lower  berth  in  the  center  of  the  car  is  always  the  most  com- 
fortable, as  you  escape  the  jar  of  the  wheels  and  drafts  from  the  opening 
door. 

Take  as  little  baggage  as  possible,  and  see  that  your  trunks  are 
strong  and  securely  fastened.  A  good,  stout  leather  strap  is  a  safeguard 
against  bursting  locks. 

In  checking  your  baggage,  look  to  the  checks  yourself,  to  make 
sure  the  numbers  correspond.  Having  once  received  your  check,  you 
need  not  concern  yourself  further  about  your  baggage.  The  company 
is  responsible  for  its  safe  delivery 

It  is  a  wise  precaution  to  have  your  name  and  address  carefully 
written  upon  any  small  article  of  baggage,  such  as  satchel,  umbrella, 
duster,  etc. ,  so  that  in  case  you  leave  them  in  the  car  the  railway  em- 
ployes may  know  where  to  send  them. 


452  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

An  overcoat  01  package  lying  upon  a  seat  is  an  indication  that  the 
seat  is  taken  and  the  owner  has  only  left  temporarily.  It  would  there- 
fore be  rude  in  you  to  remove  the  articles  and  occupy  the  seat. 

It  is  only  courteous  for  a  gentleman,  seeing  a  lady  looking  for  a  seat, 
to  offer  the  one  beside  him,  as  she  scarcely  likes  to  seat  herself  beside 
him  without  such  invitation,  although  she  will,  of  course,  if  there  are  no 
entirely  vacant  seats,  do  so  in  preference  to  standing. 

A  courteous  gentleman  will  also  relinquish  his  place  to  two  ladies, 
or  a  gentleman  and  lady  who  are  .together,  and  seek  other  accommoda- 
tions. Such  a  sacrifice  always  receives  its  reward  in  grateful  admiration 
of  his  character. 

I/adies  traveling  alone,  when  addressed  in  a  courteous  manner  by 
gentlemen,  should  reply  politely  to  the  remark;  and  in  long  journeys 
it  is  even  allowable  to  enter  into  conversation  without  the  formality  of 
an  introduction.  But  a  true  lady  will  always  know  how  to  keep  the  con- 
versation from  bordering  on  familiarity,  and  by  a  quiet  dignity  and  sudden 
hauteur  will  effectually  check  any  attempt  at  presumption  on  the  part 
of  her  strange  acquaintance. 

Always  consult  the  comfort  of  others  when  traveling.  You  should 
not  open  either  door  or  window  in  a  railway  coach  without  first  ascer- 
taining if  it  will  be  agreeable  to  those  near  enough  to  be  affected  by  it. 
Ladies,  in  particular,  should  remember  that  they  have  not  chartered  the 
whole  coach,  but  only  paid  for  a  small  fraction  of  it,  and  be  careful  not 
to  monopolize  the  dressing  room  for  two  or  three  hours  at  a  stretch, 
while  half  a  dozen  or  more  are  waiting  outside  to  arrange  their  toilets. 

Genteel  travelers  will  always  carry  their  own  toilet  articles,  and  not 
depend  on  the  public  brush  and  comb. 

A  lady  will  avoid  over-dressing  in  traveling.  Silks  and  velvets,  laces 
and  jewelry  are  terribly  out  of  place  on  a  railroad  train.  The  appoint- 
ments of  the  traveler  may  be  as  elegant  as  you  please,  but  they  should 
be  distinguished  by  exceeding  plainness  and  quietness  of  tone.  Some 
ladies  have  an  idea  that  any  old  thing  is  good  enough  to  travel  in,  and 
so  look  exceedingly  shabby  on  the  train. 

SUCCESS  AND  ITS  SECRETS 

While  it  is  impossible,  in  a  world  made  up  of  widely  differing  indi- 
viduals, to  formulate  a  set  of  rules  by  which  each  could  be  shown  the 
surest  and  swiftest  way  to  secure  success  in  life,  still  it  is  possible  to  call 
attention  to  certain  qualities  of  mind  and  character  whose  possession  has 
come  to  be  universally  looked  upon  as  essential  to  those  who  may  aspire 
to  struggle  into  the  front  rank  of  the  world's  workers.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  it  would  be  as  difficult  to  define  the  common  expression  ' '  success 
in  life"  as  it  would  be  to  lay  down  a  royal  road  which  leads  to  it.  Given 
a  hundred  definitions,  from  as  many  men,  each  treating  the  subject  from 
his  own  standpoint,  and  no  two  of  them  would  be  found  alike;  and  the 
opinion  of  each  of  these,  as  time  passed  along  with  its  inevitable  ups 
and  downs,  would  be  found  to  vary  considerably.  Flushed  with  recent 
success,  the  speculator  to-day  would  see  in  the  possession  of  millions  and 
in  the  control  of  vast  interests  the  only  proper  goal  for  a  man  of  his  great 
genius;  tamed  a  few  days  later  by  unexpected  reverses,  and  he  sees  in 
some  conservative  enterprise  the  fittest  sphere  of  his  future  usefulness. 
Perhaps,  then,  without  attempting  the  impossible,  in  a  definition  of  suc- 
cess in  life  which  will  fit  all  who  are  seeking  it,  it  will  do  to  look  upon  it 
as  the  accomplishment  of  the  laudable  life-purpose  of  a  man  of  natural 


HEARTH  AND  HOME.  453 

or  cultivated  parts,  who  has  found  an  object  in  life  worth  living  and 
working  for,  and  has  worked  honestly  and  perseveringly  to  attain  it. 
As  a  rule,  the  larger  the  endowment  of  those  faculties  which  go  to  build 
up  success  in  life,  the  higher  the  aim  which  accompanies  them;  but  it 
must  not  be  forgotten  that  man  is  the  most  cultivable  of  all  God's  creat- 
ures, and  that  by  careful  and  intelligent  study  of  the  qualities  which 
have  enabled  others  to  shine,  one  may  acquire  them  and  employ  them  in 
building  up  similar  accomplishments.  This  being  so,  it  does  not  lie  in 
the  power  of  the  young  man  who  feels  that  he  possesses  only  a  moderate 
share  of  intelligence,  force  and  ability,  to  decide,  on  this  account,  that 
he  is  not  called  upon  to  make  fight  for  one  of  the  front  places  in  the  life 
of  this  generation.  The  most  brilliant  lives  have  often  been  those  of  men 
of  ordinary  gifts,  who,  exerting  to  the  utmost  such  power  as  has  been 
given  them,  have  accomplished  more  than  hundreds  of  men  who  were 
much  more  bountifully  supplied  with  mental  qualifications.  If  any  man 
look  among  the  circle  of  his  acquaintances  he  will  be  surprised  to  see 
how  few  have  made  the  voyage  of  life  successfully,  and  sorrow  cannot 
but  arise  when  he  considers  the  impotent  conclusions  to  which  young 
men  of  brilliant  parts  frequently  come.  Every  day  witnesses  the  tri- 
umph of  patient  and  studious  mediocrity,  and  men  of  great  intellect  are 
constantly  being  forced  to  acknowledge,  with  surprise,  the  success  of 
persons  whose  abilities,  in  comparison  with  their  own,  have  been  deemed 
inconsiderable.  These  men  know  precisely  the  scope  of  their  faculties, 
and  never  wander  beyond  them.  They  wait  patiently  for  opportunities 
which  are  of  the  kind  they  can  improve,  and  they  never  let  one  pass  un- 
improved. Being  unnoticed,  they  excite  so  much  the  less  opposition, 
and  at  last  they  surprise  the  world  by  the  attainment  of  an  object  which 
others  deemed  as  far  away  from  their  ambition  as  it  seemed  beyond  their 
reach. 

HOW  TO  AVOID   FAILURE. 

It  is  a  common  thing,  with  both  the  brilliant  and  the  mediocre,  when 
the  reward  of  their  exertions  and  the  result  of  their  plans  seem  unsatis- 
factory, to  blame  the  ever-ready  scapegoat,  bad  luck,  as  the  cause  of  the 
untoward  outcome.  One  of  the  most  healthful  and  profitable  exercises 
which  a  young  man  who  has  just  experienced  failure  of  any  kind 
can  perform,  will  be  to  analyze  the  whole  transaction  with  merci- 
less candor,  finding  out  just  what  proportion  of  the  disaster  is  due 
to  his  own  fault  and  what  is  due  to  fortuitous  circumstances,  and 
then  make  a  cold-blooded  comparison.  If  this  was  more  generally  done 
than  it  is,  there  would  be  far  fewer  believers  in,  or  rather  blamers  of,  luck 
as  a  business  marplot  than  are  at  present  to  be  found.  To  come  down  to 
the  facts  in  the  case,  without  going  so  far  as  to  dispute  the  existence  of 
such  a  thing  as  chance,  in  almost  all  cases  of  failure  the  cause  is  to  be 
found  in  the  man,  and  the  reason  it  is  not  found  there  is  because  that  is 
the  last  place  in  which  the  man  hunts  for  it.  "Untoward  accidents," 
"fate,"  "destiny,"  "ill  fortune, "  "evil  star,"  "chance,"  "luck, "  or  some 
other  synonym  of  the  scapegoat,  suggests  itself  to  the  victim  of  ill-success 
and  he  consoles  himself  with  charging  upon  it  his  failure.  He  has  the 
poets  on  his  side,  too.  Does  not  Shakspeare  say: 

"There's  a  divinity  that  shapes  our  ends, 
Rough-hew  them  how  we  will." 

And  Byron: 

"Men  are  the  sport  of  circumstances,  when 
The  circumstances  seem  the  sport  of  men." 


454  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

And  after  all  has  been  said,  it  were  better,  perhaps,  that  the  young 
business  man  place  some  little,  very  little,  credence  in  luck's  existence, 
just  enough  in  fact,  to  cause  him  to  so  organize  upon  solid  and  substantial 
foundation  each  of  his  enterprises,  and  to  so  honestly  and  perseveringly 
conduct  them,  that  the  smallest  possible  loop-hole  will  be  left  for  ill-luck 
to  make  its  appearance. 

CHOOSING  AN  OCCUPATION. 

Is  seldom  an  easy  matter.  In  some  few  cases,  a  young  man  feels  the 
possession  of  such  an  unmistakable  bias  to  some  peculiar  profession  that 
neither  he  nor  his  friends,  have  any  hesitancy  in  deciding  upon  his 
future.  It  most  cases,  however  there  is  no  particular  preference,  and  a 
wise  decision  is  not  reached  before  many  considerations  have  been  care- 
fully weighed.  In  far  too  many  cases  wrong  considerations  are  given 
attention,  and  a  decision  is  reached  whose  ultimate  result  is  a  life  failure 
which,  had  the  profession  been  selected  with  greater  wisdom,  would  not 
have  happened.  A  socially  ambitious  father  and  mother  check  their 
young  son's  honest  ambition  to  become  a  mechanic,  send  him  to  college 
and  make  a  briefless  barrister  out  of  the  material  which  could  have  been 
moulded  into  an  honest  and  efficient  artisan.  Many  a  boy  whose  soul 
yearned  for  the  higher  walks  of  intellectual  culture,  to  share  in  which  he 
had  been  endowed,  has  been  doomed  by  injudicious  parents,  who  des- 
pised colleges,  to  dull  life  at  a  dry -goods  counter  or  counting-room  desk. 
Parents  are  not  by  any  means  infallible  judges  upon  this  point,  and  every 
young  man  about  to  start  out  in  search  of  success  in  life  should  study 
himself  carefully  in  order  to  discover  his  aptitudes.  The  natural  bent  may 
be  hard  to  find,  but  the  discovery  will  well  repay  the  search.  Historical 
biography  teems  with  the  lives  of  men  whose  peculiar  aptitude  was  early 
displayed  to  the  advantage  of  themselves  and  the  world.  Napoleon,  a 
school  boy  at  Brienne,  led  the  mimic  armies  of  his  youthful  associates; 
Nelson  had  conceived  the  idea  of  future  greatness  as  a  sailor  before  he 
entered  the  navy;  Pascal  contributed  to  the  mathematical  literature  of 
his  age  before  he  was  seventeen;  Pope  acknowledged  that 
"While  yet  a  child  and  still  a  fool  of  fame, 
I  lisped  in  numbers,  for  the  numbers  came;" 

Dryden  illustrated  the  growth  of  natural  aptitude  when  he  wrote: 

"What  the  child  admired 
The  youth  endeavored,  and  the  man  acquired;" 

Michael  Angelo  stayed  away  from  school  to  draw  pictures;  Murillo 
covered  his  text-books  with  them;  West,  at  seven,  plundered  the  cat's 
tail  of  hair  with  which  to  make  pencils;  Calhoun,  a  student,  held  his 
own  in  debate  with  the  college  president — and  so  on,  until  the  examples 
of  the  theory  of  natural  aptitude  become  too  numerous  for  recapitulation. 
Taking  for  granted  that  one  has  discovered,  or  believes  that  he  has 
discovered  his  bent,  he  must  beware  of  the  danger  which  lies  in  fickleness 
of  purpose,  which  may,  shortly  after  the  weariness  of  work  begins  to  be 
felt,  lead  him  to  suppose  that  he  has  chosen  unwisely,  and  that  some 
other  field  of  usefulness  would  be  more  suitable  to  his  temper  and  parts. 
It  is  the  practical  repetition  of  the  old  story  of  the  traveler  in  the  express 
train  sighing  for  the  quiet  pleasure  of  the  farmer,  whose  broad  fields  are 
flying  past,  while  the  farmer  looks  longingly  at  the  train  as  it  passes  by, 
and  dreams  of  the  enjoyable  excitements  of  a  life  of  endless  bustle,  stir 
and  energy.  Whatever  the  calling,  there  will  be  toil  and  trial  for  its 
follower,  and  these  come  from  him  rather  than  from  the  occupation, 
which  might  be  changed  a  dozen  times  in  the  vain  hope  of  escaping  from 


HEAR  TH  AND  HOME.  455 

Item.  Having  deliberately  selected  a  profession,  stick  to  it.  The  longer 
yc.u  remain  in  it,  the  more  expert  you  become  and  the  easier  becomes 
the  work  and  the  larger  the  pay.  It  is  only  the  early  days  which  bring 
weariness  and  pain.  These  conquered  by  perseverance,  the  rest  is  easy, 
and  the  success  in  conquering  the  first  pleadings  of  the  siren  fickleness 
of  purpose,  who  is  of  closer  kin  to  laziness  than  one  might  think,  lays 
the  corner-stone  of  success  in  life. 

EXCELSIOR! 

Having  chosen  his  occupation,  the  young  man  of  proper  ambition 
will  not  be  long  in  selecting  for  himself  an  honorable  position  in  it,  to 
be  filled  as  soon  as  he  has  shown  himself  worthy  and  able.  What  men 
have  accomplished  shows  that  hardly  any  ambitious  longing  can  be  con- 
sidered as  unwise  on  the  part  of  those  who  are  willing  to  undertake  all 
work  and  suffer  all  want  in  the  struggle. 

The  extremest  poverty  has  been  no  obstacle  in  the  way  of  men  de- 
voted to  the  duty  of  self-culture.  Professor  Alexander  Murray,  the  lin- 
guist, learned  to  write  by  scribbling  his  letters  on  an  old  wool-card  with 
the  end  of  a  burnt  heather-stem.  The  only  book  which  his  father,  who 
was  a  poor  shepherd,  possessed,  was  a  penny  Shorter  Catechism;  but, 
that  being  thought  too  valuable  for  common  use,  was  carefully  preserved 
in  a  cupboard  for  the*  Sunday  catechizings.  Professor  Moore,  when  a 
young  man,  being  too  poor  to  purchase  Newton's  "Principia,"  borrowed 
the  book,  and  copied  the  whole  of  it  with  his  own  hand.  Many  poor 
students,  while  laboring  daily  for  their  living,  have  only  been  able  to 
snatch  an  atom  of  knowledge  here  and  there  at  intervals,  as  birds  do  their 
food  in  wintertime  when  the  fields  are  covered  with  snow.  They  have 
struggled  on,  and  faith  and  hope  have  come  to  them.  A  well  known 
author  and  publisher,  William  Chambers,  of  Edinburgh,  speaking  before 
an  assemblage  of  young  men  in  that  city,  thus  briefly  described  to  them 
his  humble  beginnings  for  their  encouragement:  "I  stand  before  you," 
he  said,  "a  self-educated  man.  My  education  is  that  which  is  supplied 
at  the  humble  parish-schools  of  Scotland;  and  it  was  only  when  I  went 
to  Edinburgh,  a  poor  boy,  that  I  devoted  my  evenings,  after  the  labors  of 
the  day,  to  the  cultivation  of  that  intellect  which  the  Almighty  has  given 
me.  From  seven  or  eight  in  the  morning  till  nine  or  ten  at  night  was  I 
at  my  business  as  a  bookseller's  apprentice,  and  it  was  only  during  hours 
after  these,  stolen  from  sleep,  that  I  could  devote  myself  to  study.  I  did 
not  read  novels;  my  attention  was  devoted  to  physical  science  and  other 
useful  matters.  I  also  taught  myself  French.  I  look  back  to  those  times 
with  great  pleasure,  and  am  almost  sorry  I  have  not  to  go  through  the 
same  experience  again;  for  I  reaped  more  pleasure  when  I  had  not  a  six- 
pence in  my  pocket,  studying  in  a  garret  in  Edinburgh,  than  I  now  find 
when  sitting  amid  all  the  elegancies  and  comforts  of  a  parlor." 

William  Cobbett  learned  English  grammar  when  he  was  a  private 
soldier  on  the  pay  of  sixpence  a  day. 

These  are  men  who  have  selected  an  aim  in  life  and  have  attained  it 
through  sticking  to  it.  Concentration  of  purpose  carried  them  through. 
The  "Admirable  Crichtons"  are  scarce  geniuses,  and  no  young  man  need 
be  ashamed,  in  these  days  of  special  accomplishment,  of  having  decided 
to  follow  a  single  pursuit  in  life — to  become  a  man  of  one  idea — provided 
it  is  a  good  one.  Almost  all  the  great  men  in  war,  literature,  science, 
diplomacy,  business,  the  professions,  have  been  men  of  "one  idea,"  not 
because  they  were  incapable  of  harboring  more  than  one,  but  because, 
having  selected  some  one  object  as  worthy  of  attainment,  they 


V* 

456  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION 

gave  themselves  up  to  it  solely.  It  was  often  long  of  coming,  but  it  came 
at  last.  Adam  Smith  gave  ten  years  to  his  "Wealth  of  Nations;"  Edward 
Gibbon,  twenty  to  the  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  Bishop 
Butler,  twenty  to  his  famous  "Analogy;"  Kant,  fifty  years  to  his  meta- 
physical researches;  Dr.  Johnson,  seven  years  to  his  Dictionary.  These 
men  sought  one  prize  and  gained  it.  As  many  years  have  been  spent  by 
thousands  of  men  of  equal  ability,  who  sought  each  a  number  of  prizes 
and  gained  none. 

A  SOUND   BODY 

Is  another  of  the  essentials  of  success  in  life  which  are  largely  attainable 
by  those  who  lack  their  possession.  Mental  as  well  as  physical  accom- 
plishment depends  largely  upon  the  condition  of  the  worker's  digestion; 
and  the  thorough  aeration  of  his  blood.  This  can  only  be  obtained  with 
healthy  exercise,  which  can  only  be  taken  by  those  whose  muscles  and 
nerves  and  wind  are  in  good  condition.  "Walk  twelve  miles  before 
speaking  and  yon'll  never  break  down,"  says  Sydney  Smith  to  an  Eng- 
lish parliamentary  debater.  A  strong  intellect  cannot  well  work  with  a 
weak  body  as  its  case.  Energy  without  talent  will  accomplish  more 
than  talent  without  energy.  The  sharp  edge  of  the  woodman's  axe  avails 
nothing  until  the  sinewy  arm  throws  it,  stroke  upon  stroke,  against  the 
monarchs  of  the  forest.  Take  the  great  men  of  the  century,  and  it  will 
be  seen  that  they  combined  intellectual  force  with  physical  vigor.  In 
England,  Brougham,  Lyndhurst,  Peel,  Bright,  Gladstone,  Palmerston; 
in  America,  Webster,  Clay,  Calhoun,  Grant,  Sherman,  Sheridan,  Lincoln 
— all  these  were  men  capable  of  strong  muscular  exertion  and  of  standing 
a  prolonged  physical  as  well  as  mental  strain.  It  is  told  of  Lord 
Brougham  that  he  once  worked  six  days  on  a  stretch  without  sleep, 
slept  from  Saturday  night  to  Monday  morning,  and  began  work  again 
thoroughly  refreshed.  These  men  are  the  conservers  as  well  as  the  pos- 
sessors of  physical  force,  and  the  young  man  who  seeks  to  retain  the 
"  sound  mind  in  a  sound  body  "  will  remember  that  it  is  not  so  much  in 
the  cultivation  of  additional  body  strength  as  in  the  economy  of  what  he 
already  possesses  that  the  art  of  physical  culture  is  best  applied.  The 
idea  used  to  be  that  muscularity  and  rowdyism  were  natural  associates, 
but  people  found  out  that  it  is  possible  for  a  young  man  to  be  a  good 
rower,  or  boxer  even,  and  still  be  a  worthy  Christian  and  admirable 
member  of  society,  and  even  that  it  was  difficult  for  him  to  be  these  un- 
less with  the  employment  of  manly  exercises  he  brought  his  physical 
condition  up  to  the  healthy  standard.  This  is  merely  a  recurrence  to 
the  old  belief  of  the  Greeks,  who  reverence  the  muscular  body  as  one  of 
the  noble  parts  of  man,  and  made  gymnastics  and  calisthenics  a  regular 
school  exercise.  Without  good  health  and  a  sound  body,  moderate  suc- 
cess in  life  may  be  painfully  possible;  with  it  a  place  in  the  front  rank 
may  be  attained  with  far  greater  ease  that?  otherwise. 

£    —   f  SEI.F-REI/IANCE.)  "- 

Among  all  the  mental  qualifications  which  help  on  to  success  in 
life,  there  is  none  which  is  of  more  importance  than  self- reliance.  If  you 
want  a  thing  well  done,  do  it  yourself,  says  the  old  saw,  and  hence  comes 
it  that  those  who  rely  most  upon  themselves  for  the  accomplishment  of 
any  aim  are  the  ones  who  do  the  best  work.  "Heaven  helps  those  who 
help  themselves,"  is  a  well  tried  maxim,  embodying  in  small  compass  the 
results  of  vast  business  experience.  The  spirit  of  self-help  is  the  root  of  all 
genuine  growth  in  the  individual;  and,  exhibited  in  the  lives  of  many, 
it  constitutes  the  true  source  of  national  vigor  and  strength.  Help  from 


HEARTH  AND  HOME.  457 

without  is  often  enfeebling  in  its  effects,  but  help  from  within  invariably 
invigorates.  Whatever  is  done  for  men  or  classes,  to  a  certain  extent 
takes  away  the  stimulus  and  necessity  of  doing  for  themselves;  and 
where  men  are  subjected  to  over-guidance  and  over-government,  the 
inevitable  tendency  is  to  render  them  comparatively  helpless. 

It  is  energetic  individualism  which  produces  the  most  powerful 
effect  upon  the  life  and  actions  of  others,  and  really  constitutes  the  best 
practical  education.  The  determination  to  be  one's  own  helper  is  the 
secret  of  this  individual  development  and  strength.  No  greater  misfor- 
tune could  befall  an  ambitious  and  able  young  man  than  a  legacy.  A 
story  is  told  of  a  critic  who,  after  reviewing  the  promising  work  of  a 
young  artist,  praised  it,  but  added:  "It  is  a  pity  that  he  can  never  make 
a  great  painter."  "And  why  not?  "  rejoined  his  companion.  "Because 
he  has  ten  thousand  pounds  a  year,"  was  the  sententious  response. 
When  John  C.  Calhoun  was  ridiculed  by  his  fellow-students  at  Yale  for 
his  intense  application  to  study,  he  raised  a  louder  laugh  against  him- 
self by  replying,  "I  am  forced  to  make  the  most  of  my  time  that  I  may 
acquit  myself  creditably  when  in  Congress,"  and  then,  when  the  laugh 
was  over,  adding,  "I  assure  you,  if  I  were  not  satisfied  of  my  ability  to 
reach  Congress  in  three  years,  I  would  at  once  leave  college. ' '  Here 
was  self-reliance  and  self-help.  Calhoun  knew  the  difficulties  that  lay 
between  him  and  the  goal  of  his  ambition,  and,  while  the  other  students 
were  laughing  at  him,  he  was  helping  himself  to  overcome  them.  '  'The 
man  who  dares  to  think  for  himself  and  act  independently,  does  a  service 
to  his  race,"  says  one  of  the  brightest  modern  thinkers,  and  daily  ex- 
perience shows  that  it  is  energetic  individualism  which  produces  the 
most  powerful  effects  upon  the  life  and  action  of  others,  and  really  con- 
stitutes the  best  practical  education.  Schools,  academies  and  colleges 
give  but  the  merest  beginnings  of  culture  in  comparison  with  it.  Far 
more  influential  is  the  life-education  daily  given  in  our  homes,  in  the 
streets,  behind  counters,  in  workshops,  at  the  loom  and  the  plow,  in 
counting-houses  and  manufactories,  and  in  the  busy  haunts  of  men. 
This  is  that  finishing  instruction  as.  members  of  society  which  Schiller 
designated  "the  education  9f  the  human  race,"  consisting  in  action, 
conduct,  self-culture,  self-control — all  that  tends  to  discipline  a  man 
truly,  and  fit  him  for  the  proper  performance  of  the  duties  and  business 
of  life— a  kind  of  education  not  to  be  learned  from  books,  or  acquired 
by  any  amount  of  mere  literary  training.  With  his  usual  weight  of 
words,  Bacon  observes  that  "studies  teach  not  their  own  use;  but  that  is 
a  wisdom  without  them,  and  above  them  won  by  observation" — a  remark 
that  holds  true  of  actual  life  as  well  as  of  the  cultivation  of  the  intellect 
itself.  For  all  experience  serves  to  illustrate  and  enforce  the  lesson 
that  a  man  perfects  himself  by  work  more  than  by  reading— that  it  is 
life  rather  than  literature,  action  rather  than  study,  and  character  rather 
than  biography,  which  tend  perpetually  to  renovate  mankind. 

ATTENTION  TO   DETAII, 

Is  a  matter  which  constitutes  much  more  than  half  of  the  battle  in  many 
spheres  of  usefulness,  and,  the  more  intellectual  the  task,  the  greater  the 
necessity,  very  frequently,  of  careful  and  constant  devotion  to  the  little 
things  which  help  to  form  it.  Sedulous  attention  and  painstaking  in- 
dustry always  mark  the  true  worker.  The  greatest  men  are  not  those 
who  "despise  the  day  of  small  things,"  but  those  who  improve  them  the 
most  carefully.  Michael  Angelo  was  one  day  explaining  to  a  visitor  at 
his  studio  what  he  had  been  doing  at  a  statue  since  his  previous  visit.  "I 


458  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

have  retouched  this  part— polished  that  -  softened  this  feature— brought 
out  that  muscle— given  some  expression  to  this  lip,  and  more  energy  to 
that  limb."  "But  these  are  trifles,"  remarked  the  visitor.  "It  may  be 
so,"  replied  the  sculptor,  "but  recollect  that  trifles  make  perfection,  and 
perfection  is  no  trifle."  So  it  was  said  of  Nicholas  Poussin,  the  painter, 
that  the  rule  of  his  conduct  was,  that  '  'whatever  was  worth  doing  at  all 
was  worth  doing  well;"  and  when  asked,  late  in  life,  by  his  friend  Vig- 
neul  de  Marville,  by  what  means  he  had  gained  so  high'  a  reputation 
among  the  painters  of  Italy,  Poussin  emphatically  answered,  "Because 
I  have  neglected  nothing."  On  the  first  publication  of  Wellington's 
dispatches,  one  of  his  friends  said  to  him,  on  reading  the  records  of  his 
Indian  campaigns:  "It  seems  to  me,  Duke,  that  your  chief  business  in 
India  was  to  procure  rice  and  bullocks."  "And  so  it  was,"  replied 
Wellington,  "for,  if  I  had  rice  and  bullocks,  Ihadmen;  andiflhadmen 
I  knew  I  could  beat  the  enemy."  All  men  who  have  accomplished  suc- 
cess in  life  have  been  conspicuous  for  minute  attention  to  detail  as  well 
as  for  general  scope  and  vigor.  The  great  Napoleon  was  a  wonderful 
example  of  this.  His  correspondence  shows  him  arranging  for  supplies 
of  saddles,  directing  where  cattle  could  be  purchased,  advising  the  pro- 
curement of  shoes  for  the  infantry,  and  making  suggestions  as  to  various 
minor  details,  and  complaining  because  of  discovered  carelessness  in  the 
reports  upon  matters  of  detail  supplied  by  others.  Lord  Brougham, 
alluding  to  this  quality,  said:  "The  captain  who  conveyed  Napoleon  to 
Elba  expressed  to  me  his  astonishment  at  his  precise  and,  as  it  were, 
familiar  knowledge  of  all  the  minute  details  connected  with  the  ship." 

In  the  face  of  these  examples,  no  one  should  come  to  the  conclusion 
that  details  are  beneath  one's  notice,  or  that  one  is  less  brilliant  in  the 
great  things  of  life  because  he  pays  attention  to  the  little  things.  Of 
General  Thomas  it  is  said  that  he  was  careful  in  all  the  details  of  a  battle, 
but,  once  in  the  fight,  was  as  "furious  and  impetuous  as  Jackson."  At- 
tention to  details  makes  a  business  man,  or  any  other  kind  of  man,  "sure 
that  he  is  right,"  and  then,  of  course,  it  only  remains  for  him  to  "go 
ahead." 

>    «.  <Y  DECISION  OF  CHARACTER 

Is  one  of  the  greatest  of  God's  gifts  to  man,  and,  as  every  man  has  the 
germ  of  this  quality,  it  can  be  cultivated  to  great  advantage.  It  out- 
strips even  talent  and  genius  in  the  race  for  success  in  life.  Thousands 
and  thousands  of  brilliant  men  have  failed  for  the  want  of  courage,  faith 
and  decision,  perishing  in  the  sight  of  less  gifted,  but  more  adventur- 
ous competitors.  As  Sidney  Smith  says:  "We  must  not  stand  shivering 
on  the  brink  and  thinking  of  the  cold  and  the  danger,  but  jump  in  and 
scramble  through  as  well  as  we  can." 
The  old  poem  says: 

"He  either  fears  his  fate  too  much, 

Or  his  deserts  are  small, 
That  dares  not  put  it  to  the  touch, 
To  gain  or  lose  it  all." 

Decision  of  character  enables  one  to  do  the  right  thing  at  the  right 
time.  Every  one  knows  that 

"There  is  a  tide  in  the  affairs  of  men 
Which,  taken  at  the  flood,  leads  on  to  fortune;" 

but  not  every  one  has  the  ability  to  tell  the  time  of  flood,  and  many, 
after  telling  it,  have  lost  its  advantages  through  lack  of  nerve  to  em- 
bark upon  it  before  the  ebb  came,  and  the  opportunity  was  lost.  In  the 


HEARTH  AND  HOME.  459 

smoke  and  din  of  battle,  it  was  the  genius  of  Napoleon,  which  enabled 
him  to  see  where  one  or  two  bold  and  rapid  movements  would  secure 
the  advantage;  but  it  was  his  decision  of  character  which  enabled  him 
to  profit  to  the  full  by  the  discovery.  To  be  decisive  on  important  oc- 
casions, one  must  keep  cool.  The  Duke  of  Wellington's  calmness  never 
forsook  him,  even  in  the  most  trying  emergencies.  At  sea,  one  terrible 
night,  the  captain  of  the  vessel  rushed  to  the  Duke,  who  was  preparing 
for  bed,  and  announced  that  the  vessel  would  soon  sink.  "Then  I  shall 
not  take  off  my  boots,"  the  imperturbable  hero  of  Waterloo  responded  as 
he  paused  in  his  preparations  for  sleep.  There  is  need  for  this  coolness 
of  manner  and  decision  of  action  in  all  lines  of  business.  The  surgeon, 
brought  face  to  face  with  a  sudden  complication  in  the  case  beneath  his 
knife;  the  lawyer,  surprised  by  the  springing  of  the  trap  which  his  wily 
opponent  had  prepared  for  him;  the  merchant,  apprised  of  a  turn  in  his 
enterprises  that  threatens  immediate  disaster — all  are  called  upon  to 
exercise  this  quality,  and  in  thousands  of  cases  the  dullest  man  in  a 
company  has  obtained  the  prize  simply  because  he  grasped  it  while 
others  were  revolving  in  their  minds  what  they  had  better  do  in  order 
to  secure  it. 

NEVER  DESPAIR. 

Columbus  was  the  son  of  a  weaver,  and  a  weaver  himself.  Oliver 
Cromwell  was  the  son  of  a  brewer.  Howard  an  apprentice  to  a  grocer. 
Benjamin  Franklin,  a  journeyman  printer.  Claude  Lorraine  was  bred 
up  a  pastry  cook.  Moliere  was  the  son  of  a  tapestry  maker.  Cervantes 
served  as  a  common  soldier.  Homer  was  a  beggar.  Demosthenes  was 
the  son  of  a  cutler.  Terence  was  a  slave.  Daniel  De  Foe  was  a  hosier, 
and  the  son  of  a  butcher.  Whitefield,  son  of  an  inn-keeper.  Sir  Clou- 
desley  Shovel,  rear-admiral  of  England,  was  an  apprentice  to  a  shoe- 
maker, and  afterwards  a  cabin  boy.  Bishop  Prideaux  worked  in  the 
kitchen  at  Exeter  College,  Oxford.  Cardinal  Woolsey  was  the  son  of  a 
butcher.  Ferguson  was  a  shepherd.  William  Hogarth  was  but  an  ap- 
prentice to  an  engraver  of  pewter  pots.  Dr.  Mountain  was  the  son  of  a 
beggar.  Virgil,  son  of  a  porter.  Horace,  of  a  shop-keeper. 

TALENT   AND    FACT. 

To  excel  others  is  a  proof  of  talent;  to  know  when  to  conceal  su- 
periority is  the  fruit  of  tact.  Further  comparisons  of  these  qualities 
have  been  thus  set  forth  by  a  recent  English  writer: 

Talent  is  something,  but  tact  everything.  Talent  is  power— tact  is 
skill;  talent  is  weight— tact  is  momentum;  talent  knows  what  to  do  — 
tact  knows  how  to  do  it;  talent  makes  a  man  respectable— tact  will  make 
a  man  respected;  talent  is  wealth — tact  is  ready  money.  For  all  practi- 
cal purposes  of  life,  tact  carries  it  against  talent— ten  to  one.  Talent 
makes  the  world  wonder  that  it  gets  on  no  faster— tact  excites  astonish- 
ment that  it  gets  on  so  fast;  and  the  secret  is  that  it  has  no  weight  to 
carry;  it  makes  no  false  steps— it  hits  the  right  nail  on  the  head— it  loses 
no  time — it  takes  all  hints— and  by  keeping  its  eye  on  the  weather-cock, 
is  ready  to  take  advantage  of  every  wind  that  blows.  It  has  the  air  of 
commonplace,  aud  all  the  force  and  powers  of  genius.  It  can  change 
sides  with  hey-presto  movement  and  be  at  all  points  of  the  compass, 
while  talent  is  ponderously  and  learnedly  shifting  a  single  point.  Tal- 
ent calculates  clearly,  reasons  logically,  makes  out  a  case  as  clear  as  day- 
light, utters  its  oracles  with  all  the  weight  of  justice  and  reason.  Tact 
refutes  without  contradicting,  puzzles  the  profound  with  profundity,  and 
without  wit  outwits  the  wise.  Setting  them  together  on  a  race  for  popu- 


460  MANUAL  OF  USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

larity,  pen  in  hand,  and  tact  will  distance  talent  by  half  the  course. 
Talent  brings  to  market  that  which  is  wanted;  tact  produces  that  which 
is  wished  for.  Talent  instructs;  tact  enlightens.  Talent  leads  where  no 
man  follows;  tact  follows  where  humor  leads.  Talent  is  pleased  that  it 
ought  to  have  succeeded;  tact  is  delighted  that  it  has  succeeded.  Talent 
toils  for  a  posterity  that  will  never  repay  it;  tact  throws  away  no  pains, 
but  catches  the  drift  of  the  passing  hour.  Talent  builds  for  eternity, 
tact  on  short  lease,  and  gets  good  interest.  Talent  is  certainly  a  very 
fine  thing  to  talk  about,  a  very  good  thing  to  be  proud  of,  a  very  glori- 
ous eminence  to  look  down  from;  but  tact  is  useful,  portable,  applicable, 
always  marketable;  it  is  the  talent  of  talents,  the  availableness  of  re- 
sources, the  applicability  of  power,  the  eye  of  discrimination,  the  right 
hand  of  intellect. 

PARTING   COUNSElyS. 

Keep  good  company  or  none.  Never  be  idle.  If  your  hands  cannot 
be  usefully  employed,  attend  to  the  cultivation  of  your  mind.  Always 
speak  the  truth.  Make  few  promises.  Live  up  to  your  engagements. 
Keep  your  own  secrets,  if  you  have  any.  When  you  speak  to  a  person 
look  him  in  the  face.  Good  company  and  good  conversation  are  the 
very  sinews  of  virtue.  Good  character  is  above  all  things  else.  Your 
character  cannot  be  essentially  injured  except  by  your  own  acts.  If  one 
speak  evil  of  you,  let  your  life  be  such  that  none  will  believe  him. 
Drink  no  kind  of  intoxicating  liquors.  Always  live,  misfortune  excepted, 
within  your  income.  When  you  retire  to  bed,  think  over  what  you  have 
been  doing  during  the  day.  Make  no  haste  to  be  rich  if  you  would 
prosper.  Small  and  steady  gains  give  competency  with  tranquility  of 
mind.  Never  play  at  an}-  kind  of  game  of  chance.  Avoid  temptation 
through  fear  that  you  may  not  be  able  to  withstand  it.  Never  run  into 
debt,  unless  you  see  a  way  to  get  out  again.  Never  borrow  if  you  can 
possibly  avoid  it.  Never  speak  evil  of  any  one.  Be  just  before  you  are 
generous.  Keep  yourself  innocent  if  you  would  be  happy.  Save  when 
you  are  young  to  spend  when  you  are  old.  Never  think  that  which  you 
do  for  religion  is  time  or  money  mispent.  Read  some  portion  of  your 
Bible  every  day.  Often  think  of  death,  and  your  accountability  to  God, 
your  creator, 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 


A  BBOT  of  Westminster,  332. 
J\     Abbreviations,  List  of,  105-107. 
Abdicated  Monarchs,  310. 
Abdication,  Denned,  299. 
Abolition  Party,  269. 
Abracadabra,  315. 
Abydos,  332. 

Abyssinia,  Facts  on,  367,  369. 
Abyssinian  War,  200. 
Achates,  134. 
Acheron,  134. 
Achilles,  134. 
Acadie,  Story  of,  341. 
Acre,  What  is  an,  180. 
Acrostic,  Definition,  53. 
Actium,  Battle  of,  199. 
Adams,  Pres-  John,  26. 
Adams,  Pres.  John  Q.,  26. 
Adeler,  Max,  120. 
Adjectives,  Misuse  of,  57. 
Admirals,  Grades  of,  364. 
Adonis,  134. 

Advertisements,  The  First,  139. 
Advocatus  Diaboli,  The,  362. 
^Eneid,  Story  of,  115. 
^Eolus,  The  god,  134, 
yErolites,  Remarkable,  245. 
Afghanistan,  Facts  on,  367,  369. 
Africa,  368. 
Africanders,  298. 
Agamemnon,  134. 
Agapemone,  209. 
Age  of  Bronze,  295. 
Agency,  Laws  of,  250, 
Agents,  Liability  of,  249. 
Ages,  Historic,  49. 
Agreements,  Law  of,  251. 
Air  Gun,  Invention  of,  164. 
Air  Pump,  Invention  of,  164. 
Ajaccio,  336. 
Ajax,  134. 

Alabama  Question,  15,  17. 
Aladdin,  Plot  of,  112. 
Alastor,  Definition,  no. 
Albany,  City  of,  26. 
Albinos,  The,  380. 
Albion,  134. 
Alceste,   134. 

Alcohol,  In  Liquors,  144;  Name  of,  145. 
Alfred  the  Great,  328. 
Alhambra,  333. 
Ali  Baba,  Story  of,  113. 
Alien  and  Sedition  Laws,  14. 
Alien  Land  Holders,  30. 
Alleghany,  City  of,  267. 
Allegory,  Explained,  55. 
Alliteration,  Gems  of,  323. 
Alloway,  335. 
Almack's  Club,  337. 
Alma  Mater,  349. 
"  Almighty  Dollar,"  165. 
Alpaca,  Description,  141. 


Alphabet,  Derivation  of,  315;    Origin  of  the, 

55 ;  The  Runic,  54. 
Alsatia,  335. 
Altar,  the  First,  205. 
Alto  in  Music,  286. 
Alum,  Dry,  244. 
Amadis  of  Gaul,  340. 
Amalekites,  378. 
Ambassadors,  Rank  of,  363. 
Amber,  145. 
Ambergris,  143. 
Amen  Corner,  338. 
America,  Discovery  of,    n,  12;   First   things 

in,  ii,  12;  Prehistoric,  380. 
Americanisms,  54. 
Amerigo  Vespucci,  339. 
Amethyst,  133. 
Ammonia,  Uses  of,  426. 
Amphion,  134. 
Amphitrite,  134. 
Amsterdam,  City  of,  329. 
Amulets,  127. 
Anagram,    Definition     and     Specimens,    55; 

Some  Curious,  320. 
Anastatic  Printing,  164. 
Ancho,  127. 

Anchor,  Invention  of,  164. 
Ancient  Mariner,  The,  112. 
Ancomarca,  Custom  House  of,  328. 
Andromache,  134. 
Andromeda,  134. 
Anemometer,  Invention  of,  164. 
Angelus  Bell,  207. 
Anglesey,  How  Named,  331. 
Animals,  Migration  of,  233. 
Animism,  380. 
Annexation,  271. 
Annie  Laurie,  335. 
Anniversaries,  Wedding,  353. 
Anstey,  F.,  120. 
Antarctic,  Meaning  of,  232. 
Anthracite  Coal,  142. 
Anthropology,  375. 
Anthropophagi,  The,  376. 
Anthropophagy,  355. 
Antichrist,  207. 
Antietam,  The  River,  191 
Antigone,  134. 
Anti- Renters,  17. 
Anti-Semites,  299. 

Antonyms,  Twelve  Thousand,  73-97. 
Ants,  To  Destroy,  439. 
Anvil,  The  Largest,  153. 
Apache  War,  27. 
Aphelion,  What  is,  225. 
Aphorisms,  53. 
Aphrodite,  Her  name,  126. 
Apis,  134. 

Apocalyptic  Number,  317. 
Apocrypha,  Bible,  214. 
Apollo,  The  god,  134. 
Apophthegms,  53. 


461 


462 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 


Apoplexy  and  Fits,  444. 

Apothecaries'  Weight,  182. 

Apotheosis,  125. 

Apostle  Spoons,  353. 

Apostles,  Fate  of  the,  218. 

Appian  Way,  156. 

Aqua  Fortis,  244. 

Aqua  Regia,  244. 

Arabian  Nights,  The,  112. 

Arachne,  134. 

Arbor  Day,  42. 

Arbor  Vitse,  372. 

Arcades,  351. 

Archduke  and  Archduchess,  362. 

Architecture,  As   Fine  Art,  284;    Byzantine, 

286 ;  Orders  of,  285 ;  Saracenic,  287. 
Arctic,  Described,  232. 
Area  Center  of  the  United  States,  19. 
Area  of  Circles,  184. 
Arethusa,  134. 
Argentina,  367,  369. 
Argus,  The  Hundred- Eyed,  134. 
Ariadne,  134. 
Arion,  134. 
Arithmetic,  Curious  Problems  in,  315,  316,323, 

326. 

Armies,  In  Civil  War,  35. 
Armistice,  An,  191. 
Army,  Generals  of  the  U.  S.,  27. 
Army,  The  Salvation,  219. 
Army  Worm,  227. 
Aroostook  War,  27. 
Arrack,  What  is,  146. 
Art,    Caricature    in,  288 ;    Cartoons   in,    285 ; 

Realism  in,  285 ;  Realistic,  285 ;  Love  of, 

286. 

Art  Divine,  The,  290. 
Artesian  Wells,  247,  328. 
Arthur,  Pres.  C.  A.,  26. 
Artisans,  Hints  for,  160. 
Asia,  Continent  of,  368. 
Astor,  The  China,  372. 
Atalanta,  134. 
Atheism,  205. 
Athens,  Maid  of,  113. 
Atlanta,  City  of,  26. 
Atlantic  Cable,  n. 
Atmosphere,  228. 
Attorneyship,  Laws  of,  256. 
Auctioneers,  Ways  of,  142. 
Auctions,  Theory  of,  148. 
Aurora,  The  goddess,  134. 
Aurora  Borealis,  243. 
Australasia,  368. 
Australian  Ballot,  276. 
Austria- Hungary,  367,  369. 
Austrian  Serfdom,  33. 
Autocrat,  Defined,  306. 
Autumn,  43. 
Avebury  Stones,  376. 
Ave  Maria  Lane,  338. 
Avoirdupois  Weight,  182. 
Aztecs,  The,  380. 

ABEL,  Tower  of,  375. 

Babelmandeb,  Straits  of,  332. 

bylon,  Hanging  Gardens  of,  346. 
Babylonian  Captivity,  314 
Babylonians,  378. 
Bacchus,  The  Pagan,  134. 
Bacchus  and  the  Goat,  126. 
Balaklava,  Charge  of,  196. 


Balloon,  The  First,  225. 

Balloons,  Famous,  164. 

Baltimore,  City  of,  26. 

Banking,  Capital  in,  167;  Our  System  of,  175. 

Bank-Notes,  166. 

Bankrupts,  The  Term,  168;  Laws  Concerning, 

Banks,  National,  165-176;  Of  England,  168. 

Barbarossa,  296. 

Barberini  Vase,  291. 

Barmecides'  Feast,  no. 

Barn- Burners,  17,  272. 

Barnum,  P.  T.,  327. 

Barometers,  164,  225. 

Barrels,  Measure  of,  186. 

Barry  Cornwall,  314. 

Barry,  The  Artist,  292. 

Barter,  History  of,  143. 

Bartholomew  Fair,  338. 

Bashi-Bazouks,  195. 

Basques,  Race  of,  378. 

Bastille,  The  French,  333. 

Bastinado,  The,  305,  350. 

Bathing,  390,  411. 

Bathos,  56. 

Battalions,  Military,  189. 

Battles,  Seven  Days',  192;  Of  Lissa,  193; 
Wager  of,  196;  Losses  in,  197;  Of  the 
Civil  War,  197. 

Baumann's  Cavern,  328. 

Bay  of  Fundy,  327. 

Bay  Rum,  434. 

Beans,  Black  and  White,  352. 

Beauty  and  the  Beast,  114. 

Bed  Bugs,  440. 

Bed  of  Justice,  303. 

Bede,  Cuthbert,  120. 

Bedlam,  336. 

Bedouins,  381. 

Beelzebub,  Title  of,  211. 

Befana,  128. 

Beguines,  Order  of,  216. 

Begum,  Title  of,  362. 

"  Bel  and  the  Dragon,"  in. 

Belgae,  The,  377. 

Belgium,  Facts  on,  367,  369. 

Belial,  207. 

Bell,  Currer,  120. 

Bell,  On  Shipboard,  45. 

Bellerophon,  134. 

Bellona,  The  goddess,  134. 

Bellows,  Invention  of,  164. 

Bells,  The  Largest,  154;  The  Angelus,  207. 

Beluchistan,  367,  359. 

"Belvedere,  The,  327.  . 

Berenice,  134. 

Berlin  Congress,  The,  305. 

Berlin,  Treaty  of,  305,  308. 

Berserker,  The  Hero,  128. 

Besique,  Game  of,  354. 

Bessemer  Steel,  Invention  of,  153. 

Bey,  Title  of,  360. 

Bezants,  178. 

Bible,  53;  Apocrypha  of,  214;  Bishops',  206; 
Breeches,  208;  Coverdale's,  207;  Five 
Kings,  218;  Gutenberg,  213  ;  Meaning  of, 
109 ;  Newton  on  the,  206 ;  Peculiarities  of, 
213 ;  Societies,  217 ;  Some  Costly,  109 ;  The 
Douay,  211 ;  The  Eddas,  218;  The  Koran, 
218;  The  Treacle,  206;  The  Vedas,  218; 
The  Zendevesta,  218;  Try  Pitikes,  218. 

Biblioklept,  no. 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 


Bibliomancy,  112. 

Bibliomania,  115. 

Bickerstaff,  Isaac,  120. 

Bierstadt,  The  Artist,  293. 

Bilge,  Ship's,  354. 

Billiards,  Origin  of,  351. 

Billings,  Josh,  120. 

Bills  of  Sale,  264. 

Bi-metallism,  167. 

Binnacle,  Ship's,  226. 

Biographers,  Prince  of,  109. 

Biography,  in. 

Biology,  231. 

Bird  Lime,  144. 

Bird's  Eye  Views,  287. 

Birds, Flight  of  ,226 ;  Ages  of,3So ;  Singing  of  ,350 

Births,  Illegitimate,  392. 

Bismarck,  Prince,  331. 

Bison,  The  American,  14. 

Bitumen,  143. 

"  Black  Art,"  The  Term,  126. 

Black  Boards,  To  Make,  162. 

Black  Death,  The,  391. 

Black,  George,  334. 

Black  Hawk,  The  Indian,  330;  War  of,  27. 

Black  Hole,  339. 

Black  Letter,  112. 

Black  Thursday,  356. 

Black  Watch,  The,  296. 

Blank  Verse,  113. 

Blarney  Castle,  331. 

Blasting,  Described,  156. 

Blenheim,  Battle  of,  199. 

Blind  Persons,  388 ;  Numbers  of  389. 

Blisters,  Use  of,  391. 

Blizzards,  235. 

Block  House,  The  Term,  190. 

Block-system,  The,  144. 

Blood,  The,  393,  Functions  of,  393. 

Blood  Money,  301. 

Bloodstone,  The,  133. 

Blouses,  352. 

Blowpipes,  231. 

Bluebeard,  Story  of,  117. 

Blue  Books,  The,  273. 

Blue  Stockings,  112. 

Blue  Vitriol,  244. 

Blunders,  Milton's,  109;  Of  Novelists,  no. 

Boarding,  Naval  Term,  192. 

Boarding-House  Laws,  263. 

Boasting,  Habit  of,  425. 

Bocaccio,  Costly  Edition  of,  109. 

Bodleian  Library,  125. 

Body,  In  Flames,  441 ;  A  Sound,  456. 

Boers,  The,  380. 

Bog  Oak  Ornaments,  155. 

Bogus,  Definition  of,  168. 

Boiling  Point,  238. 

Bokhara,  Facts  on,  367,  369. 

Bolas,  194. 

Bolivia,  Republic  of,  367,  369. 

Bombardments,  Heavy,  195. 

Bonds,  Law  of,  263. 

Bonheur,  Rosa,  292. 

Bonnet  Rouge,  303. 

Bonny  Doon,  335. 

Bonzes,  The,  208. 

Books,  Canonical,  206 ;  Chap  no;    Costliest, 

122 ;    The   Earliest,   109 ;    The  First,  122 ; 

Honors  Among,   122;    Invention  of,  109; 

The  Largest,    122;    The    Sibylline,   127; 

Sizes  of,  185. 


Bookseller's  Terms,  185. 

Boom,  The  Term,  167. 

Boomerang,  The,  193. 

Boot  of  Prussia,  The,  295. 

Booty,  Definition  of,  190. 

Border  States,  13. 

Boreas,  134. 

Borough,  English,  376. 

Boss,  The  Term,  362. 

Boston,  City  of,  26. 

Boston  Tea  Party,  299. 

Bottle  Charts,  232. 

Bottles,  Corking,  437. 

Boulders  and  Cliffs,  234. 

Boulevards,  359. 

Bow  and  Arrows,  195. 

Bowie- Knives,  153. 

Bowstring,  The,  350. 

Boxing-Day,  353. 

Boycotting,  302. 

Braganza  Diamond,  370. 

Braidism,  Defined,  236. 

Brain,   Compression  of,  443 ;  Weight  of,  391. 

Bramah,  Joseph,  337. 

Branding,  297. 

Brassware,  Cleaning,  438. 

Bravest  of  the  Brave,  The,  189. 

Brazil,  U.  States  of,  367,  367. 

Brazil  Grass,  325. 

Breath,  Bad,  432. 

Breeding,  Good,  424. 

Breitman  Hans,  120. 

Breviary  and  Missal,  214. 

Brevet,  Rank  by,  366. 

Briareus,  134. 

Bricks,  Color  of,  143 ;   Use  of  Burnt,  152. 

Bride  of  Abydos,  332. 

Bride  of  the  Sea,  298. 

Bridges,  Noted,  159;  Highest  Natural,  328;  Of 

Sighs,  329,  332. 
Britain,  Invasion  of,  189. 
British  Lion,  The,  302. 
British  Museum  Library,  122. 
Broadcloth,  To  Clean,  394,  435. 
Broadside,  A  Naval,  192. 
Brochs,  377. 
Brocken,  The,  334. 
Broken  Limbs,  388. 
Broker  and   Brokerage,  175;  Curbstone,   175: 

Bull  and  Bear,  56. 
Bronchitis,  399. 
Brook  Farm,  356. 
Brooklyn,  City  of,  26. 
Brooms,  To  Preserve,  438. 
Broque,  Definition  of,  55. 
Brose,  Scottish  Dish,  355. 
Brown,  F.  Madox,  292. 
Brownie,  The,  130. 
Buccaneers,  The,  300,  306. 
Bucentaur,  The  Galley,  129,  302. 
Bucephalus,  Story  of,  126. 
Buchanan,  Pres.  James,  26. 
Bucktails,  The,  17. 
Buddhists,  Who  they  are,  208. 
Budget,  Explained,  166. 

Buffalo,  Population  of,  26 ;  True  Name  of,  14. 
Bug  Poison,  440. 
Buildings,    Public,    359;    The    Largest,   359; 

Prehistoric,  377. 
Bul-bul,  The  Turkish,  no. 
Bulgaria,  Kingdom  of,  367. 
Bulgarian  Atrocities,  195,  298. 


464 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 


Bull,  John,  302. 

Bulls  and  Bears,  56,  175. 

Bulls,  Papal,  211. 

Bui  wer- Clay  ton  Treaty,  270. 

Bungalows,  351. 

Bunkum,  The  Term,  56. 

Buonarotti,  M.  Angelo,  292. 

Buoyancy,  The  Term,  233. 

Burns,  Remedy  for,  441. 

Burns,  Robert,  Monument  to,  335  J  Birthplace 

of,  335. 

Burnt  Brick,  First  Use  of,  152. 
Burritt,  Elihu,  333. 
Busiris,  134. 

By- Products  of  Coal,  148. 
Byzantine  School,  The,  292. 
Byzantines,  178. 

SABAL,  Political,  273. 
Cabbala,  The,  212. 
binets,  Government,  274. 
Cable,  The  Atlantic,  n. 
Cade,  Jack,  335. 
Cadmus,  56,  135. 
Caduceus,  135. 
Caesarism,  Rule  of,  271. 


, 

"  Ca  ira,"  The,  304. 
Cairn,  The  "  '  '       ' 


ic  Celtic,  381. 

Caissons,  Engineering,  155,  156. 

Calends,  The,  44. 

Calaveras  Grove,  331. 

Calderon,  P.  H.,  292. 

Caledonia,  335. 

Calendars,  Adjustment  of,  51 ;  French  Repub- 
lican, 46 ;  Historical,  47. 

Calif,  Title  of,  365. 

Calisthenics,  390. 

Calomel,  244. 

Calumet,  The,  375 

Calvinists,  301. 

Calypso,  135. 

Cambridge,  City  of,  26. 

Camel,  The  Engineering,  164,  351. 

Camelia,  The,  372. 

Camels,  Strength  of,  228. 

Camden,  City  of,  26. 

Cameos,  283. 

Camera -Lucida,  164. 

Camera -Obscura,  Described,  286:  Invention 
of,  164. 

Camisards,  The,  301. 

Camp  Followers,  194. 

Camp  Meetings,  210. 

Canaletti,  The  Artist,  293. 

Candelabra,  285. 

Candytuft  The,  372. 

Candlemas,  Feast  of,  216. 

Cannibalism,  355. 

Cannon,  Invention  of,  164. 

Canonical  Books,  206. 

Canonization,  207. 

Canons,  Ecclesiastical,  352. 

Canton,  The  Municipal,  350. 

Capacity,  Measures  of,  186. 

Cap-a-pie,  The  Term,  190. 

Capital,  Our  National,  15. 

Capital  Letters,  65. 

Capitals  of  States,  19. 

Cap  of  Liberty,  300. 

Caps,  Percussion,  189. 

Caracci,  Annibale,  292. 

Carat,  What  is  a,  178. 


Carbonari,  The,  302. 

Card- Playing,  289. 

Cardinal,  Rank  of,  335. 

Cardinals,  College  of,  218. 

Carey,  William,  Rev.,  329. 

Caricature,  288. 

Carillon  National,  The,  304. 

Carmagnole,  The,  301,  303,  304. 

Carnation,  White,  372. 

Carmen  Sylva,  120. 

Carnegie,  Andrew,  328. 

Carol,  The  Poetic,  353. 

Carpet  Baggers,  14. 

Carpets,  To  Cleanse,  428. 

Carpets,  Stains  in,  438. 

Carte  Blanche,  300. 

Cartel,  What  is  a,  190. 

Cartesian  Doctrines,  207. 

Cartoons,  285,  287. 

Cartouch,  Military,  192. 

Caryatides,  Architectural,  285. 

Casa  Bonaparte,  336. 

Casino,  The  Term,  353. 

Casks,  Measure  of,  186. 

Cassandra,  135. 

Castanets,  287. 

Caste,  In  India,  371,  376. 

Castles  in  Spain,  351. 

Casting  Vote,  273. 

Castor  and  Pollux,  135. 

Casus  Belli,  192. 

Catamaran,  154. 

Catarrh,  Treatment  of,  399. 

Cathay,  327. 

Cattle,  Weight  of,  186 ;  Distribution  of,  377. 

Caucus,  Political,  273. 

Caustic  Potassa,  244. 

Cavaliers,  304. 

Caveats,  29. 

Caves,  Famous,  12,  16. 

Caviare,  141, 

Celts,  Race  of,  377. 

Cement,    For   Rubber    Boots,   160:    For  Tin 

Boxes,  435,  For  Sundry  Uses,  436,  437. 
Cenobites,  Father  of  the,  343. 
Centaurs,  The  135. 
Center  of  Population,  19. 
Cerberus,  135. 
Ceres,  The  goddess,  135. 
Chairs,  Sedan,  157. 
Chaldeans,  The,  378. 
Chalets,  Swiss,  351. 
Chalk,  244. 

Chamberlain,  Office  of,  361. 
Chambers  of  Commerce,  142. 
Chambre  Ardente,  297. 
Champ  de  Mars,  The,  311,  330. 
Chancery,  Masters  in,  361. 
Changelings,  Fairy,  126. 
Chant  du  Depart,  304. 
Chap  Books,  Described,  no. 
Chapels,  Origin  of,  207. 
Chapter,  What  is  a,  207. 
Character,  Decision  of,  458. 
Charades,  355. 
Charge  d'affaires,  362. 
Charing  Cross,  330. 
Charivari,  353. 
Charles  XII.,  333. 
Charlemagne  University,  328. 
Charon's  Ferry,  135. 
Chartists,  The,  303. 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 


46$ 


Charybdis  and  Scylla,  135. 

Chassepot  Gun,  190, 

Chatelaine,  362. 

Chat-huant,  362. 

Chatterton,  Thomas,  331. 

Chauvinism,  352. 

Chemical  Affinity,  227. 

Chemicals,  Names  of,  244. 

Cheops,  Pyramid  of,  158. 

Cherokee  Indians,  32. 

Cherokee  War,  27. 

Chess,  Game  of,  353. 

Chest,  Military,  190. 

Chevalier,  The  Title,  363. 

Chicago,  139;  Industries  in,  140;  Age  of,  327; 

Great  Fire  of,  296 ;  Population  of,  334. 
Chickasaw  Indians,  32. 
Chicopee  Works,  154. 
Childs,  George  W.,  328. 
Chile,  Republic  of,  367,  369. 
Chillon,  Castle  of,  331. 
Chimera,  135. 
Chimneys,  Lamp,  438. 
China,  History  of,  349;    Opium  Smokers  in, 

393;    Printing  in,  152;    Religions  in,  208 ; 

Statistics,  369,  381;  Taouism  in,  209;  The 

Great  Wall  of,  151. 
Chinese  History,  349. 
Chiswick,  329. 
Chloroform,  244. 
Choctaw  Indians,  32. 
Choke -Damp,  228. 
Choking,  443. 
Chouans,  362. 

Christ,  Early  Paintings  of,  285. 
Christian  Era,  42. 
Christian  Feasts,  Chief,  46. 
Christianity,  Art  in,  285. 
Christian  Names,  Meaning  of,  66. 
Christmas  Day,  43. 
Chronicles,  42. 
Chronographs,  42. 
Chronometer,  The,  42. 
Chronoscopes,  41,  164. 
Chubb  Lock,  Invention  of,  153 
Churches,  Crypts  in,  206;  Eldest  Son  of,  296; 

Fathers  of  the,  207 ;  The  Oldest,  205. 
Cid  Campeador,  332. 
Cigar- Ship,  The  First,  152. 
Cipher,  History  of,  54. 
Cimbre,  The,  (Cymri)  350,  375. 
Cimmerians,  The,  376. 
Cincinnati  Association,  274. 
Cincinnati,  City  of  26. 
Cinderella,  Story  of,  113. 
Cinque-Cento,  The,  no. 
Circe,  135. 

Circus,  Origin  of,  128. 
Cities,  Nicknames  of,  22 ;  Our  fifty  chief,  26 ; 

Famous  Ancient,  343. 

Civil  Service,  Guide  to,  27 ;  The  Term,  271. 
Civil  War,  Armies  of,  35. 
Claimant,  The  Tichborne,  342. 
Claque,  Theatrical,  355. 
Clavichord,  285. 
Claymore,  Use  of,  193. 
Clearing  House,  167. 
Clement,  Joseph,  330. 
Clepsydra,  The,  42. 
Cleopatra's  Needles,  324,  348. 
Clergy,  Secular,  209. 
Cleveland,  City  of,  26, 

U.  I.— 30 


Cleveland,  Pres.  Grover,  26. 

Cliffs  and  Boulders,  234. 

Climates  in  the  U.  S.,  18. 

Clipper  Ships,  141. 

Clocks,  Dials  of  our,  228 ;  Electric,  164 ;  First, 
41;  In  Japan,  43;  Invention  of,  42,  164; 
Twenty- four  hour,  41. 

Closure,  Described,  269  J  Origin  of,  272. 

Cloth,  Waterproof,  161. 

Cloth  Mills,  144. 

Clover,  372. 

Clubs,  History  of,  352. 

Club  Breton,  The,  297. 

Clytemnestra,  135. 

Coagulation,  391. 

Coal,  By- Products  of,  148;  Production  of,  149: 
Weight  of,  184. 

Coal  Fields,  American,  24;  The  World's,  149. 

Coal  Shaft,  Deepest,  330. 

Coalition,  Defined,  270. 

Coastguard,  British,  143. 

Cockade,  Origin  of,  350. 

Cockatrice,  The,  127. 

Cock-Figfiting,  351. 

Cockney,  The  Term,  350. 

Cock  Pit,  The,  190,  191. 

Cockroaches,  To  Kill,  439. 

Codfish,  Fecundity  of,  227. 

Cod  Liver  Oil,  390. 

Coffee,  Uses  of,  411;  As  Food,  419;  Consump- 
tion of,  140. 

Coffee  House,  Wills',  338. 

Cog -Wheels,  The  First,  156. 

Coinage,  Story  of  our,  187. 
Coins,  Bezants,  178 ;  Cromwellian,  177  J  Den- 
arius,  178  ;    First  Gold,   177  ;    Japanese, 
177;  Picayune,  178;  Rupee,  178;  Value  of 
Foreign,  181. 
Cold  Feet,  387. 

Colds,  Care  of,  387 ;  To  Break  Up,  388,  297 ; 
How    to   Catch,   404;   Quinine    for,   410  \ 
Feeding  of,  411. 
Colic,    Treatment,    388;     Wind,    389;    Lead, 

400. 

College  of  Cardinals,  218. 
Cologne  Water,  433. 
Colombia,  U.  S.  of,  367. 
Colonial  System,  271. 
Colophon  of  Books,  54. 
Colors,   Harmony  of,  162;    Mixing    of,   163; 

Relations  of,  162 ;  Symbolism  of,  293. 
Color- Blindness,  392. 
Colosseum,  The,  344. 
Colossus  of  Rhodes,  346. 
Columbian  College  Library,  122. 
Columbine,  no. 
Columbus,  City  of,  26. 
Columbus,  Discovery  by,  n. 
Comets,  230. 
Comity  of  Nations,  271. 
Commandant,  Military,  362. 
Commander- in -Chief,  364. 
Commercial  Paper,  252. 
Commercial  Traveler,  141. 
Commission  Agents,  140. 
Committee,  Defined,  271. 
Commoners,  British,  361. 
Commune,  The,  309. 
Communism,  312. 
Como,  392. 

Compass,  The  Mariner's,  226. 
Composition,  Hints  on,  108. 


466 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 


Compound  Interest,   Wonders  of,   174;   Daily 

Savings  at,  174;  Accumulation  of,  174. 
Comus,  135 

Concertinas,  Origin  of,  286. 
Concordat,  Defined,  298. 
Concussion,  443. 
Condottieri,  297, 
Confederation  of  Rhine,  298. 
Conference,  General,  209 ;  International,  165. 
Confucius,  Name  of,  126. 
Congress,  Duties  of,   281;  Journals  of,    269; 

Library  of,  122. 
Conservatives,  272. 
Consistories,  207. 
Constellations,  The,  234. 
Consul,  Office  of,  365. 
Consumption,  388,  397. 
Continental  System,  299. 
Continents,  Area  of,  368 ;  Population  of,  368. 
Contraband  of  War,  194. 
Contracts,  Sunday   249. 
Contracts  and  Agreements,  250. 
Contusions,  How  Healed,  442.  « 

Conversation,  Guide  to,  424 ;  Extravagance  in, 

425 ;  Art  of,  429. 
Convocation,  210. 
Conway,  Hugh,  120. 
Coolies,  376. 
Cooling  off,  387. 
Copernican  System,  236. 
Copperas,  244.  % 

Copperheads,  12. 
Copyright,  119. 
Corners,  Financial,  175. 
Corns,  How  to  Cure,  433. 
Cornucopia,  The,  128. 
Cornwall,  Barry,  120. 
Cornwallis,  355. 
Corporal  John,  361. 
Corporations,    Laws    of,  264;    What   are 

Close,  269. 

Corpus  Christi  Day,  338. 
Correct  Pronunciation,  64. 
Correct  Speaking-,  Rules  for,  57,  63. 
Corrosive  Sublimate,  244. 
Corsairs,  353. 
Corso,  334. 

Cortes,  The  Spanish,  270. 
Corundum,  141. 
Coryza,  Treatment  of,  398. 
Cosmos,  229. 
Cost  Marks,  172. 
Costa  Rica,  367. 
Cotton,  Acreage  of,  139;   Production  of,  140; 

Spinning,  139. 

Cotton  Gin,  Invention  of,  164. 
Coughing,  Coughs,  423. 
Council  of  Ten,  299. 
Councils,  The  Great,  220. 
Count,  Title  of,  363. 
Counterfeiting,  177,  180. 
Countersign,  Use  of,  190. 
Countries,  The  Chief,  369 ;  Statistics  of,  369. 
Country,  Our,  n,  407. 
Couplet  in  Poetry,  112. 
Coupons,  Use  of,  166. 
Court  Jesters,  297. 
Courts  Martial,  191. 
Cousin,  Jean,  292. 
Covenanters,  297. 
Covent  Garden,  332. 
Coventry,  Legend  of,  117. 


Cradles  and  Graves,  343. 

Craniology,  375. 

Crayon,  Geoffry,  120. 

Creches,  Use  of,  350. 

Creek  Indians,  32;  War  of,  27. 

Cremation,  351. 

Crescent,  The,  299. 

Crests,  Use  of,  363. 

Cribbage,  Game  of,  351. 

Cricket,  Described,  350. 

Crime  in  United  States,  20. 

Criminals,  Execution  of,  310. 

Crocus,  135. 

Croesus,  King,  135,  334. 

Crofters,  Scotch,  350. 

Cross,  First  Use  of,  205. 

Cross  Buns,  350. 

Crossing  the  Line,  368. 

Croton  Aqueduct,  40. 

Croup,  Remedies  for,  406. 

Crown,  The  Iron,  297. 

Crown  of  India,  Order  of,  362. 

Crowned  Heads,   List    of,    368;   Salaries   of, 

368. 

Crozier,  207. 
Crystal  Palace,  333. 
Cubit,  Measure  of,  179. 
Cuddy,  Ship's,  351. 
Cumulative  Voting,  270. 
Cuneiform  Writing,  127. 
Cupid,  135. 

Curagpa,  Product  of,  143. 
Curari  Poison,  350. 
Curbstone  Brokers,  175. 
Curfew,  355. 
Curling,  392. 
Currency,  Our  First,  165;  Definition  of,  168; 

Different  Kinds  of,  165. 
Curtis,  328. 
Custom  Duties,  141. 
Custom  House,  Largest,  140. 
Customs  Union,  141. 


Cuyp,  The  Artist,  292. 

Cybele,  135. 

Cycle,  What  is  a,  43. 


Cyclopean  Walls,  286. 
Cyclopean  Works,  375. 
Cyclops,  The  135. 
Cymri,  The,  328. 
Cynosure,  Greek  Term,  127. 
Czar  of  Russia's  Diamond,  '370. 
Czar,  The  Title,  364. 

SACOITS,  Tribe  of,  297. 
Daedalus,  135. 
gon,  Worship  of,  126. 
Daguerreotypes,  151. 
Daily  Savings,  172. 
Daimios,  Japanese,  302. 
Dais,  Defined,  351. 
Daisy  Flower,  The,  372. 
Daltonism,  392. 

Damon,  The  Pythagorean,  130. 
Danaides,  The,  135. 
Danbury  News  Man,  120. 
Dancing  Mania,  The,  306. 
Dandruff,  Removal  of,  387. 
Danebrog,  The,  297. 
Daniel,  314. 
Daphne,  135. 
Darbyites,  362; 
Darien  Scheme,  The,  169. 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 


467 


Dates,  American  Historical,  n  ;  To  Remember, 

41. 

Dauphin,  364. 
Da  Vinci,  Leonardo,  292. 
Davy  Jones,  126. 

Days,  Baptism  of,  41 ;  Skipped  by  the  Sun,  45 ; 
.       Origin  of,  49. 
Dayton,  City  of,  26. 
Dead  Reckonings,  350. 
Death  from  Alcohol,  444 
"  Death  Ride,"  The,  196. 
Debentures,  166. 
Debts,  States  Without,  169;  Various  National, 

171 ;  Outlawed,  250 ;  Laws  Concerning,  249. 
Decades,  Our  Growth  by,  19. 
Decamp,  Artist,  292. 
Decemvirs,  The  Roman,  298. 
Decimal  System,  The,  179. 
Decoration  Day,  42. 
Dedications  of  Books,  109. 
Deeds,  Property,  260. 
Deer  Park,  327. 
Degree,  Meanings  of,  230. 
Deity,  Names  of  the,  219, 
Dejanira,  135. 
Delacroix,  The  Artist,  292. 
Delaroche,  Paul,  292. 
Delft,  332. 
Delphi,  135,335. 
Deluge,  The,  206. 
Democracy,  270. 
Democrats,  Straight-out,  269. 
Demagogues,  270. 
Demurrage,  140. 
Denarius,  Coin,  178. 
Denmark,  367,  369. 
Denouement,  in. 
Denver,  City  of,  26. 
Depilatory,  Recipes  for,  432. 
Derby  Day,  352. 
Dervishes,  206. 
Desert,  Largest,  350. 
Desert  Dwellers,  215. 
Detail,  Attention  to,  457. 
Detroit,  City  of,  26. 
Deucalion,  135. 
Development,  Physical,  408. 
Dextrine,  229. 
Dial,  Invention  of,  164. 
Diamond  Necklace,  The,  307. 
Diamonds,   Cutting  of,   155 ;    Value  of,    185 ; 

Largest      in    the    World,     358;     All    the 

Famous,  370. 
Diana,  The  goddess,  135. 
Diary,  114. 
Dictionaries,  56. 
Dido,  Queen,  135. 
Dies  Ira?,  The  Hymn,  208. 
Digestion,  Periods  of,  396. 
Dillettanti,  286. 
Diomedes,  135. 
Diphtheria,  388. 
Disinfection,  436. 
Dismal  Swamp,  335. 
Dissolving  Views,  289. 
Diving  Bells,  164. 
Divorce,  Law  of,  266. 
Dobson,  Walter,  292. 
Dockyards,  American,  198. 
Doctors,  The  Best,  388 ;  Japanese,  389. 
Doctrines,  Cartesian,  207. 
Doge,  Wedding  of  the,  302;  Galley  of  the,  129. 


Dollar,  The  Silver,  171. 
Domesday  Book,  The,  304. 
Dominican  Republic,  367. 
Donnybrook  Fair,  329. 
Dore,  Gustave,  293. 
Doughfaces,  The,  17. 
Drawing  Rooms,  Conduct  in,  425. 
Dresses,  Incombustible,  428. 
Drink,  Cost  in  the  U.  S.,  20. 
Drowning,  Revival  from,  444. 
Druids,  380. 

Drummers,  Commercial,  140. 
Dryads,  The,  135. 
.  Dudley  Diamond,  370. 
Duke,  Title  of,  360. 
Dunkirk  Colleries,  330. 
Dyaks,  Race  of,  376. 
Dwarfs,  Famous,  344 ;  Races  of,  379,  383. 

T7ARACHE,  Cure  of,  407. 

j\     Earl,  Title  of,  361. 

Early  English,  Books  in,  109. 

Earnings  in  U.  S.,  20. 

Earth,  Measure  of,  185,  246;  Curvature  of,  226; 
Weight  of,  226 ;  Minimum  Age  of,  229. 

Earthquake  of  Lisbon,  360. 

Earwigs,  Denned,  439. 

Eastlake,  Sir  C.  L.,  292. 

Eating,  Advice  on,  387 ;  Nuts  for,  387 ;  Philoso- 
phy of,  414. 

Echo,  135. 

Ecuador,  367,  369. 

Eddas,  The,  132. 

Edifices,  Noted,  371 ;  Heights  of,  371. 

Editions,  Aldine,  in. 

Eggs,  Beating,  388;  As  Food,  417;  How  to 
Keep  Fresh,  437. 

Egotism  in  Society,  425. 

Egypt,  Marvels  of,  347 ;  Pottery  of,  349 ;  Danc- 
ing Girls  of,  351 ;  Statistics  of,  367;  Ruler 
of,  369. 

Eiffel  Tower,  The,  155. 

El  Almirante,  295. 

El  Dorado,  Origin  of,  117. 

Electra,  135. 

Electricity,  Speed  of,  41;  Terms  in,  242;  Last 
Word  on,  248. 

Electric  Light,  Invention  of,  164. 

Electrotype,  Invention  of,  164. 

Elephants,  227. 

Elgin  Marbles,  289. 

Eliot,  George,  120. 

Elysium,  135,  138. 

Emancipation  of  Serfs,  33. 

Emancipation  of  Slaves,  296. 

Emerald,  The,  133. 

Empire,  The  Largest,  328 ;  The  German,  349. 

Empire  State,  The,  295. 


Enceladus,  135. 

i,  Sleep  ot,  135. 
Engine,  Invention  of  Steam,  155. 


Endymion,  Sleep  of, 


England,  Great  Seal  of,  361. 
Erglish  Claimant,  The,  342. 
Engravings,  How  to  Transfer,  162 ;  Invention 

of,  164. 

Enoch  Arden,  Plot  of,  112. 
Entente  Cordiale,  272. 
Enunciation,  Poor,  58. 
Envelopes,  First  Use  of,  139. 
Envoy,  Title  of,  363. 
Epigram,  Explained,  53. 
Ephesus,  Temple  of,  346. 


468 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 


Epsom  Salts,  244. 

Equilateral  Triangles,  314. 

Equinoctial  Points,  237. 

Equinoxes,  What  are,  237. 

Erebus,  135. 

Eric,  the  Red,  15. 

Ericcson,  Leif,  n. 

Errors  of  Speech,  71. 

Eruptions,  Various  Skin,  391. 

Ethiopian,  The,  375. 

Ethiop's  Mineral,  244. 

Ethnography,  375. 

Ethnology,  375. 

Ettrick  Shepherd,  120. 

Etty,  William,  3rS. 

Eumenides,  The,  135. 

Euphrasia,  125. 

Eureka  !    Origin  of,  234. 

Europe,  Extreme  Heat  in,  242  ;  Chief  Cities  in, 

357- 

Euryalus,  135. 
Eurydice,  135. 


Evadne,  135. 

Evolution,  Theory  of,  230. 


Eye,  Care  of  the,  412;  Dirt  in  the,  441  ;   Lime 
in  the,  442  ;  Iron  or  Steel  Spiculae  in  the, 

Excalibur,  The  Sword,  116. 

Excelsior  !  455. 

Exchange,  Origin  of,  165;  Bills  of,  165;  Eng- 

lish, 165. 

Explosives,  The  Latest,  204. 
Express,  First,  139. 

EAQADE,  In  Building,  289. 
Factors  and  Factorage,  175. 
ed,  Artist,  292. 

"  Faerie  Queene,"  Spenser's,  109. 
Failure,  How  Avoided,  453. 
Fainting,  388,443. 
Fair  Maid  of  Kent,  The,  329. 
Fairmount  Park,  n. 
Falk  Laws,  307. 
Fall  River,  City  of,  26. 
Famines,  Great,  366. 
Farmer's  Boy,  The,  326. 
Farms,  The  Largest,  12  ;  Laws  of,  258. 
Fates,  The,  135. 
Father  of  History,  295. 
Father  of  Medicine,  387. 
Father  of  Modern  Painters,  283. 
Fathers  of  the  Church,  207. 
Fathers  of  Their  Country,  310. 
Fathom,  Measure,  179. 
Fat  People,  410. 
Fauni,  The,  135. 
Feast,  Barmecides',  no. 
Feathers,  How  to  Wash,  428. 
Felons,  Treatment  of,  404. 
Fence,  The  Longest,  152. 
Ferguson  James,  328. 
Fermiers  Generaux,  303. 
Fern,  Fanny,  120. 
Ferns,  Symbolism  of,  372. 
Festivals,  Christian,  46. 
Fever,  Cooling  of  a,  388;  Malarial,  Described, 

402;    Typhoid,    Described    and    Treated, 

399;  Typhus,  403. 
Fiery  Cross,  The,  115. 
Fighting  Men,  Ratio  of,  189. 
Fig  Sunday,  43. 
Figures,  Important,  19. 


Filibusters,  Who  are,  306. 

Fillmore,  Pres.  Millard,  26. 

Finding,  Law  of,  264. 

Fine  Arts,  283. 

Fire  Arms,  Invention  of,  164 ;  The  First,  189. 

Fire  Engine,  Invention  of,  164. 

Fire  Kindler,  Thrifty,  437. 

Fire  Ordeal,  378. 

Fire-Proof  Wood,  161. 

Fires,  Great  Historic,  374;    In  United  States, 

20 ;  Chicago,  296. 
Fire  Worship,  379. 

Fishes,  Facts  Concerning,  243 ;  As  Food,  417. 
Flag,  The  National,  12,  16. 
Flagellants,  Order  of,  215. 
Flamboyant,  In  Art,  284. 
Flax,  Production  of,  141. 
Flemish  School,  The,  292. 
Flies,  Killing  of,  440. 
Flood,  J.  C.,  327. 
Floods,  Great,  373. 
Flora,  The  goddess,  135. 
Florentine  Diamond,  370. 
Florida  War,  27. 
Flowers,  Nectar  in,  230;  To  Keep  Fresh,  438; 

Language  of,  371,  372. 
Folcland,  376. 
Folk-lore,  53;  Indian,  132. 
Food,  Waste  of  in  U.  S.,  20;  Composition  of, 

395  j    Digestion  of,  395  ;    Philosophy  of, 

Food  Products  of  the  World,  142,  407. 

Foot,  Measure  of,  179. 

Foreclosure,  In  Law,  261. 

Foreign  Phrases  Interpreted,  97-105. 

Foreigner,  How  to  Address  a,  426. 

Forepaugh,  Adam,  328. 

Foreshortening,  In  Art,  312. 

Forfeit  of  Lands,  31. 

Forget -Me -Not,  The,  372. 

Fortuna,  The  goddess,  135.  % 

Forty,  Honors  to  No.,  324. 

Forty  Immortals,  The,  121. 

Foster,  Birket,  292. 

Fountain,  The  Hot  Water,  154. 

Fourier,  Failure  of,  312. 

Fourierism,  Defined,  312. 

Fourth  Estate,  The,  295. 

France,  Cost  of  War  in,  189 ;  Five  Kings  of, 
313;  Legislative  Assembly  of,  275 ;  "Fa- 
tal Three"  of,  316;  The  Kings  of,  363; 
National  Badge  of,  300;  Ruler  and  Statis- 
tics of,  367,  369;  Voting  in,  272. 

Franco -German  Wat,  202. 

Franc-Tireurs,  The  French,  189. 

Frankenstein,  Character  of,  114. 

Franklin,  Benjamin,  329. 

Fraud  Pledge,  376. 

Free  Soil  Movement,  15. 

French  Academy,  Members  of,  121. 

French  Empire,  317. 

French  Republic,  Motto  of,  298. 

French  Revolution,  309 ;  Calendar  of,  46 ;  Great 
Days  of,  309 ;  Leaders  of  the,  309. 

Frescoes,  Defined,  283. 

Freyburg  Mines,  333. 

Freedom  of  a  City,  308. 

Free  Thinkers,  206. 

Freezing  Point,  238. 

Frith,  W.  P.,  292. 

Frozen  Music,  283. 

Fruit,  as  Food,  419. 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 


469 


Fugitive  Slave  Law,  281. 

Full  Age,  275. 

Fund,  Sinking,  165. 

Furies,  The,  135. 

Furniture,  Polish  for,  160;  To  Remove  Stains 

from,  437. 

Furs,  To  Freshen,  428. 
Fuschia,  The,  372. 
Fusing  Point,  238. 


ribe,  The,  377. 
VJT     Gainsborough,  Artist,  292. 
Galatea,  136. 
Galen,  Dr.,  388. 
Galena,  244. 

Galleon,  Description  of,  142. 
Galvanized  Iron,  325. 
Game,  As  Food,  416. 
Ganymede,  136. 
Garden,  Covent,  332. 
Gardens,  Hanging,  346. 
Garfield,  Pres.  James  A.,  26. 
Garnet,  The,  133. 
Garter,  Order  of,  360. 
Garter-  King-  at  -Arms,  360. 
Gavelkind,  Law  of,  377. 
Gehenna,  Meaning  of,  208. 
Gems,  Language  of,  133. 
Gem  Sculpture,  284. 
Gendarmes,  195. 
Generals,  Grades  of,  365. 
Generals  of  the  Army,  27. 
Generation.   What  is  a,  41. 
Geneva,  Conference  at,  15. 
Genius,  Definitions  of,  283. 
Genre  Painting,  288. 
Geranium,  The,  372. 
Gericault,  Artist,  292. 
German  Kingdom,  Emperor  of,  297. 
Germany,  Marriage  Rate  of,  389;    The  Origi- 

nal Electors  of,  297  ;  Ruler  and   Statistics 
•     of,  397,  369. 
Gerome,  The  Artist,  293. 
Gesta  Romanorum,  116. 
Gestation,  Periods  of,  392. 
Gettysburg,  Battle  of,  199. 
Ghee,  Defined,  358. 
Ghent,  The  City  of,  331. 
Ghetto,  The  Roman,  334. 
Giants  and  Dwarfs,  344. 
Giaour,  The,  117,  205. 
Gibraltar  of  America,  295. 
Gifts,  Value  of,  425  ;  Refusal  of,  425  ;  Etiquette 

of,  426. 

Gil  Bias,  Story  of,  114. 
Gilbert,  Sir  John,  282. 
Gilpin,  Mishaps  of  John,  118. 
Gilt  Frames,  To  Clean,  438. 
Glass,  Soldering  of,  158;  Invention  of,  164. 
Glass  Bells,  Inverted,  151. 
Glass  Mirrors,  First  Use  of,  151  ;  Manufacture 

of,  156. 

Glass  Cloth,  How  Made,  153. 
Glass  Stoppers,  To  Loosen,  437. 
Glauber's  Salt,  244. 
Glorious  Fourth,  The,  313. 
Glucose,  244. 
Gnostics,  The,  206. 
Godiva,  Lady,  117. 
Gold,  First  Discovery  of,  165,  349  ;  Production 

of,  171  ;  Vatican  Store  of,  166. 
Golden  Lane,  328. 


Golden  Rod,  372. 
Good  Old  Times,  357. 
Goodhall,  F.,  292. 
Goorkhas,  Tribe  of,  376. 


Gordius,  136. 

~         ns,  The,  136. 

Gospel,  The  Christian,  214. 


Gorgo 

Gospel 

Goths,  The  Nation  of,  378. 

Gould,  Jay,  327. 

Graal,  The  Holy,  211. 

Graces,  The  Three ,  136. 

Grammarians,  Prince  of,  53. 

Grand  Rapids,  City  of,  244. 

Grandees  of  Spain,  364. 

"Grand  Old  Gardener,"  The,  360. 

Grant,  Pres.  U.  S.,  26. 

Grants  of  Land,  31. 

Gravitation,  Theory  of,  230. 

Great  Britain,  Titles  of,  362 ;  Ruler  and  Statis- 
tics of,  367,  369. 

Great  Fire,  The,  303. 

Great  Mogul  Diamond,  355. 

Great  Seal,  The,  361. 

Great  Wonders,  Seven,  314. 

Greece,  Facts  About,  367,  369. 

Greek  Paintings,  284. 

Greenbacks,  First,  170. 

Greenwood,  Grace,  120. 

Grenades,  Hand,  160. 

Gretna  Green,  330. 

Griffin,  The  Fabulous,  129. 

Grub  Street,  Interpreted,  112. 

Guanahani,  Isle  of,  n. 

Guanchos,  The,  375. 

Guatemala,  367,  369. 

Guelfs,  The,  302. 

Guerillas,  191. 

Guide  to  Civil  Service,  27. 

Guide  to  Pronunciation,  69. 

Guido,  The  Painter,  292. 

Guillotine,  The,  305. 

Guinea,  The  Coin,  178. 

Gun,  The  Armstrong,  191 ;  The  Chassepot, 
190 ;  The  Needle,  190. 

Gun  Powder,  Invention  of,  164. 

Gunter's  Chain,  179. 

Gymnastics,  408. 

Gypsies,  The,  126,  385. 

MThe  Letter,  324. 
>     Habitation,  The  Highest,  328. 
des,  138,  210. 
Haikwan  Tael,  The,  179. 
Hair,  Brushes  for  the,  432;  Invigorators  for, 

432;  Shampoo  0^432;  The  Human,  389; 

Tricopherous  for,  432 ;  Weight  of,  391. 
Halo,  In  Art,  284. 
Hamilton,  Gail,  120. 
Hanging,  444. 
Hanging  Gardens,  346. 
Hanseatic  League,  301. 
Harbors,  The  Finest,  149. 
Hari-kari,  360. 
Harland,  Marion,  120. 
Harleian  MSS.,  The,  116. 
Haroun  al-Raschid,  331. 
Harp,  The,  283. 
Harpies,  The,  136. 
Harrison,  Pres.  W.  H.,  26. 
Harrison,  Pres.  Benj.,  26. 
Hartford  Convention,  272. 
Harvard,  Foundation  of,  no. 


470 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 


Hartshorn,  Spirits  of,  244. 

Harvests,  The,  45. 

Harvey,  Dr  ,  387. 

Hastings,  Battle  of,  199. 

Hawaii,  367. 

Hayes,  Pres.  R.  B.,  26. 

Hayti,  Republic  of,  367. 

Headaches,  Cure  of,  387. 

Health,  Value  of,  409;  Secrets  of,  409;  Sundry 

Hints  on,  410. 
Hebe,  136. 
Hebrew  Race,  383. 
Hecatomb,  Definition  of,  131. 
Hector,  136: 
Hecuba,  136. 
Helena,  136. 

Heliography,  Genesis  of,  247. 
Hellenists,  53. 
Hemorrhages,  442 ;  Of  the  Lungs  and  Stomach, 

389- 

Henry's  Lake,  340. 
Hercules,  136. 
Heredity,  228. 
Hermione,  136. 
Heathens,  Gods  of  the,  134. 
Hesperides,  The,  136. 
Hesperus,  136. 
Hetman,  Rank  of,  190. 
Hierarchy,  Catholic,  218. 
High  Seas,  Meaning  of,  144. 
Hippodrome,  What  is  a,  128. 
Hindoos,  The,  371. 
History,   Chinese,   349 ;  Chinese   Beginnings, 

125;  Great   Famines  of,  366;  In  Rhyme, 

311;   Myths  of,   297;   The  Ages    of,   49; 

Great  Colds  in,  242. 
Hittites,  The,  381. 
Hivites,  The,  379. 
Hoarseness,  Cure  for,  397. 
Hogarth,  Satires  of,  286,  292. 
Holbein,  Hans,  292. 
Holdings,  Laws  of,  258. 
Holidays,  In  U.  S.,  50. 
Holmes,  Oliver  Wendell,  327. 
Holy  Alliance,  The,  215. 
Home,  Hearth  and,  421,  460. 
Homestead  Laws  of  U.  S.,  30. 
Homeopathy,  387,  391. 
Honduras,  367,  369. 
Hong  Kong,  330. 
Horse,  Drawing  Strength  of,  235 ;  Capacity  of, 

356. 

Horsely,  J.  C.,  292. 
Hospital,  Foundling,  387. 
Hospitallers,  Order  of,  212. 
Hotels  and  Inns,  Laws  on,  263. 
Hottentots,  The,  379. 
Hot  Water,  Value  of,  406. 
Howe  Glass,  The,  42. 
House  of  Commons,  269. 
Household  and  Toilet,  421,  460. 
Houses,  Roman,  389. 
Hue  and  Cry,  The  Phrase,  353. 
Human  Body,  Wonders  of  the,  407. 
Human  Family,  The  Great,  384 ;  Worship  of 

the,  220 ;  Grand  Total  of,  374. 
Hunger,  Cause  of,  394. 
Hunkers,  The,  17 
Huns,  The,  376. 
Huntingdon,  D.,  292. 
Hunt,  W.  M.,  292. 
Hyacinth,  372. 


Hyacinthus,  136. 
Hydra,  136. 

Hydraulics,  Facts  in,  246. 
Hygiene,  388. 
Hyksos,  The,  383. 
Hymen,  136. 
Hyperion,  136. 
Hypnotism,  Power  of,  236. 
Hysterics,  443. 

I    The  Letter,  321. 
»     Ibis,  The  Sacred,  130. 
;arius,  136. 
Ice,  Strength  of,  226. 
Icelandic  Explorers,  15. 
Iconoclasts,  Work  of,  299. 
Ides,  What  are  the,  44. 
Idris,  The  Welsh,  129. 
Ignatius  Loyola,  349. 
Ignis  Fatuus,  The,  232. 
Iliad,  Summarized,  113. 
Ill  Breeding,  424. 
Illiteracy  in  U.  S.,  20. 
Illuminati,  The,  299. 
Illumination,  289. 
Immigrants,  Nationality  of,  25. 
Immigration  to  U.  S.,  24. 
Imperial  Order,  The,  362. 
Impressionists,  The,  291. 
Improvements,  Laws  of,  258. 
Improvisatori,  288. 
Incas,  Meaning  of,  361. 
India,  Overland  Route  to,    145;   Harvests    in, 

329 ;  Crown  of,  Order,  362. 
Indian  Mutiny,  200. 
Indian  Reservations,  32. 
Indianapolis,  City  of,  26. 
Indians,   Numbers  of,  32 ;  The  Aymara,  376 ; 

Reservations  for,  32. 
Indian  Territory,  The,  269. 
India  Rubber,  Source  of,  145. 
Indorsement,  In  Law,  165. 
Industry,  The  Canning,  139. 
Infallibility,  Papal,  217. 
Infante,  The  Spanish,  361. 
Influenza,  390. 
Ink,  Indelible,  437. 
Insanity,  391. 

Insects,  To  Destroy,  427,  440. 
Insomnia,  397. 

Insurance,  Life,  167,  349 ;  Definition  of,  168. 
Intaglio,  In  Art,  285. 
Interest,   Short  Rules    of,   173;    Wonders    of 

Compound,  174. 
International  Arbitration,  271. 
Intoned  Poetry,  286. 
Inundations,  Famous,  373. 
Inventions,  Synopsis  of,  64. 
lo,  The  goddess,  136. 
Iphigenia,  136. 
Ireland,  The  Forger,  340. 
Iron  Chancellor,  The,  331. 
Iron  Crown,  The,  305. 
Iron  Duke,  The,  361. 
Iron  Pyrites,  244. 
Ironclad  Oath,  The,  271. 
Ironsides,  335. 
Iris,  136. 

Isabella  of  France,  329. 
Ishmael,  The  Warrior,  189. 
Isis,  The  Egyptian  goddess,  127,  136. 
Italy,  367,  369. 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 


471 


Ivanhoe,  Romance  of,  124. 
Ivy,  372. 
Ixion,  136. 

ACK  The  Giant  Killer,  125. 
Jackson,  Andrew,  26, 327. 

ackson  Park,  36. 

acobins,  297. 

acobites,  304. 

ames  River,  16. 

amestown,  Va.,  u. 

anissaries,  196. 

anus,  136. 

apan,  Clocks  in,  43;  Coinage  of,  177;  Statis- 
tics of,  367,  369. 

ar,  The  Leyden,  225. 

asmine,  372. 

ason,  136. 

ayhawkers,  The,  296. 

efferson,  Pres.  Thomas,  26. 

erusalem  Artichokes,  324. 

esuits,  Order  of,  349. 

eunesse  Doree,  356. 

eweler's  Putty,  244. 

ewish  Sanhedrim,  316. 

ingoism,  352. 

ohnson,  Pres.  Andrew,  26. 

ove,  The  Statue  of,  346. 

unius,  Letters  of,  114. 

uno,  The  goddess,  136. 

upiter  and  the  Eagle,  125 ;  And  the  Titans, 

125 ;  Rank  of,  136. 
Jupiter's  Satellites,  230. 

T7-AABA,  The,  217. 

J\.     Kaleidoscope,  Invention  of,  164. 

Kansas  City,  26. 

Kearsarge,  The  Steamer,  17. 

Kerr,  Orpheus  C.,  120. 

Khedive,  Title  of,  295,  364. 

King  Maker,  The,  361. 

Kings,  Five  Converted,  296 ;  Of  England,  320 ; 

Of  France,  363. 

King  of  Portugal's  Diamond,  370. 
Kite -Flying,  175. 
Knickerbocker,  D.,  120. 
Knight,  Title  of,  360. 
Knight  Service,  295. 
Know  Nothings,  The,  17,  273. 
Koh-i-noor,  The,  358,  370. 
Koran,  The  Mahommedan,  209. 
Koumiss,  Production  of,  144. 
Ku-Klux-Klan,  The,  275. 
Kulturkampf,  The  Term,  208.' 

A  BELLE  Alliance,  338. 

Lac  or  Lakh,  The  Term,  166. 
j^n-uaisms,  Defined,  55. 
Lacrosse,  Game  of,  355. 
Lacustrian  Period,  377. 
Lake  Dwellers,  377. 
Lakes,  The  Largest,  40;  Henry's,  340;  Queen 

of  the,  337 ;  Windermere,  337. 
Lake  Superior,  40. 
Lampoon  and  Pasquinade,  269. 
Lame  Duck,  175. 
Lamp,  The  Davy,  230. 
Land  League,  The,  303. 
Landlord  and  Tenant  Laws,  257. 
Lands,  Alien  Holders  of,  30 ,  Measurement  of, 

50;  Pre-emption  of,  17;   Public,  31;  Still 

Vacant,  32;  Title  to  U.  S.,  31. 


Landseer,  Sir  E. ,  292. 

Landwehr,  Meaning  of,  193. 

Languages,  The  Oriental,  53;  Beginnings  of, 
53 ;  Characteristics  of,  54 ;  The  Chief,  57 ; 
Differences  of,  375;  Number  of,  53;  Of 
Gems,  133;  Pliable,  68;  Romance,  53; 
Sanscrit,  55 ;  Stock  Broker's,  174;  Volapuk, 
54- 

Laocoon,  The,  136,  284. 

Lares,  137. 

Latin  Union,  178. 

Latitude  and  Longitude,  240. 

Laughing  Gas,  244. 

Laureates,  The  Latest,  no,  115. 

La  Vendee,  Rising  in,  298. 

Lavender  Water,  434. 

Law,  Definition  of,  249;  Business,  249;  Lien, 
259;  On  Many  Subjects,  249-262. 

Lazaretto,  390. 

Lead,  Black,  229 ;  Compression  of,  227. 

Lead  Pipes,  Protection  of,  161. 

Lean  People,  410. 

Leather,  Industry  of,  140;  Manufacture  of, 
141;  Process  of  Coloring,  153;  Tariff  on, 
140. 

Legion  of  Honor,  The,  303. 

Leif  Ericsson,  n,  15. 

Lepers,  Number  of,  394. 

Leprechaun,  The  Irish,  125. 

Lesghians,  The,  375. 

Lethe,  River  of,  137. 

Letters,  The  Greek,  56;  Of  Junius,  114;  Les- 
sons of  the,  319. 

Letter-Writing,  Art  of,  63. 

Letters  of  Credit,  167. 

Lettre  de  Cachet,  The,  299. 

Lexington,  Battle  of,  189. 

Liberia,  Republic  of,  367,  369. 

Libraries,  Bodleian,  122;  British  Museum, 
122;  Some  Large,  122;  The  Alexandrian, 
109;  The  Astor,  122;  The  National,  122. 

Lictors,  The,  361. 

Life  Average,  389. 

Life  Insurance,  167. 

Lightning,  Conductors  for,  164,  240 ;  Stroke  of, 
444;  Why  Zig  Zag,  226. 

Lightning  Rods,  First  Use  of,  151. 

Lily  of  the  Valley,  372. 

Lime,  244. 

Lincoln, Assassination  of,349 ;  Presidency  of,26. 

Liquors,  Alcohol  in,  144;  Arrack,  146;  Cura- 
Qoa,  143 ;  Koumiss,  144 ;  Rum,  142. 

Lists,  Of  Abbreviations,  105,  107;  Christian 
Names,  66,  68;  Errors  of  Speech,  71; 
Foreign  Phrases,  97,  105 ;  Foreign  Quo- 
tations, 97,  105;  Great  Inventions,  164; 
Olympian  Deities,  134 ;  Twelve  Thousand 
Synonyms  and  Antonyms,  73,  97. 

Litany,  The  Prayer,  210. 

Literature,  Specimens  of  Best,  no;  The  Testi- 
mony of,  224. 

Lithography,  Invention  of,  164. 

Little  Corporal,  The,  361. 

Little  Giant,  The,  269. 

Little  Mac,  270. 

Local  Names,  Curious,  345. 

Locofocos,  The,  17. 

Locomotive,  Invention  of,  164;   Largest,  158. 

Logogram,  Explained,  55. 

Lombardian  School,  The,  292. 

London,  Fleet  Street  in,  327;  The  Great  Fire 
of,  303 ;  Population  of, 


472 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 


London  Wall,  327. 

Long-bow,  189. 

Longevity,  393. 

Longitude  and  Latitude,  240. 

Longitude  and  Time,  41,  42. 

Looking  Backward,  312. 

Looking  Glass,  Manufacture  of,  156. 

Lord  Protector,  The,  360. 

Lords  of  Appeal,  360. 

Lords  Spiritual,  361. 

Lords  Temporal,  361. 

Lorelei,  Story  of,  113. 

Lost  Day,  The,  45. 

Louisville,  City  of,  26. 

Lowell,  City  of,  26. 

Lucky  Numbers,  321. 

Lucifer,  137. 

Luna,  The  goddess,  137. 

Lunar,  Caustic,  244. 

Lupercalia,  Feasts  of,  137. 

Luray  Cavern,  13. 

Lusatia,  376. 

Lutzen,  Battle  of,  199. 

Luxemburg,  367. 

Lyall,  Edna,  120. 

Lydians,  The,  177. 

Lynn,  Mass.,  Industries  of,  141. 

Lyric,  Title  of,  113. 


THE  Letter,  325. 

Macadamized  Pavement,  152. 

lac  and  O.,  55. 
Mace,  The  Official,  193. 
Machiavelli,  295. 

Machines,  Invention  of  Calculating,  167 ;  In- 
fernal, 193. 

Mad  Cavalier,  The,  360. 
Madagascar,  Isle  of,  367. 
Madison,  Pres.  James,  26. 
Madonna,  The,  287. 
Madrigal,  Meaning  of,  112. 
Maelstrom,  The,  329,  330. 
Magellan,  Fernando,  329. 
Magna  Charta,  306. 
Magyars,  Race  of,  375. 
Mahrattas,  Tribe  of,  377. 
Malbone,  Artist,  292. 
Mammoth  Cave,  16,  40,  342. 
Man,  Weight  of,  395  ;  Stature  of,  395. 
Man  in  the  Iron  Mask,  328,  333,  341. 
Man  of  Blood  and  Iron,  The,  331. 
Mandarin,  Title  of,  361. 
Mansion,  Largest,  157 ;  Costliest,  157. 
Maps,  Geographical,  164. 
Marabouts,  The,  205. 
Marathon,  Battle  of,  199. 
Marble,  Parian,  285 ;  Elgin,  289. 
Market  Prices,  172. 
Marks,  Cost,  172. 
Mars,  God  of  War,  137. 
Marseillaise,  The,  304. 
"  Marshal  Forward,"  361. 
Marquis,  Title  of,  361. 
Marvelous  Watch,  The,  152. 
Marriage,  Laws  of,  266. 
Married  Women,  Rights  of,  267. 
Mason  and  Slidell,  14. 
Matches,  Invention  of,  139,  164. 
Matsys,  Quentin,  292. 
Mausoleum,  346. 
Mayflower,  Passengers  of  the,  15,  18, 


Measures,  Apothecaries,  182;  Circular,  182; 
Cloth,  182;  Cubic,  182;  Domestic,  181 ; 
Dry,  182;  Imperial,  182;  Liquid  or  Wine, 
182;  Long,  182;  Meaning  of,  182;  Metric, 
182;  Metric  Tables,  183;  Miscellaneous, 
182;  Of  Capacity,  186;  Of  Casks  or  Bar- 
rels, 186 ;  Of  Cisterns,  186 ;  Of  Grain,  186 ; 
Of  Land,  186 ;  Of  Time,  182 ;  Square,  182 ; 
Surveyor's,  182. 

Medea,  137. 

Medicine,  First  Practitioners  of,  225;  Intro- 
duction of,  387. 

Mehemed  AH,  295. 

Meissonier,  292. 

Melodrama,  Defined,  283. 

Memnon's  Statue,  126 ',  History,  137. 

Memorial  Day,  42. 

Memory,  A  Good,  426. 

Memphis,  City  of,  27. 

Menelaus,  137. 

Mentor,  137. 

listopheles,  211. 


Mercator's  Projection,  229. 

Mercury,  Production  of,  140. 

Mercury,  The  God,  137. 

Meredith,  Owen,  120. 

Metals,  Weights  of,  181. 

"  Me,  too,"  The  Expression,  270. 

Mexican  War,  191. 

Mexico,  Idols  of,  208 ;  Ruler  and  Statistics  of, 

367,  369. 

Miami  Indians,  31. 
Michael  Angelo,  284. 
Microscope,  Invention  of,  164. 
Midas,  137. 

Midianites,  Tribe  of,  378. 
Mieris,  The  Artist,  292. 
Mignonette,  372. 
Mileage,  Railway,  147. 
Miles  Standish,  Courtship  of,  116. 
Milk  as  Food,  416. 
Milky  Way,  The,  227. 
Millais,  J.  E.,  292. 
Miller,  Hugh,  327. 
Miller,  Joaquin,  120. 
Millet,  The  Artist,  292. 
Mills,  Cloth,  144. 
Mill-Stones,  First,  139. 
Milton,  Blunders  of,  109. 
Milwaukee,  City  of,  26. 
Mind  Reading,  237. 
Minerva,  The  goddess,  137. 
Mines,  Freyburg,  333. 
Mining  Shaft,  The  Deepest,  329. 
Minneapolis,  City  of,  26. 
Minnesingers,  113. 
Minotaurs,  137. 
Mint,  Coining  at  the,  177. 
Mirrors,  First  of  Glass,  151. 
Misnomers,  Curious,  324. 
Missal  and  Breviary,  214. 
Mississippi  Bubble,  170. 
Mississippi  Trade,  Value  of,  141. 
Mnemosyne,  The  goddess,  137. 
Mohammedanism,   Creed  of,   209;    Purgatory 

of,  208. 

Moidore,  The  Coin,  177. 
Mojaves,  Tribe  of,  211. 
Mold,  Prevention  of,  436. 
Molly  Maguires,  The,  359. 


Momus,  The  god,  137. 
Monaco,  Republic  of,  336. 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 


473 


Monarchs  Who  Abdicated,  310. 

Monastic  Vows,  206. 

Money,  Circulation  of,  167;  Continental,  166; 
Love  of,  166 ;  Meaning  of,  165 ;  Paper, 
165;  Pine  Tree,  166;  Secret  Service,  271. 

Monkshead,  372. 

Monoliths,  The  Most  Noted,  158. 

Monotheism,  206. 

Monroe,  Pres  James,  26. 

Monsieur  de  Paris,  -296. 

Montagnards,  The  French,  300. 

Montenegrins,  Race  of,  382. 

Montenegro,  367,  369. 

Montezuma,  380. 

Months,  Dutch  Names  for,  44 ;  Names  of  the, 
48;  Roman  Names  for,  44;  The  World's 
Harvest,  45. 

Monument,  The  Highest,  153. 

Moorish  or  Moresque,  In  Art,  287. 

Moors,  The  Race  of,  378. 

Mormons,  Society  of,  221 ;  Book  of,  221. 

Morocco,  Empire  of,  367,  369. 

Morpheus,  137. 

Morris,  William,  329. 

Mortality  of  Medical  Men,  390. 

Mortgages,  Land,  261 ;  Chattel,  261 ;  Laws  of, 
262. 

Mosaics,  In  Art,  285. 

Mosquitoes,  Remedy  for,  438. 

Moths,  To  Prevent,  439. 

Mossbacks,  296. 

Mound  Builders,  382. 

Mountain  Peaks,  Heights  of,  243. 

Mountains,  Highest  Ranges,  349. 

Mount  Stuart,  157. 

Mount  Vernon,  331. 

Mount  Washington,  432. 

Mucilage,  Commercial,  435. 

Mufti,  Rank  of,  363. 

Mulready,  The  Artist,  292. 

Miinchhausen,  Baron,  335. 

Muriate  of  Lime,  244. 

Murillo,  The  Artist,  292. 

Muscadins,  The,  356. 

Mushroom,  The  Fairy's,  125. 

Muses,  The  Nine,  137. 

Music,  Story  of,  290;  Terms  Used  in,  294; 
Notes  in,  151 ;  Masters  of,  285. 

Musical  Notes,  First  Use  of,  151. 

Musical  Terms,  Meaning  of,  294. 

Musicians,  The  Great  Modern,  285. 

Muskets,  Flint  Lock,  189. 

Muta,  137. 

Myrtle,  372. 

Mythology,  Of  the  Ancients,  134;  Scandina- 
vian, 125. 

NAIADES,  The,  137. 
Names,   Female,  67;   Male,  66;   Mean- 
ings of  Christian,  66 ;  Of  the  States,  21. 
Napoleon  of  the  East,  296. 
Napoleon  III.,  295. 


Narcissus,  137. 
Nashville,  City  of,  26. 


Nasby,  Petroleum  V.,  120. 
Nation  of  Shopkeepers,  The,  295. 
Nation,  The  Scattered,  385. 
National  Assembly,  The  French,  269. 
National  Debts,  171. 
National  French  Library,  122. 
National  Tricolors,  313. 
Nationale  of  Paris,  352. 


Natural  Bridge,  40. 

Nausea,  Treatment  for,  388. 

Navies  of  the  U.  S.,  13. 

Navy  Commanders,  363. 

Nebular  Hypothesis,  244. 

Nectar  of  the  gods,  129, 

Needle  Threader,  Invention  of,  152. 

Negotiable  Paper,  250,  252. 

Nemesis,  The  Avenger,  137. 

Nepaul,  367. 

Neptune,  The  god,  137. 

Nervous  Spasms,  388. 

Nestor,  137. 

Netherlands,  The,  367,  369. 

Neuralgia,  Cure  for,  387,  396. 

Neutrality,  Armed,  190. 

New  England,  Discovery  of,  11,  15. 

Newark,  City  of,  26. 

Newspapers,  First  English,  no;  First  in  all 
Lands,  123 ;  In  Russia,  in  ;  Of  India,  in ; 
Some  Famous,  123 ;  The  Oldest,  n  ;  Total 
Number  of,  352. 

Newton,  Birth  of,  225. 

New  York  City,  26,  271. 

Ney,  The  Famous  Marshal,  189. 

Niagara,  Horse  Power  of,  225. 

Niagara  Falls,  40,  333   339. 

Nibelungen  Lied,  Plot  of  the,  131,  388. 

Nicaragua,  367,  369. 

Nicknames  of  States,  etc.,  22;  Famous  Na- 
tional, 23. 

Nicotine,  Properties  of,  388 ;  Manufacture  of, 
140. 

Nightingale,  Turkish  Name  for,  no 

Night  Sweats,  To  Cure,  388. 

Nihilism,  206. 

Nijni- Novgorod,  Fair  of,  143,  334. 

Nimbus,  In  Art,  284. 

Nine,  Curiosities  of  Number,  326. 

Nine  Worthies,  The,  336. 

Nine  Worthy  Women,  The,  314. 

Niobe,  The  Tearful,  137. 

Nitre,  244. 

Nocturnal  Animals,  233. 

Nocturne,  In  Music,  287. 

Nones,  44. 

Non  -  importation  Act,  The,  145. 

Non -intercourse  Act,  272. 

Norseman,  Bible  of  the,  132. 

Northmen,  The,  132,  378. 

Norway,  Voters  in,  270. 

Norway  and  Sweden,  367,  369. 

Nose,  Bleeding  from,  396,  443. 

Notch,  The,  331. 

Notes,  Circular  or  Bank,  166 ;  Commercial,  252. 

Nowhere,  Sir  T.  More's,  115. 

Nox,  Old,  137. 

Numbers,  Lucky  and  Unlucky,  321. 

Numismatics,  Study  of,  188. 

Nutrition  in  Certain  Foods,  395. 

AK,  Sacredness  of  the,  372  418. 

Oats,  as  Food,  418. 
'belisks,  the  Great,  158;  The  Oldest,  348. 
Oberlin  College,  n. 
Obscurity  in  Writing,  108. 
Ocean  Depths,  Cold  of  the,  227 ;  Growths  in, 
228 ;  Life  in,  235,  The  Greatest  Measure 
of,  229, 

Oceanides,  The,  137. 
Oceanus,  137. 
Occupation,  Choice  of,  454. 


474 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 


O'Donoghue's  White  Horse,  126. 

O'Dowd,  Cornelius.  120. 

OZdipus,  137. 

Oil  Spring,  The  Lunatic,  332. 

Oil  of  Vitriol,  244. 

Olaf  Redbeard,  313. 

"  Old  Hickory,"  269. 

Old  Lady  of  Threadneedle  Street,  332. 

Old  Slavonic,  364. 

Olympiads,  The,  44. 

Olympic  Games,  44. 

Olympus,  Location  of,  125 ;  Deities  and  Heroes 

of,  134. 

Omaha,  City  of,  26. 
Oman,  Sultanate  of,  367,  369. 
Omphale,  137. 

One  Million  Dollars,  Weight  of,  166. 
Onions,  Odor  of,  388. . 
Onyx,  The,  133. 
Opal,  The,  133. 
Opium,  393. 

Opportunists,  The  Term,  270. 
Optic,  Oliver,  120. 
Orange  Blossoms,  372. 
Orange  Free  State,  367. 
Orange,  Principality  of,  295. 
O'Rell,  Max,  120. 
Orchestra,  In  Music,  284. 
Ordeal,  The  Water,  304;  The  Fire,  304. 
Order  of  the  Bath,  361. 
Orders,  Sealed,  191. 
Orestes,  130. 

Organ,  Invention  of,  164. 
Organs,  First  Use  of,  349. 
Orion,  The  Star,  125. 
Orloff  Diamond,  370. 
Ornaments,  Bog  Oak,  155. 
Orpheus,  137. 
Orthodoxy,  206. 
Ostrich  Farming,  140. 
Ostrogoths,  Nation  of  the,  381. 
Ouida,  1-20. 

Oukaz,  The  Term,  271. 
Ouless,  W.  W.,  292. 
Overbeck,  F.,  292. 
Overland  Route,  The,  145. 
Ovid,  Sandys',  109. 
Oxford  University,  328. 
Oxygen,  Discovery  of,  387. 

PACHA,  Title  of,  360. 

1       Pacha  of  Egypt  Diamond,  370. 

Pagan  gods,  The,  134. 

Paganism,  Gods  and  Heroes  of,  134. 

Pagan  Priests,  135. 

Paine,  Thomas,  Patriotism  of,  13. 

Pains,  Side,  388. 

Painter  of  Nature,  The,  283. 

Paintings,  Marvelous,  290. 

Paints,  Luminous,  162 ;  Mixing  of,  162. 

Pairing  Off,  269. 

Palaeolithic  Age,  The,  377. 

Palladium,  Meaning  of,  137,  271. 

Palm  Sunday,  43. 

Pan,  The  god,  137. 

Pandours,  The  Fierce,  295. 

Panics,  Financial,  172. 

Panslavism,  Meaning  of,  297. 

Pansy,  The,  372. 

Paper,  Invention  of,  151 ;  Rice,  325 ;  Collars, 

154;  of  Glass,  153. 
Paradise  of  Europe,  The,  295. 


Paraguay,  Figures  oh,  367,  369. 

Paraguayan  War,  The,  390. 

Parian  Marble,  285. 

Paris,  Son  of  Priam,  137. 

Parks,     Deer,    327;      Fairmount,     328;    The 

Largest,  328;  St.  James',  339. 
Parley,  Peter,  120. 
Parliamentary  Law,  Condensed,  279. 
Parnassus,  137. 
Parole,  In  Military  Life,  194. 
Parsees,  Faith  of,  205. 
Particularists,  The  Term,  270. 
Parties,  Minor  Political,  17. 
Parting  Counsels,  463. 
Partnership,  Liability  of,   250;   Laws  of,  254; 

A  Famous  Literary,  no. 
Passengers,  The  Mayflower's,  18. 
Passion  Flower,  372. 
Passion  Play,  The,  205. 
Paste,  Razor  Strop,  433 ;  For  Papering,  Boxes, 

434 ;  Scrap  Books,  434 ;  Sugar,  435 ;  Paper 

and  Leather,  435 ;  For  Sundry  Uses,  435. 
Patent  Office,  Work  of  the,  29. 
Patterson,  City  of,  26. 
Pavement,  Macadamized,  152. 
Pay,  Soldiers',  191. 
Peace  Pipe,  The,  192. 
Peale,  Rembrandt,  292. 
Pearls,  Where  Found,  229 ;  American,  229. 
Peerage,  Ranks  of  the,  365. 
Pegasus,  137. 
Peine  Forte  et  Dure,  307. 
Penates,  137. 

Pendulum,  Invention  of,  42. 
Penelope's  Web,  125;  Her  History,  137. 
Penny-Wise,  172. 
Perigee,  The 'Moon's,  225. 
Perihelion,  The,  225. 
Permissive  Bill,  The,  269. 
Perpetual  Snow,  225. 
Persecutions,  The  Ten,  206. 
Perseus,  137. 

Persons,  Temperature  of,  226 
Persia,  367,  369. 
Peru,  Republic  of,  367,  369. 
Perugino,  292. 
Perspiratory  Glands,  232. 
Peruvian  Masonry,  284. 
Peter  Cooper,  A  Story  of,  170. 
Petits-Maitres,  356. 
Petrovitsch,  Kara  George,  334. 
Pettie,  John,  292. 
Phaeton,  137. 
Phantom  Ship,  The,  118. 
Pharos  of  Alexandria,  The,  346. 
Phenomena,  Scientific,  228. 


Philology,  Science  of,  53  ;  Defined,  375. 

aughi 
Philosopher's  Stone,  The, 


Phineas,  137. 
Phoebus,  The  god,  138 


Philippi,  Battle  of,  199. 

lolo 

lom 

los 

losopers     tone,       e,  233. 
Philosophy,  Inductive,  225  ;  Meaning  of,  225. 


, 

Philology,  Scien 
Philomela,  137. 
Philosopher,  Th 


e  Laughing,  329 


Phonograph,  Invention  of,  151,  163. 

Photographs,  The  First,  349. 

Photography,  Invention  of,  164. 

Phrases,  The  Foreign,  97-105;    Political,  270; 

Stock  Market,  173. 
Physical  Training, 
Piano,  Polish  for,  160. 
Pianoforte,  Invention  of,  164, 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 


475 


Picayune,  The  Coin,  178. 

Pierce,  Pres.  Franklin,  26. 

Pigments,  The  Blue,  142. 

Pigott  Diamond,  The,  370. 

Pilgrim  Fathers,  15,  18. 

Pilgrim's  Progress,  The,  124,  328. 

Pindar,  Peter,  120. 

Pipes,  Protection  of  Lead,  161 ;  Thawing  Out 

Water,  436. 

Pins,  First  Used,  152;  Sticking  of,  155. 
Pisa,  Leaning  Tower  of,  340. 
Pitch,  Lake  of,  142. 
Pitt,  Diamond,  The,  370, 
Plagues,  Modern,  366. 
Planets,  Collision  of,  228 ;  Conjunction  of,  234 ; 

Symbolism  of,  314. 
Plants,  Breathing  of,  227. 
Plaster,  Repairing,  438. 
Plato's  Republic,  312. 
Pleiades,  The,  137. 
Pluto  and  his  Realm,  138. 
Plymouth  Company,  The,  12. 
Plymouth  Rock,  Landing  at,  18. 
Pneumatic  Railway,  164. 
Pocahontas,  Story  of,  16. 
Poetry,  Alliterative,323 ;  Artof,no;Didactic,53, 

109;  The  Father  of,  109;  History  in,  311; 

Lyric,  53, 112 ;  Pastoral,  no ;  Wordsworth's 

Definition  of,  no. 
Poets -Laureate,  The,  115. 
Poison  Stings,  Antidotes  for,  444. 
Police,  Derivation  of,  360. 
Polish  for  Furniture,  160;  For  Pianos,  160. 
Political  Parties,  Minor,  17. 
Polk,  Pres.  James  K.,  26. 
Pomona,  138. 
Pompey's  Pillar,  325. 
Popes,  Nationality  of  the,  218. 
Popocatepetl,  329. 
Population,  Increase  of,  19;  Center  of  in  U.  S., 

19;  of  Fifty  Cities,  26;  of   Chief  Countries, 

Porcelain,  Soldering  of,  158. 

Ports,  The  Cinque,  330. 

Portugal,  Kingdom  of,  367,  369. 

Positivism,  Explained,  236. 

Postage  Stamps,  139,  349. 

Postal  Information,  Condensed,  150. 

Potash,  244. 

Potato  Bug,  The,  144. 

Powder,  For  Fire-arms,  164. 

Poynter,  E.  J.,  292. 

Practical  Jokes,  422. 

Praetorian  Guard,  The,  302.    - 

Predecessors,  Our  Nation's,  383. 

Preemption  of  Land,  17. 

Pre-Raphaelite,  The  Art  Term,  288. 

Presents,    Of  Accepting,   425;     The    Art    of 

Giving,  424 ;  Etiquette  of,  426. 
Prester  John,  337. 
Presidential  Election,  277 
Presidents,  Cradles  and  Graves  of,  343  ;  Creeds 

of  the,  221 ;    Parties   that    Elected,    281 ; 

Succession  of  U.  S.,  26. 
Priam,  138. 

Prickly  Heat,  Cure  for,  433. 
Priests,  The  Pagan,  125 ;  The  Greek,  205. 
Primrose,  The,  372.' 
Primrose  League,  The,  297. 
Prince  of  Wales,  Crest  of,  313. 
Printing,  Invention  of,  152,  164. 
Prisons,  Andersonville,  190 


Prizilram,  329. 

Products,  Food,  407. 

Progress,  Weapons  of,  453. 

Proletariate,  The,  354. 

Prometheus,  138. 

Pronunciation,   Correctness    in,  69;   Poor,  57; 

Rules  of,  70. 
Property,   Transfer  of,   260;  Assignments  of, 

262 ;  Laws  on  Various  Kinds,  261. 
Proserpine,  138. 
Proteus,  138. 
Proudhon,  Axiom  of,  313. 
Prout,  Father,  120. 
Provost,  The  Scotch,  360. 
Psalm,  An  Omitted,  223. 
Pseudonyms,    Scholastic,    119;  Literary,   341; 

Political  and  Historical,  342. 
Psyche,  137. 
Psychology,  237. 
Public  Lands,  31,  32. 
Public  School,  The  First,  12,  349. 
Puck,  Who  is,  125. 

Pulse,  Rate  of  the,  390;  The  Human,  413. 
Pultowa,  Battle  of,  199. 
Punctuality,  Merit  of,  424. 
Punctuation,  Correct,  64. 
Punishment  of  Criminals,  357. 
Purana,  129. 
Pygmies,  The,  379 ;  The  Wambutti,  379.     See 

also  Dwarfs,  138. 
Pyramid,  The  Great,  158. 
Pyramus  and  Thisbe,  138. 
Pythias,  The  Noble,  130. 
Python,  The,  138. 

fvUEEN  of  Roads,  The,  157. 
W     Queen  of  the  Lakes,  337. 
Quincy,  Josiah,  339. 
Quinine,  Source  of,  140. 
Quotations,  Foreign,  97,  105. 

T)  ABBITS  of  Australia.  The,  227. 

J\     Races,  American,  375 ;  The   Bechuanas, 

377  j  The  Caucasian,  375 ;  The  Dwarfs,  377, 

379,  383 ;  The  Ethiopian,  375 ;  The  Five, 

375 ;  The  Hyksos,   383;   The  Malay,  375; 

The  Mongolian,    375;   The   Pygmie,  379; 

The  Teutonic,  379 ;  Unity  of  the,  385. 
Rack,  Indian,  146,  308. 
Railroads,  American,  23 ;  Electric,  329 ;  Horse, 

139;  Invention   of,    164  J  Pneumatic,  164  J 

Wonders  of,  23. 
Railway,  The  Electric,  329. 
Rainmaking,  Ether  in,  229. 
Rats,  How  to  Expel,  160. 
Reading,  Love  for,  54 ;  Copious,  109. 
Real,  The  Coin,  179. 
Red  Head,  244. 

Regiments,  Organization  of,  189. 
Registers,  Hot  Air,  387. 
Regnault,  Artist,  293. 
Reichsrath,  The  German,  273. 
Reichstag,  The  German,  273. 
Reid,  Whitelaw,  328. 
Reign  of  Terror,  189,  296. 
Relief,  In  Art,  289. 
Religion,  As  a  Science,  223 ;  The  Chinese,  208 ; 

What  is  a  State,  222;  Various  Notes  on, 

205-224. 

Rembrandt,  The  Painter,  285. 
Remus  of  Rome,  138. 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 


Renaissance  in  Art,  284. 

Representatives,  House  of,  282. 

Reptile  Bureaucracy,  The  296. 

Republic,  The  Oldest,  336 ;  The  Smallest,  336. 

Reservations  for  the  Indians,  32. 

Return  Ball,  Invention  of,  152. 

Reynolds,  Sir  Joshua,  292. 

Revolution,  The  French,  189. 

Rhetoric,  Art  of,  53  ;  Definition  of,  53. 

Rheumatism,  401 ;  Treatment  of,  402. 

Rice,  As  Food,  418. 

Rifle  Ball,  Speed  of  the,  189. 

Rigging,  A  Ship's,  157. 

Rio  de  Janeiro,  Silver  of,  330. 

Rip  Van  Winkle,  132. 

Rivers,  The  Great,  143 ;  Basin  of,  229. 

River  Systems,  The  Largest,  237. 

Robert  the  Devil,  361. 

Robin  Goodfellow,  who  is,  125. 

Robinson  Crusoe,  Condensed,  123,, 

Rock,  Curious  Fc  .mation  of,  330. 

Rock  Bridge,  320. 

Rock  of  Refuge,  The  331. 

Rock  Salt,  The  Deepest,  327. 

Rococo,  In  Art,  283. 

Roller  Skate,  Invention  of,  153. 

Rolls,  Master  of  the,  361. 

Roman  Republic,  Magistrates  of,  365. 

Romans,  The,  377. 

Rome,  The  Founder  of,  349. 

Romulus  and  Remus,  138. 

Rooms,  Damp,  387. 

Rose,  Symbolism  of  the,  372. 

Rosebud,  Moss,  372. 

Rossetti,  D.  G.,  292. 

Rose  Water,  434. 

Roumania,  367,  369. 

Roundheads,  The,  304. 

Round  Robin,  352. 

Round  Table,  King  Arthur's,  127,  297. 

Round  Towers,  Irish,  128. 

Route,  The  Overland,  145. 

Rubens,  Painter,  292. 

Rubber  Boots,  160. 

Rubicon,  The,  295,  334. 

Ruby,  The,  133. 

Rule  of  the  Road,  359. 

Rulers  of  all  Nations,  367. 

Rules,  to  Calculate  Interest,  173  ;  For  Measur- 
ing Corn,  187;  For  Measuring  Hay  in 
Mow,  187 ;  Measuring  Vegetables,  187. 

Ruling  Machine,  164. 

Rum,  How  Made,  143. 

Rupee,  The  Coin,  178. 

Russia,  Serfdom  in,  33 ;  Christianity  of,  328 ; 
Statistics  of,  367,  369. 

Russo-Turkish  Wars,  201. 

Rust  of  Iron,  244. 

Ruysdael,  Artist,  292. 

QT.  AUGUSTINE,  Fla.,  n. 

O     St.  Brendan,  12. 

St.  Crispin's  Day,  336. 

St.  Elmo's  Fire,  231. 

St.  Eloi,  284. 

St,  Gothard,  329. 

St.  Helena,  Island  of,  331. 

St,  James,  Order  of,  363. 

St.  James'  Palace,  339. 

St.  James'  Park,  339 

St.  Mark's  Cathedral,  284. 

St.  Peter,  Patrimony  of,  296. 


St.  Peter's,  Rome,  151,  155. 

St.  Simon,  Imprisonment  of,  312. 

St.  Sophia  Cathedral,  328. 

St.  Swithin's  Day,  43. 

St.  Valentine's  Day,  44. 

St.  Veronica,  337. 

Sabins,  The,  379. 

Sabretache,  Use  of,  191. 

Sac  Indians,  32. 

Sacred  Geese,  The,  127. 

Sacred  Number,  The,  318. 

Sagas,  The  Norse,  in,  132. 

Sahib,  Meaning  of,  361. 

Sailor  King,  The,  296. 

Salaries  of  U.  S.  Officers,  28. 

Salic  Law,  The,  301. 

Salmagundi,  354. 

Salmoniac,  244.  * 

Salt,  Common  Table,  325. 

Saltpetre,  244. 

Salts,  Smelling,  433,  Volatile,  433;  of  Tartar, 

244. 

Salvador,  367,  369. 
Salvation  Army,  219. 
Samaritans,  Tribes  of,  381. 
Samnites,  The,  378. 
Sancy  Diamond,  137. 
Sand,  George,  120. 
Sanjak- Sheriff,  301. 
San  Marino,  336. 
San  Salvador,  n,  367,  369. 
Sans -culottes,  303. 
Santa  Sophia,  Mosque  of,  296. 
San  Yago,  The  Order  of,  363. 
Sapphire,  The,  133. 
Sappho,  Lyrics  of,  109. 
Saracens,  Nation  of,  383. 
Saratoga,  Battle,  of,  199. 
Sarawak,  367. 
Sarcophagus,  157. 
Satellites,  The,  226,  230. 
Saturn,  138. 
Satyrs,  The,  138. 
Savings,  Daily,  172. 
Saws,  American,  142. 
Saxons,  The  Race  of,  379. 
Saxon  Shore,  The,  378. 
Scheffer,  Ary,  293. 
Sea,  The  Caspian,  349. 
Sea  Rovers,  The,  378. 
Sea  Songs,  Dibdin's  296. 
Secession,  Ordinances  of,  12:  Earliest  mention 

°f>  339- 

Second  Sight,  Gift  of,  133 
Secretaries  of  State,  273. 
Secret  Service  Money,  271. 
Secularism,  209. 
Security,  Collateral,  165. 
Sedan,  Battle  of,  199. 
Sedan  Chairs,  157. 
Seidlitz  Powders,  393. 
Self -Reliance,  456. 
Seminole  Indians,  32,27. 
Semiramis,  Queen,  138. 
Semmes,  Admiral  R.,  17. 
Senate,  The  U.  S.,  282. 
Seneca  Nation,  32. 
Sentence,  Of  Excommunication,  210. 
Septuagint,  The,  210. 
Seraglio,  The  Turkish,  354. 
Serenade,  Origin  of,  287. 
Serfdom,  Austrian  and  Russian,  33. 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 


477 


Servia,  Kingdom  of,  367, 369. 

Seven  Days,  The  Biblical,  313. 

Seven  Days'  Battles,  192. 

Seven  Sayings  on  the  Cross,  313. 

Seven  Sleepers,  The,  320 

Seven  Wise  Men,  316. 

Seventy  Years  Captivity,  The,  314. 

Sewers,  Connection  of,  388. 

Sewing,  Position  in,  387. 

Sewing  Machine,  First  Patent,  151,  164. 

Shah  Diamond  The,  370. 

Shah,  The  Title,  296 ;  Meaning  of,  365. 

Shah-Zada,  The,  365. 

Shakers,  Sect  of,  212. 

Shamanism,  376. 

Shamrock,  The,  205. 

Shaving  Compound,  433. 

Sheik,  Origin  of,  361. 

Sheikh,  The  Title,  365. 

Sheikh  al-Zebel,  The  Term,  363. 

Shenandoah,  The  River,  194. 

Sheriff,  Denned,  269, 365. 

She- Wolf  of  France,  The,  329. 

Shibboleth,  The  Term,  56. 


Ships,  Clipper,  141 ;  The  First  Cigar,  152 ;  The 
Largest,  156;  Rigging  of,  157;  Time  on 
Board,  45. 

Ship's  Bells,  45. 

Shire,  Meaning  of,  378. 

Shirt  Bosoms,  Polish  for,  438. 

Shocks  Violent,  433. 

Shoe  Plates,  151. 

Shoes,To  Make  Water- proof, 437 ;  to  Soften,437. 

Shoulders,  Remedy  for  Round,  412. 

Shyness,  How  to  Overcome,  426. 

Siam,  Kingdom  of,  367,  369. 

Sicilian  Vespers,  298. 

Sick  Room,  Caution  in,  390. 

Siege  of  Orleans,  199. 

Siege  of  Sebastopol,  199. 

Silenus,  138. 

Silk  Manufacture  in  U.  S.,  139;  Production  of, 
141. 

Silver,  Production  of,  171 ;  The  Standard,  171 ; 
Wash  for,  437. 

Simonetta,  The  Castle  of,  329. 

Simon  Fitz-Mary,  336. 

Simonianism,  312. 

Simoom  Wind,  The,  227. 

Simplicity  in  Writing,  107. 

Sirens,  The,  138. 

Sistine  Chapel,  Decorations  of,  285. 

Sistone  Chapel,  The,  327. 

Sisyphus,  138. 

Sizar,  The  Order  of,  364. 

Skates,  Invention  of,  153. 

Slavery  and  Serfdom,  33. 

Sleepers,  The  Famous,  132]  The  Seven,  132. 

Sleeping  in  Draughts,  387. 

Sleeplessness,  389. 

Slick,  Sam,  120. 

Small  Pox,  Death  by,  349. 

Smilax,  372. 

Smith,  Capt.  John,  16. 

Smithsonian  Institution,  334. 

Sneezing,Superstition  on, 125 ;  Etiquette  of,i26. 

Snoring,  392. 

Snow,  Line  of  Perpetual,  225 ;  White  Appear- 
ance of,  227. 

Snow  Plant,  The,  226. 

Soap,  Manufacture  of,  139. 


Socialism,  312. 

Societies,  Bible,  217;  Vigilance,  358. 

Society,  The  Temple,  210. 

Society  of  Friends  or  Quakers,  213. 

Society  of  Jesus,  216. 

Sociology,  375. 

Soda,  244. 

Solar  System,  239. 

Soldiers,  Graves  of,  42. 

Solomon's  Temple,  156. 

Sombrero,  The,  349. 

Somnambulism,  232. 

Somnus,  138. 

Sonnets,  Classification  of,  54. 

Sons  of  Belial,  207. 

Sons  of  Liberty,  14. 

Soprano,  In  Music,  287. 

Sound  Produced  by  Light,  231. 

South  Africa,  Negroes  of,  376. 

South  America,  Republics  in,  396. 

South  Sea,  Paradise  of,  207. 

South  Sea  Bubble,  169. 

South  Sea  Scheme,  170. 

Sovereign,  The  Ruling,  363. 

Spahi,  The  Military,  190. 

Spain,  Kingdom  of,  367,  369. 

Spanish  Armada,  Defeat  of,  199. 

Spanish  Main,  332. 

Span  of  Wire,  Longest,  152. 

Sparrow,  The  English,  356. 

Speaking,  Correct,  57-63. 

Specific  Gravities,  Various,  259. 

Spectacles,  Invention  of,  151. 

Spectrum  Analysis,  231. 

Speech,  Errors  of,  71 ;  Man's,  376. 

Speed,  Standard  of,  354. 

Sphinx,  Described,  138,  348. 

Spirits,  Astral,  126. 

Spirits,  Proof,  392;  Of  Hartshorn,  244;  Of 
Salt,  244. 

Sprains,  387. 

Squire  of  Alsatia,  The,  335. 

Stained  Glass  Windows,  151. 

Stains,  of  Berries,  Ink,  etj.,  435,  436. 

Stalwarts,  The,  270. 

Stammering,  394. 

Standard  Time,  44. 

Stanford,  Leland,  327. 

Star  Chamber,  The,  308. 

Star  of  the  South,  Diamond,  370. 

Stars,  Twinkling  of,  236;  The  Falling,  245; 
Superstitions  on,  130. 

Stars  and  Stripes,  The,  12, 16. 

State  Election,  276. 

States  Names,  Origin  of,  21. 

States,  The  Largest,  12;  Capitals  of,  19;  Mot- 
toes of,  21 ;  Nicknames  of,  22. 

Statue,  The  Oldest  Existing,  285 ;  The  Largest, 

Steam  Engines,  Horse  Power  of,  242 ;  Inven- 
tion of,  155,  164;  Largest,  158. 
Steamers,  First  Atlantic,  n  ;  Invention  of,  164. 
Steam  Navigation,  146. 
Steam  Vessel,  The  First,  189. 
Stedman,  Edmund  Clarence,  328. 
Steel  Pens,  Invention  of,  151. 
Stentor  and  his  Voice,  138. 
Stethoscope,  Use  of,  392. 
Stiver,  The  Coin,  177. 
Stocking  Frame,  Invention  of,  154. 
Stock  Jobbing,  167. 
Stoics,  The,  206,  231. 


478 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 


Stomach,  Sickness  of,  389,  Cramps  in,  389. 

Stone  Cutting  Saw,  154. 

Storting,  The  Scandinavian,  274. 

Stove  Pipes,  To  Clean,  438. 

Stoves,  Management  of,  437. 

Stradivarius,  383. 

Stretton,  Hesba,  120. 

Strikes  in  U.  S.,  20. 

Stucco,  244. 

Sturm  und  Drang  Period,  The,  114. 

Stuttering,  394. 

Styles,  Early  in  Art,  382. 

Styx,  The  River,  138. 

Success,  Laws  of,  452. 

Suetonius  Paulinus,  380. 

Suez  Canal,  The,  145. 

Suffocation  from  Gases,  414. 

Sugar  of  Lead,  244. 

Sun,  Distance  of,  41. 

Sun  Dial,  The,  41. 

Sun- Stroke,  444. 

Superior  Lake,  13. 

Superstitions,  The  Obi,  115. 

Suspension  Bridge,  The  Largest,  350. 

Sussex  Co.,  Pa.,  How  Named,  153. 

Suttee,  The  Indian,  353. 

Sweating  System,  The,  370. 

Sweden  and  Norway,  367,  369. 

Sweet  Pea,  372. 

Swedenborgians,  The,  208. 

Switzerland,  367,  369. 

Swollen  Feet,  410. 

Sword  "  Excalibur,"  The,  116. 

Sword  of  God,  The,  296. 

Sydenham  Hill,  333. 

Sylvanus,  138. 

Synagogue,  The  Term,  212. 

Symmes's  Hole,  333. 

Synonyms,  Twelve  Thousand,  73-97. 

Syntax  Dr..  120. 

TABERNACLE,  The,  212. 
1      Tableaux  Vivants,  287. 

Taboo,  Derivation  of,  54. 

Tacita,  The  Goddess,  138. 

Tael,  The,  179. 

Talent,  The,  180. 

Talent  and  Tact,  459. 

Talisman,  Virtues  of,  127. 

Talmud,  The,  215. 

Tammany,  What  is,  275. 

Tantalus,  138. 

Taouism,  Chinese,  209. 

Targee's  Past,  340. 

Targums,  The,  211. 

Tariff,  Defined,  274. 

Tartarus,  138. 

Tarpeian  Rock,  The,  338. 

Taurus,  138. 

Taylor,  Pres.  Zachary,  26. 

Tea,  Uses  of,  411 ;  As  Food,  419. 

Teeth,  Care  of,  432. 

Telegraph,  First   Electric,  151 ;  Invention  of, 
164 ;  The  First,  12. 

Telemachus,  138. 

Telepathy,  Account  of,  235. 

Telephone,  Described,  153;  Invention  of,  151, 
164. 

Telescope,  Invention  of,  151,  164;  The  Refract- 
ing, 225. 

Temperatures,  Very  Cold,  242;  In  U.  S.,  18; 
Summer,  241. 


Templars,  Order  of,  302. 

Temple,  Solomon's,  156. 

Temple  Bar,  334. 

Temple  of  Karnac,  284. 

Temple  Society,  The,  210. 

Tenant  and  Landlord,  Laws  of,  257! 

Ten  Numerations,  The,  315. 

Ten-Ton  Freight  Car,  Capacity  of,  180. 

Territories,  Capitals  of,  19. 

Testament,  The  New,  214. 

Teutons,  The,  380. 

Texas,  Area  of,  12. 

Thackeray's  First  Success,  109. 

Thanksgiving  Day,  42. 

Theatres,  The  Finest,  152. 

Theory  of  Auctions,  148. 

Theosophy  Explained,  214. 

Thermometers,  Comparison  of,  241;   De=crir> 

tion  of,  241 ;  Invention  of,  164. 
Third  House,  The,  295 
Thirteen  States,  The  Original,  n. 
Thistle,  The,  372. 
Thought  Reading,  237. 
Three,  Symbolism  of,  313,  314. 
Three  R's,  The,  315. 
Thugs,  Defined,  300. 
Thule,  The  Ancient,  128. 
Thumb,  Dislocated,  442. 
Thundering  Legion,  304. 
Thunder  Storms,  329. 
Tickling,  387. 
Timbuctoo,  341. 

Time,  Measure  of,  41 ;  Economy  of,  458. 
Titans,  The.  138. 
Tin,  Solid,  228. 
Titcomb,  Timothy,  120. 
Titian,  The  Painter,  284. 
Titles  of  Courtesy,  361. 
Titles  of  U.  S.  Lands,  31. 
Titmarsh,  M.  Angelo,  120. 
Toadstool,  The,  125. 
Tobacco,  Discovery  of,  12,  388. 
Toby  Fillpot,  333. 
Toilet  Hints,  449 ;  The  Breath,  449 ;  The  Com 

plexion,  449;  The  Hair,  449;  The  Nails 

449;  The  Teeth,  449. 
Tom -o'- Bedlams,  336. 
Tom  Thumb,  Story  of,  125. 
Tonsure,  The,  207. 
Tontine,  Definition  of,  168. 
Toothache,  Cures  for,  432. 
Tooth  Paste,  Charcoal,  432. 
Tooth  Powders,  Good,  432. 
Topaz,  The,  123. 
Torpedo,  Invention  of  the,  164. 
Towers,  Irish  Round,  128 ;  The  Eiffel,  155. 
Towns,  Scriptural  Names  of,  209. 
Township,  Defined,  356. 
Toy,  A  Winding,  151. 
Tracheotomy,  389. 
Trade  Discounts,  173. 
Trade  Winds,  227. 
Trafalgar,  Battle  of,  199. 
Transpositions,  Alphabetical,  314. 
Transvaal,  Republic  of,  368. 
Trappists,  The,  214, 
Traveling,  Hints  on,  451. 
Treaty  of  Berlin,  305,  308. 
Treaty  of  Peace,  191. 
Trees,  Height  of,  350 ;  How  to  Measure,  186 

The  Largest,  12;  The  Smallest,  226 
Trent,  Affairs  of  the,  14. 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 


479 


Tribunes  of  the  People,  300. 

Triple  Alliance,  305. 

Tripoli,  368. 

Triton,  The  Sea-god,  138. 

Triumvirates,  297. 

Troubadours,  Character  of,  in. 

Trouveres,  Mission  of  the,  in. 

Troy,  City  of,  138. 

Troy  Weight,  182. 

Truce  of  God,  190. 

Truck  System,  The,  154. 

Trumbull,  Artist,  293. 

Trusts  and  Combinations,  166. 

Tuberose,  372. 

Tuileries,  The,  336. 

Tunkers,  The,  213. 

Tunis,  368. 

Tunnel,  The  Longest,  329. 

Turkish  Empire,  367,  369. 

Turpentine,  Virtues  of,  434. 

Turquoise,  The,  133. 

Twain,  Mark,  120. 

Twelve  Thousand  Synonyms  and  Antonyms, 

73-97- 

Twickenham,  327. 
Tyler,  Pres.  John,  26. 
Types  of  Man,  375,  376;  Different,  380;  The 

Dwarf,  377 ;  The  Ethiopic,  380. 
Typhoid  Fever,  309. 

T  THLANS,  The  Military,  192. 

U     Umbrellas,  The  First,  151,  154. 

Ultramontane,  Meaning  of,  209. 

Ukase,  The  Term,  271. 

Ulysses,  138. 

Umbrian  School,  The,  292. 

Uncle  Remus,  120. 

Uncle  Sam,  Origin  of  Term,  13. 

Under- Clothing,  387. 

Undine,  Legend  of,  127.  f 

Uniforms,  Military,  191. 

Union  Arch,  The,  154. 

United  States,  Alien  Land  Holders  in,  30; 
Army  Generals  of,  27;  Capitals  of,  15; 
Civil  Service  in,  27 ;  Climates  in,  18 ;  Coal 
Production  of,  149;  Crime  in,  20;  Drink 
in,  20;  Earnirgs  of,  20;  Exports  and  Im- 
ports of,  139;  Fires  in,  20;  First  Sugar 
Cane,  140;  First  Sugar  Mill,  140;  First 
Things  in,  n;  Food  Waste  in,  20;  Gas, 
Illuminating,  in,  151 ;  Growth  of,  18 ; 
Holidays  in,  50;  Homestead  Law  of,  30; 
Illiteracy  in,  20;  Immigration  to,  24;  Im- 
portant Figures  on,  19;  Leather  Industry 
in,  140;  Liquor  Bill  of,  20;  Official  Salaries 
of,  28 ;  Oldest  Church  in,  205 ;  Oldest  City 
in,  n ;  Opium  Smokers  in,  393;  Paper 
Making,  140;  Patent  Office  in,  29;  Pau- 
perism in,  20;  Presidents  of,  16;  Public 
Debt  ot,  34;  Public  Lands  :n,  30,  31,  32; 
Rebellion  in.  35;  Religious  Bodies  in, 
222;  Silk  Manufacture  in,  139;  Slavery  in, 
33 ;  Strikes  in,  20 ;  The  Constitution  of,  i 
39;  The  Deepest  Coal  Shaft  in,  330;  The  I 
Deepest  Silver  Mine  of,  330;  Wars  of,  27 ; 
Wealth  of,  20. 

Universal  Suffrage,  271. 

Universities,  The  Great,  296 ;  Extension  of, 
358 ;  The  Charlemagne,  328 ;  The  Oxford, 
328 ;  The  Dublin,  328. 

Uruguay,  Republic  of,  367,  369. 

Usury,  Definition  of,  169. 


V 


ALENTINE,  44. 

Valley  of  Death,  336. 
Valley  of  the  Arno,  295. 
Valley  of  the  Upas  Tree,  336. 
Valmy,  Battle  of,  199. 
Valzin,  Manufacture  of,  140. 
Van  Buren,  Pres.  Martin,26. 
Vandals,  The,  382. 
Vandervede,  Painter,  292. 
Van  Dyke,  284. 
Van  Eyck,  293. 
Van  Ostade,  292. 
Vanity  Fair,  124. 
Varangians,  The,  379. 

Vase,  The  Barberine,  291 ;  The  Portland,  291. 
Vatican,  Palace  of  the,  286;  Gold  in  the,  166. 
Vaticanus,  Mons,  331. 
Veda,  The,  21 1.      ' 
Vedas,  129. 

Vegetables,  As  Food,  418. 
Vellum,  Definition  of,  154. 
Vendome  Column,  The,  333. 
Venetian  School,  The,  292. 
Venezuela,  368. 
Ventilation  in  Bedrooms,  387. 
Ventriloquism,  What  is,  246. 
Venus,  The  Goddess,  138. 
Veracity  in  Business,  422. 
Verbena,  The,  372. 
Verdigris,  244. 
Vermilion,  244. 
Vermin,  How  to  Destroy,  427. 
Vernet,  Horace,  292. 
Versailles,  Of  Prussia,  The,  295. 
Verse,  Blank,  113. 
Vesta,  138. 

Vials,  To  Cleanse,  437. 
Vicar  of  Wakefield,  The,  123. 
Victoria  Cross,  The,  191. 
Vigil,  What  is  a,  213. 
Vikings,  The,  12,  301, 378,  379. 
Vill,  The,  356. 
Villeins,  360. 
Vinegar,  Spirits  of,  434. 
Vinland,  Account  of,  15. 
Virginia,  First  Settlers  in,  n,  16. 
Vishnu,  129. 

Visigoths,  The  Race  of,  381. 
Vision,  Limits  of,  394. 
Vitriol,    Blue,   244;    Oil  of ,  244 ;  Green,  244 ; 

White,  244. 

Vivandiere,  The  Military,  192. 
Vivisection,  233. 
Vogelweide  Walter,  113. 
Volapiik,  Analysis  of,  65. 
Volatile  Alkali,  244. 
Volcano,  The  Loftiest,  329;  The  Asosan,  338; 

Popocatapetl,  329. 
Volsci,  The,  337. 
Vortigern,  337. 
Vowels,  The,  322. 
Vulcan,  The  god,  138. 
Vulcan's  Mirror,  125. 
Vulgate  Bible,  The  214. 

TTTAHABEES,  Tribe  of,  216. 
W      Wakes,  Origin  of,  215. 
Waldenses,  The,  217. 
Walhalla,  The  Scandinavian,  126. 
Walkyria,  The  Scandinavian,  126. 
Wall  of  China,  The  Great,  151,  152. 
Walloons,  The,  382. 


48o 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 


Wambutti,  The,  379. 

Wandering  Jew,  The,  118. 

Ward,  Artemus,  120. 

Ward,  The  Painter,  292. 

Warriors,  The  First,  189. 

Wars,  Cost  of,  196;  Cost  of  American,  198; 
Cost  of  Recent,  198;  Franco-German,  191, 
202;  Indian  Mutiny,  200  j  Length  of 
American,  198;  Of  1812,  349;  Of  U.  S., 
27;  Recent  Desperate,  200 J  Russo-Turk- 
ish,  201;  Uniforms  in,  191 ;  The  Abyssin- 
ian, 200;  The  American  Civil,  200;  The 
Civil,  197;  The  Seven  Weeks,  190;  The 
Mexican  191;  Wars  of  the  Roses,  193; 
Zulu,  202. 

War  Vessels,  The  Fastest,  13. 

Washington  and  Education,  345. 

Washington,  President  George, 26. 

Washington  Monument,  40. 

Watch  Night,  213. 

Watch  on  Shipboard,  243. 

Watches,  Invention  of,  42,  164 ;  Some  Marvel 
ous,  152. 

Water,  How  to  Drink,  412;  To  Test  Pure, 
160 ;  Value  of  Hot,  406. 

Waterfalls,  Great,  240. 

Waterloo,  Battle  of,  191,  199. 

Waterproof,  Cloth,  161. 

Watershed,  The,  229. 

Waterspouts,  Defined,  235. 

Wat  Tyler's  Insurrection,  309. 

Watling  Island,  n. 

Wealth  of  United  States,  20. 

Weeping  Philosopher,  329. 

Weights,  Apothecaries,  182 ;  Avoirdupois,  182 ; 
Domestic,  181;  Metric,  182;  Sundry  183; 
Troy,  182. 

Well-beloved  King,  The,  296. 

Wends,  The,  376. 

Werewolf,  The,  126. 

West,  Benjamin,  292. 

Westward  Ho !  337. 

Wetherell,  Elizabeth,i2O. 

Whales,  Age  of,  228. 

Whaling  Ships,  139. 

Wheat,  Product  of,  140. 

Wheel,  Breaking  on  the,  301. 

Whig,  The  Term,  274. 

Whirlwinds,  235. 

Whiskey  Insurrection,  The,  13. 

Whistler,  McNeil,  292. 

Whitecaps,  358. 

White  Lead,  Invention  of,  139;  Production  of, 
141. 

White  Precipitate,  244. 

White  Vitriol,  244. 

Whittier,  The  Poet,  328. 

Whooping  Cough,  388. 


Wilderness,  The,  193. 

Wills,  How  to  Make,  265. 

Wilmot  Proviso,  The,  15. 

Windermere,  Lake,  337. 

Window  Glass,  Paint  on,  438. 

Winds,  The  Chinook,  234;  The  Simoom,  227; 
1  he  Trade,  227. 

Wire,  Uses  of,  152;  Longest  Span  of,  152. 

Wisest  Fool  in  Christendom,  295. 

Witchcraft,  History  of,  131,  Latest  Conviction 
for,  131 ;  Trial  of,  125. 

Witch  Hazel,  372. 

Wits,  The  Five,  318. 

Woman  Suffrage,  280. 

Women,  Married,  267. 

Wonders,  A  Dozen  American,  40. 

Words,  Longest  English,  54;  Misdivision  of, 
58 ',  Poor  Enunciation  of,  58  \  Right 
Pronunciation  of,  58. 

World,  Amount  of  Money  in  the,  167  ;  Around 
the,  147;  Chief  Languages  of,  57;  Coal 
Fields  of,  149;  End  of  the,  372;  Finest 
Harbors  of,  149;  Largest  Bells  in  the,  154; 
Money  of,  180 ;  National  Debts  of,  171 ; 
Noted  Bridges  of  the,  159;  Population  of, 
374;  Seven  Bibles  of,  218;  Seven  Wonders 
of,  346 ;  Summer  Temperatures  of,  241 ; 
Armed  Navies  of,  189;  Deepest  Coal  Mine 
in,  328;  Deepest  Rock  Salt  in,  327;  High- 
est Monument  in,  153 ;  Largest  Cavern  in, 
327;  Largest  Diamond  in,  358;  Merctanile 
Navies  of,  189;  Noblest  Part  of,  347. 

World's  Fairs,  The  Great,  36,  366. 

Worm,  The  Army,  227. 

Worship  of  Dagon,  The,  126. 

Wounds,  Remedies  for,  442. 

Wrinkles,  389. 

Writers,  Stray  Hints  for,  107. 

Writing,  In  Cipher,  54;  Cufic,  54;  Two  Kinds 
of,  315- 

XELLOW  Jacket,  The,  330. 
Yosemite  Valley,  40. 
jng  England  Party,  298. 
Young  Ireland  Party,  298. 
Yule  I/5g,  The  Term,  362. 
Yunker  Party,  The,  295. 

^ADKIEL,  The  Pseudonym,  120. 

£j     Zanzibar,  367. 

Zemindar,  The,  364. 

Zenana,  The,  357. 

Zendavesta,  The,  208. 

Zephyrus,  138. 

Zodiac,  Signs  of  the,  238. 

Zollverein,  The,  141. 

Zouaves,  The,  195. 

Zulu  War,  The,  202. 


V  /7 


OF  C 


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